Mechanical Vibrations

Free vibrations of a SDOF System

Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Florida International University

Figures and content adapted from

Textbook: Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition.
Chapter 2: Free vibrations of a single degree of freedom system
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Learning Objectives
• Define Free Vibrations
• Derive the equation of motion of a single-degree-of-freedom system
using different approaches as Newton’s second law of motion and the
principle of conservation of energy.
• Linearize a nonlinear equation of motion.
• Solve a spring-mass-damper system for different types of free-vibration
response depending on the amount of damping.
• Compute the natural frequency, damping ratio, and frequency of
damped vibration.
• Find the responses of systems with Coulomb and hysteretic damping.
• Determine the stability of a system.

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration
A system is said to undergo free vibration when it oscillates only under
an initial disturbance with no external forces acting afterward.
Examples:
• A child in a swing
• A Pendulum or
• Inverted pendulum

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) system
• One coordinate (x) is sufficient to • EXAMPLE: All parameter in term of x.
specify the position of the mass at any
time.
• Several mechanical and structural
systems can be idealized as single-
degree-of-freedom systems. In many
practical systems, the mass is
distributed, but for a simple analysis, it
can be approximated by a single point
mass.
• The study of the free vibration of
undamped and damped single-degree-
of-freedom systems is fundamental to 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥𝑙1 𝑥𝑙1
𝜃𝑝 = 𝜃1 =
the understanding of more advanced 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑝
𝑥2 =
𝑟𝑝
𝜃𝐶 =
𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝐶
topics in vibrations.
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Undamped SDOF system
When there is no element
that causes dissipation of
energy during the motion
of the mass:

• The amplitude of motion

remains constant with
time.
• The system vibrates at
its natural frequency

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Governing equation of an ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = m𝑎𝑥

undamped SDOF system using ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = m𝑎𝑦

equation of motion ഥ𝑝𝑧 = 𝐼𝑝𝑧𝑧 𝛼ത𝑧 + 𝑚𝑟𝐺ҧ × 𝑎ത𝑝

෍𝑀

FBD=KD 𝑊 𝑚𝑥ሷ ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ

𝑦
𝐹𝑆 = 𝑘𝑥
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑥
𝑁1 𝑁2

𝑧
FBD=KD
𝑧 𝐽𝑜 𝜃ሷ ෍ 𝑀𝑧 = − 𝑘𝑡 𝜃 = 𝐽𝑜 𝜃ሷ

𝐹𝑆 = 𝑘𝑡 𝜃
𝑦
𝑜 𝐽𝑜 𝜃ሷ + 𝑘𝑡 𝜃 = 0
𝑥

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Governing equation using Principle T + U = constant

𝑑
of Conservation of Energy 𝑑𝑡
T+U =0

Potential energy for

Spring
Potential energy Kinetic energy
for Weight
𝑈1−𝟐 = 𝑊∆𝑦 1 2
1 2
1 1
𝑈1−𝟐 = 𝑘 𝑠2 − 𝑘 𝑠1 𝑇= 𝑚(𝑣𝑝ҧ )2 + 𝐼𝑝𝑧𝑧 (𝜔𝑧 )2 +𝑣𝑝ҧ ∙ 𝜔
ഥ𝑧 × 𝑚𝑟𝐺ҧ
2 2 2 2

𝑚(𝑥)
ሶ 𝑥ሷ +𝑘 𝑥 𝑥=0
ሶ
1 2 𝑑𝑈 2
𝑈= 𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑘(𝑥)𝑥ሶ
2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 𝑥ሶ =0
1 𝑑𝑇 2 Since: 𝑥ሶ ≠0
𝑇= ሶ 2
𝑚(𝑥) = 𝑚(𝑥)
ሶ 𝑥ሷ
2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Equation of Motion of a Spring-
Mass System in Vertical Position
At rest, the mass will hang in a position called the static equilibrium
position.
In this position the length of the spring is 𝑙𝑜 + 𝛿𝑠𝑡 , where 𝛿𝑠𝑡 is the
static deflection—the elongation due to the weight W of the mass m.

Using equation of motion

FBD=KD Since
𝐹𝑆 = 𝑘(𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝑥)
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑘(𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝑥) − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑘 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑚𝑥ሷ
Using energy method
1 𝑑𝑈 With x measure
2
𝑈= 𝑘 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔(𝛿𝑠𝑡 +x) = 𝑘 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝑥 𝑥ሶ − 𝑚𝑔 𝑥ሶ = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝛿𝑠𝑡 − 𝑚𝑔 𝑥ሶ from static
2 𝑑𝑡
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
equilibrium
1 position
𝑇= ሶ 2
𝑚(𝑥) 𝑑𝑇
2 = 𝑚(𝑥)
ሶ 𝑥ሷ 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 𝑥ሶ =0
𝑑𝑡

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Solution to the equation of motion 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

• The solution of this second order differential equation can be found by assuming
𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡
2 𝑠𝑡 • Since C 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 cannot be zero, what is in parenthesis which
𝑥ሶ = 𝑠𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑘 𝐶𝑒 =0 is the characteristic equation is zero. The solution
represent the eigenvalues of the equation
𝑥ሷ = 𝑠 2 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡

• We define the natural frequency as

• Characteristic equation: :
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑘 =0 𝑠1,2 =± − 𝑠1,2 = ±𝑖 𝑠1,2 = ±𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

• The solution becomes:

𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑛𝑡

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Solution to the equation of motion 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑘
𝑚

• Recall Euler formula that establishes the fundamental relationship between the trigonometric functions and
the complex exponential function:
𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑖𝑠 = 𝐶(cos(𝑠) + 𝑖sin(𝑠))

• The solution becomes:

𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑛𝑡 = 𝐶1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑖sin𝜔𝑛 𝑡)+𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑖sin𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡)+ 𝐶1 − 𝐶2 𝑖(sin𝜔𝑛 𝑡)

𝐶1 = a + ib 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 2a 𝐴1 = 2a
If
𝐶2 = a − ib 𝐶1 − 𝐶2 𝑖 = 2b𝑖 2 𝐴2 = −2b

𝑨𝟐
Then 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin𝜔𝑛 𝑡 or 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑) 𝑨= 𝑨𝟐𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝑨𝟏

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Solution to the equation of motion 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑘
𝑚
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin𝜔𝑛 𝑡 or 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑)

• For particular initial conditions: 𝑥(𝑜) = 𝑥𝑜 𝑥(𝑜)

ሶ = 𝑣𝑜

𝑥(0) = 𝐴1 𝐴1 = 𝑥𝑜
𝑥ሶ 𝑡 = −𝜔𝑛 𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜔𝑛 𝐴2 cos𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑥ሶ 0 = 𝜔𝑛 𝐴2 𝐴2 = 𝑣𝑜 /𝜔𝑛

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑣𝑜 /𝜔𝑛 sin𝜔𝑛 𝑡 or

𝑣𝑜
2 2 1/2 𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑜 + (𝑣𝑜 /𝜔𝑛 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑) 𝑥𝑜 𝜔𝑛

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Different ways to write the solution 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑘
𝑚
𝑣𝑜
1. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 +
𝜔𝑛
sin𝜔𝑛 𝑡

1
2 2
𝑣𝑜
2. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑜 2 +
𝜔𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑)

𝑣𝑜
𝜑= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥𝑜 𝜔𝑛

1
2 2
𝑣𝑜
3. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑜 2 +
𝜔𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜑′)
2𝜋 1
𝑥𝑜 𝜔𝑛 𝜏𝑛 = 𝑓𝑛 = 𝜔𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑛
𝜑′ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜔𝑛 𝜏𝑛
𝑣𝑜 Circular
Period Frequency Frequency
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Equation of Motion of a Spring-
Mass System in Vertical Position
At rest, the mass will hang in a position called the static equilibrium
position.
In this position the length of the spring is 𝑙𝑜 + 𝛿𝑠𝑡 , where 𝛿𝑠𝑡 is the
static deflection—the elongation due to the weight W of the mass m.

𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
FBD=KD
𝐹𝑆 = 𝑘(𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝑥)
𝑘 𝑔
𝜔𝑛 = =
𝑚 𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝑚𝑥ሷ With x measure equilibrium position
from static
equilibrium
1 𝑘 1 𝑔
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 position 𝑓𝑛 = =
2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 𝛿𝑠𝑡

𝑘 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔 2𝜋 1
𝜏𝑛 = 𝑓𝑛 =
𝜔𝑛 𝜏𝑛
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Position, velocity and Acceleration 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑘
𝑚
1. Position
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑)

2. Velocity

𝑥(𝑡)
ሶ = −𝜔𝑛 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑) The velocity leads the
𝜋
𝜋 displacement by and
𝑥ሶ 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑 + 2
2
the acceleration leads the
3. Acceleration displacement by 𝜋.
𝑥ሷ 𝑡 = −𝜔𝑛2 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑)

𝑥ሷ 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑛2 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑 + 𝜋)
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 𝑣𝑜
Particular cases: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 +
𝜔𝑛
sin𝜔𝑛 𝑡

1
1. If the initial displacement 𝑥𝑜 is zero, the solution becomes 2 2
𝑣𝑜
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑜 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑣𝑜 𝜋 𝜔𝑛
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑛 𝑡 −
𝜔𝑛 2
𝑘 𝑣𝑜
𝜔𝑛 = 𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
2. If the initial velocity 𝑣𝑜 is zero, the solution becomes 𝑚 𝑥𝑜 𝜔𝑛
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 𝑡)

3. The value of the phase angle ϕ given, needs to be calculated with care. Tan ϕ can be positive when
𝑣
both 𝑥𝑜 and 𝜔𝑜 are either positive or negative.
𝑛
𝑣𝑜
Thus, we need to use the first quadrant value of ϕ when both x0 and are positive and the third quadrant value
𝜔𝑛
𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜
of ϕ when both x0 and are negative. Similarly, since tan ϕ can be negative when x0 and have opposite
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝑣
signs, we need to use the second quadrant value of ϕ when x0 is negative and 𝜔𝑜 is positive and the fourth
𝑛
𝑣𝑜
quadrant value of ϕ when x0 is positive and ˙ is negative.
𝜔𝑛

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Natural frequency for Equivalent systems

• For any other system, we will find

the governing equation and if we
are able to write it in the following
form:
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑥 = 0

• We define the natural frequency as

• We define the natural frequency as
:
:
𝑘 𝑘𝑒𝑞
𝜔𝑛 = 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑞

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System
From the theory of torsion of circular shaft, we have the relation
FBD=KD 𝐺𝐼𝑜
𝑀𝑡 = 𝑘𝑡 𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑙
𝑧
𝑧 where 𝑀𝑡 is the torque that produces the twist θ, G is the shear
𝐽𝑜 𝜃ሷ
modulus, l is the length of the shaft, 𝐼𝑜 is the polar moment of
𝑀𝑡 inertia of the cross section of the shaft, and d is the diameter of
𝑦 the shaft.
𝜋𝑑4
𝑥 𝐼𝑜 =
32

𝐽𝑜 𝜃ሷ + 𝑘𝑡 𝜃 = 0 torsional spring with a torsional spring constant

𝑀𝑡 𝐺𝐼𝑜 𝐺𝜋𝑑4
Also called torsional pendulum. 𝑘𝑡 = = =
𝜃 𝑙 32𝑙
𝑘𝑡
𝜔𝑛 = The polar mass moment of inertia of a disc is given by
𝐽𝑜
𝜌ℎ𝜋𝐷4 𝑊𝐷2
𝐽𝑜 = =
32 32
𝐺𝜋𝑑 4 where ρ is the mass density, h is the thickness, D is the diameter,
𝜔𝑛 = and W is the weight of the disc
𝑙𝑊𝐷2
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Free Vibration of an simple Pendulum
Simple Pendulum Using Newton’s Law:
෍ 𝐹𝑡 = − 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝑙𝜃ሷ
FBD=KD
𝑛ො
T
𝑡Ƹ 𝑚𝑙 𝜃ሷ + 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
for small angular displacements,
ሶ 2
𝑚𝑙(𝜃) we linearize the equation using :
𝑚𝑙𝜃ሷ

𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

Linearized equation of motion:

Using Conservation of Energy: ሶ 𝜃ሷ + 𝑚𝑔𝑙(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝜃=0
ሶ
𝑚𝑙 2 (𝜃) 𝑙 𝜃ሷ + 𝑔𝜃 = 0
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔𝑙(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑𝑈
= 𝑚𝑔𝑙(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝜃ሶ
𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑙 𝜃ሷ + 𝑚𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑙 𝜃ሶ =0 Natural frequency:
1
𝑇= ሶ 2
𝑚(𝑙𝜃) 𝑑𝑇 2 2 Since: 𝜃ሶ ≠0
2 ሶ 𝜃ሷ
= 𝑚𝑙 (𝜃) 𝑔
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑙
𝑚𝑙 𝜃ሷ + 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration of an Compound Pendulum
Compound Pendulum Any rigid body pivoted at a point other than its center of mass will
oscillate about the pivot point under its own gravitational force
O
Using Newton’s Law:

෍ 𝑀𝑜𝑧 = − 𝑊𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐽𝑜 𝜃ሷ

𝐽𝑜 𝜃ሷ + 𝑚𝑔𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

Linearized equation of motion: Natural frequency: In terms of radius of gyration:

𝐽𝑜 𝜃ሷ + 𝑚𝑔𝑑𝜃 = 0 𝑚𝑔𝑑 𝑔𝑑
𝜔𝑛 = 𝜔𝑛 =
𝐽𝑜 𝑘𝑜2

Equivalent length of a compound 𝑘𝑜2

pendulum compared to a simple 𝑙=
𝑑
pendulum :
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Effect of Mass of a Spring For a limit of ∞ spirals the deflection
1 1 1 1 1 half the mass. Therefore would be
• Static analysis: we will assume = + + ⋯+ =𝑛
𝑘 𝑇 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛 𝑘𝑖 equivalent to place a concentrated mass
that we have n spring on series of 1/2 the mass of the spring at the end.
𝑚𝑠 𝑔 𝑛 − 1 1
𝛿1 = Deflection of first spiral due to the weight
𝑛 𝑛𝑘 𝑇 of the rest of the spring below
𝑘𝑖 = 𝑛𝑘 𝑇
Deflection of second spiral due to the 𝑚𝑆 𝑔 𝑚𝑆
𝑚𝑠 𝑔 𝑛 − 2 1 𝛿𝑇 = 𝑚𝑒𝑞 =
𝑚𝑠 𝛿2 = 2𝑘 𝑇 2
𝑛 𝑛𝑘 𝑇 weight of the rest of the spring below
𝑚𝑖 =
𝑛
1 𝛿𝑖 =
𝑚𝑠 𝑔 𝑛 − 𝑖 1 Deflection of i spiral due to the weight
𝑛 𝑛𝑘 𝑇 of the rest of the spring below

𝛿𝑛 = 0 Last spiral does not have any deflection

2 𝑛
𝑚𝑠 𝑔 𝑛 − 𝑖 1 𝑚𝑠 𝑔
𝑛

𝛿𝑇 = ෍ = 2 ෍ 𝑛−𝑖
i 𝑛 𝑛𝑘 𝑇 𝑛 𝑘 𝑇 , 𝑚𝑠 =
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

n 𝑛
𝑛 𝑎1 + 𝑎1 𝑛 𝑛−1 +0 𝑛 𝑛−1
෍ 𝑛−𝑖 = = =
2 2 2
𝑖=1
𝑚𝑠
𝑛−1 𝑚𝑠 𝑔 2
𝑚𝑠 𝑔 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 𝛿𝑇 =
𝛿𝑇 = log 𝑛→∞ =1
2𝑘 𝑇 𝑛2 𝑛 2𝑘 𝑇

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Effect of Mass of a Spring Would be equivalent to place a
• Dynamic analysis: we will concentrated mass of 1/3 the mass of
assume a differential of mass the spring at the end.
𝑑𝑚𝑠 at 𝑑𝑦
𝑚𝑠
𝑣𝑑𝑦
𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑆
𝑑𝑚𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 𝑚 +
𝑙 𝑥ሶ 3

• We assume linear velocity along the 𝑦

spring, therefore the velocity of the 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥ሶ
differential dy is: 𝑙

• The kinetic energy : , 𝑚𝑠 =

1 1 𝑙 𝑦 2 1 1 𝑙 𝑦 2𝑚
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑥ሶ 2 + ‫׬‬0 𝑥ሶ 𝑑𝑚𝑠 = 𝑚𝑥ሶ 2 + ‫׬‬0 𝑥ሶ 𝑠
𝑑𝑦
2 2 𝑙 2 2 𝑙 𝑙

𝑙 𝑚𝑠
1 1 𝑚𝑠 𝑥ሶ 2 𝑦 3 1 1 𝑚𝑠 𝑙 3 2 𝑚+
2
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑥ሶ + 2
อ = 𝑚𝑥ሶ + 𝑥ሶ 3
2 2 𝑙3 3 2 2 𝑙3 3
0

1 𝑚𝑠 2
𝑇= 𝑚+ 𝑥ሶ
2 3

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Examples of natural frequency For a torsional system
FBD and KD Equation of Motion

k2 𝐹2 = 𝑘2 𝑥 𝑘𝑡1 𝑘𝑡2
𝑚𝑥ሷ + (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑥 = 0 Bar 𝑘𝑒𝑞 = + 𝑘𝑡3
(2R,L)
𝑘𝑡1 + 𝑘𝑡2
A(m) x 𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑚𝑥ሷ
Bar
k1 (R,L) 𝐺𝑖 𝐼𝑝𝑖
𝐹1 = 𝑘1 𝑥 𝑘𝑡𝑖 =
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝜃ሷ
𝐿𝑖
𝜔𝑛 = A(m,R)
𝑚
Bar
(RL)

Equation of Motion Equation of Motion

FBD and KD
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑡1 𝑘𝑡2
k3 𝐹3 = 𝑘3 𝑥 𝑚𝑥ሷ + + 𝑘3 𝑥 = 0 𝐽0 𝜃ሷ + + 𝑘𝑡3 𝜃 = 0
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑘𝑡1 + 𝑘𝑡2
A(m) x 𝑘𝑡1 𝑘𝑡2 + 𝑘𝑡3 𝑘𝑡1 + 𝑘𝑡3 𝑘𝑡2
𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑘1 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 𝑘1 + 𝑘3 𝑘2 𝑘𝑒𝑞 =
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘𝑡1 + 𝑘𝑡2
𝑘1 + 𝑘2
k1 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐹1,2 = 𝑥
p 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
y 𝑘1 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 𝑘1 + 𝑘3 𝑘2 𝑘𝑡1 𝑘𝑡2 + 𝑘𝑡3 𝑘𝑡1 + 𝑘𝑡3 𝑘𝑡2
k2 𝜔𝑛 = 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑚 𝑘𝑡1 + 𝑘𝑡2 𝐽0

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Natural frequency of pulley system
Ideal pulleys have no
mas and no friction
T
FBD 1 T T FBD 3
𝐹𝑌𝐸 = 2𝑇 − 𝑘1 Δ𝐹 = 0
F
G E 2𝑇 A(m) x 𝐹𝑌𝐸 = 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑥ሷ
Δ𝐹 =
𝑘1
kF
CB mg
D
FBD 2 kC
𝐹𝑌𝐸 = −2𝑇 + 𝑘2 Δ𝐶 = 0 𝑘1 𝑘2
E 𝐹𝑌𝐸 = 𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔 = −𝑚𝑥ሷ
G Analysis of motion, G 2𝑇 4 𝑘1 + 𝑘1
F is a fixed point. D B Δ𝐶 =
𝑘2
C
E= 2F
T
Equation of Motion
T mg cancel out if
G F E 𝑘1 𝑘2 you take x respect
Relation of displacement of mass 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔 to the equilibrium
respect to center of pulleys 4 𝑘1 + 𝑘1
position
D C B 2𝑇 2𝑇 4𝑇 𝑘1 + 𝑘1
B= 2C
𝑥=2
𝑘1
+2
𝑘2
=
𝑘1 𝑘2
Natural Frequency

Solving for Tension T 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘1 𝑘2

x=B= 2F+2C 𝜔𝑛 = 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚𝑒𝑞 4 𝑘1 + 𝑘1 𝑚
𝑥 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑇=
4 𝑘1 + 𝑘1
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Mechanical Vibrations

Free vibration with viscous damping

Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Florida International University

Figures and content adapted from

Textbook: Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition.
Chapter 2: Free vibrations of a sigle degree of freedom system
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free vibration with viscous damping
The viscous damping force F is proportional to
the velocity and can be expressed as

𝐹 = −𝑐𝑣 = −𝑐 𝑥ሶ

where c is the damping constant or coefficient of

viscous damping and the negative sign indicates
that the damping force is opposite to the
direction of velocity.

Equation of Motion
Using Newton’s Law

𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑘 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥ሶ − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑘 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔

With x measure from static equilibrium position (EP)

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Solution to the equation of motion 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

• The solution of this second order differential equation can be found by assuming
𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡
2 𝑠𝑡 • Since C 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 cannot be zero, we have the characteristic
𝑥ሶ = 𝑠𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘 𝐶𝑒 =0 equation, which solution represent the eigenvalues of
the equation
𝑥ሷ = 𝑠 2 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡

• Characteristic equation:
−𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘 −𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘 =0 −𝑐 ± 𝑐 2 − 4𝑚𝑘 𝑠1 = + − 𝑠2 = − −
𝑠1,2 = 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚
2𝑚

• The solution becomes:

−𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘 −𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡 + −𝑚 𝑡 − −𝑚 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑚 2𝑚 + 𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑚 2𝑚

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Critical damping constant, damping ratio
The critical damping 𝑐𝑐 is defined as the −𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘
value of the damping constant c for 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 𝑠1,2 = ± −
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚
which the radical becomes zero:

 Divide by the mass  Some algebra:

𝑘  Natural 𝑐 𝑘 𝑐 2𝑐 𝑘
𝜔𝑛 = 𝑥ሷ + 𝑥ሶ + 𝑥 =0 = = 2𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝑚 frequency 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 2 𝑚 𝑚 𝑘

𝑐𝑐 = 2 𝑘𝑚  Critical damping
constant • The equation and solution in term of 𝜔𝑛 and 𝜁 becomes:

𝑥ሷ + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥ሶ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥 = 0
𝑐 𝑐
𝜁= =  Damping ratio
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑘𝑚 𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1

−𝜁𝜔𝑛 +𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 −1 𝑡 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 −𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 −1 𝑡

𝑥 = 𝐶1 𝑒 + 𝐶2 𝑒
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Types of solution will depends upon the magnitude of
damping
COEF.
CASES TYPE OF SYSTEMS TYPE OF SOLUTION VALUE OF THE ROOTS TYPE OF MOTION
𝜁

Conjugate imaginary
1 Undamped 𝜁=0 roots, no real part in the 𝑠1,2 = ±𝜔𝑛 𝑖 Oscillatory
solution

Conjugate imaginary
𝜁<1
2 Underdamped roots, with real part in 𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝑖 1 − 𝜁 2 Oscillatory
the solution

Critically damped 𝜁=1 Both roots real and 𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛

3 No oscillatory
system equal

Overdamped 𝜁>1 𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1

4 Two different real roots No oscillatory
system

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Case 1. Undamped System 𝜁=0

Equation of Motion x measure from static equilibrium position (EP) 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

Value for the roots: 𝑠1,2 = ±𝜔𝑛 𝑖

Solution to the EoM: 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑛𝑡

𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑏 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

If we name A and B as
a and b are complex number: 𝑎 = 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖, 𝑏 = 𝑐 − 𝑑𝑖 A= 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2𝑐, 𝐵 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑖 = 2𝑑𝑖. 𝑖

Solution can be written as a sum of cos and sin or a cos with a phase angle

𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑋0 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜙

𝐴 = 𝑋0 cos 𝜙 𝑋0 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2

𝐵 = 𝑋0 sin 𝜙 𝐵
𝜙 = tan−1
𝐴

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Case 1. Undamped System 𝜁=0 EoM 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔 𝑛𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔 𝑛𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑋0 cos 𝜔 𝑛𝑡 − 𝜙

When applying initial conditions 𝑥0 and 𝒗0

2
𝐴 = 𝑥0 𝑣0
𝑥(𝑡)
ሶ = −𝐴𝜔 𝑛sin 𝜔 𝑛𝑡 + 𝐵𝜔 𝑛cos 𝜔 𝑛𝑡 𝑋0 = 𝑥0 2 +
𝜔𝑛
𝑣𝑜 𝑣0
𝑥0 = 𝑥(0) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔 𝑛0 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔 𝑛0 𝐵= 𝜙 = tan−1
𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 𝜔𝑛
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑥(0)
ሶ = −𝐴𝜔 𝑛sin 𝜔 𝑛0 + 𝐵𝜔 𝑛cos 𝜔 𝑛0

System oscillates at
its natural frequency

2𝜋
𝜔𝑛 =
t𝑛

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Case 2. Underdamped System 𝜁<1

Equation of Motion x measure from static equilibrium position (EP) 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐 𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

Value for the roots: 𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑖𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 Damped frequency:

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2
−𝜁𝜔𝑛 +𝜔𝑑 𝑖 𝑡 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ±𝜔𝑑 𝑖 𝑡
Solution to the EoM: 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑒

𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑑 𝑡 a and b are complex number:
𝑎 = 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖, 𝑏 = 𝑐 − 𝑑𝑖
𝑥 = 𝑎+𝑏 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎−𝑏 𝑖 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜔 𝑑𝑡
A= 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2𝑐, 𝐵 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑖 = 2𝑑𝑖. 𝑖

Solution can be written as a sum of cos and sin or a cos with a phase angle

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝜙

𝐴 = 𝑋0 cos 𝜙 𝑋0 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2

𝐵 = 𝑋0 sin 𝜙 𝐵
𝜙 = tan−1
𝐴

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Case 2. Underdamped System 𝜁<1 EoM 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡

When applying initial conditions 𝑥0 and 𝒗0

𝑥0 = 𝑥(0) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 0 cos 𝜔 𝑑0 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 0 sin 𝜔 𝑑0 = 𝑥0 𝐴 = 𝑥0

𝑥(𝑡)
ሶ = −𝐴𝜁𝜔 𝑛𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡 − 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝜔 𝑑 sin 𝜔 𝑑𝑡 − 𝐵𝜁𝜔 𝑛𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜔 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝜔 𝑑cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡

𝑣𝑜 = 𝑥(0)
ሶ = −𝐴𝜁𝜔 𝑛𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛0 cos 𝜔 𝑑0 − 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 0 𝜔 𝑑sin 𝜔 𝑛0 − 𝐵𝜁𝜔 𝑛𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛0 sin 𝜔 𝑑0 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛0 𝜔 𝑑cos 𝜔 𝑑0 = 𝑣0

System oscillates at
its damped frequency
𝐴 = 𝑥0
2𝜋
𝜔𝑑 =
t𝑑
𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝐵=
𝜔𝑑
d = n 1 −  2
𝑥 = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝜙

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Case 2. Underdamped System 𝜁 <1 EoM 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑥0 𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜁𝜔𝑛

𝐵=
𝜔𝑑

We can also represent the solution by a single cos

𝑥 = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝜙

2 System oscillates at
𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜁𝜔𝑛 its damped frequency
𝑋0 = 𝑥0 2 +
𝜔𝑑
2𝜋
𝜔𝑑 =
t𝑑
𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝜙= tan−1
𝑥0 𝜔𝑑 d = n 1 −  2
𝑥 = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙0

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Case 2. Underdamped System 𝜁<1 EoM 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑥0 𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜁𝜔𝑛

𝐵=
𝜔𝑑

We can also represent the solution by a single sin

𝑥 = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙0

2 System oscillates at
𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜁𝜔𝑛 its damped frequency
𝑋0 = 𝑥0 2 +
𝜔𝑑
2𝜋
𝜔𝑑 =
𝑥0 𝜔𝑑 t𝑑
𝜙0 = tan−1
𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜁𝜔𝑛
d = n 1 −  2
𝑥 = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙0

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Case 2. Underdamped System 𝜁<1
Logarithmic Decrement
The logarithmic decrement represents the rate at which the amplitude of a free-damped
vibration decreases

𝑥(𝑡1 ) = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡1 cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡1 − 𝜙 𝑡2 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑑 cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡1 − 𝜙 = cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡2 − 𝜙

𝜁𝜔𝑛 2𝜋
𝑥(𝑡2 ) = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡2 cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡2 − 𝜙 𝑥(𝑡1 ) 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡1 cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡1 − 𝜙 1 1−𝜁 2
= = −𝜁𝜔 (𝑇 ) = 𝑒 𝜔𝑛
𝑥(𝑡2 ) 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡1 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑇𝑑 cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡𝟐 − 𝜙 𝑒 𝑛 𝑑

The logarithmic decrement δ can be obtained, and we can solve for 𝜁 in term of δ
𝑥(𝑡1 ) 2𝜋𝜁
𝛿 = ln =
𝑥(𝑡2 ) 1 − 𝜁2

Also can be found by two displacements separated by any

number of complete cycles.
𝑥(𝑡1 ) 2𝜋𝜁 𝑛 1 𝑥(𝑡1 ) 2𝜋𝜁
𝛿 = ln = 𝛿= ln =
𝑥(𝑡𝑛+1 ) 1 − 𝜁2 𝑛 𝑥(𝑡𝑛+1 ) 1 − 𝜁2

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 𝜁<1 For small damping: 𝜁 ≪ 1
Case 2. Underdamped System
Logarithmic Decrement 𝛿
𝛿 = 2𝜋𝜁 𝜁=
The logarithmic decrement is dimensionless and is another 2𝜋
form of the dimensionless damping ratio ζ

2𝜋𝜁 𝛿
𝛿= 𝜁= 2𝜋𝜁
1 − 𝜁2 4𝜋 2 − 𝛿 2 𝛿=
1 − 𝜁2
𝑐
recall: 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 = 2𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝑚

The logarithmic decrement can also be

written as: 𝛿 = 2𝜋𝜁
2𝜋 𝑐
𝛿=
𝜔𝑑 2𝑚

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Case 3. Critically damped system 𝜁=1

Equation of Motion x measure from static equilibrium position (EP) 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

Value for the roots: 𝑠1,2 = −𝜔𝑛

Solution to the EoM: 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 + 𝐵𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡

When applying initial conditions 𝑥0 and 𝒗0

𝑥0 = 𝑥(0) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜔𝑛0 𝐴 = 𝑥0 𝑥(𝑡)

ሶ = −𝐴𝜔 𝑛𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 − 𝐵𝑡𝜔 𝑛𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡

𝑣0 = 𝑥(0)
ሶ = −𝐴𝜔 𝑛𝑒 −𝜔𝑛0 − 𝐵0𝜔 𝑛𝑒 −𝜔𝑛0 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜔𝑛0 𝑣0 = −𝐴𝜔𝑛 + 𝐵 𝐵 = 𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜔𝑛

The solution becomes:

𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 + 𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡

The motion represented is aperiodic, eventually

diminish to zero
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Case 4. Overdamped system 𝜁>1

Equation of Motion x measure from static equilibrium position (EP) 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

Value for the roots: 𝑠1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1

−𝜁𝜔𝑛 +𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 −1 𝑡 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 −𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 −1 𝑡

Solution to the EoM: 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒

When applying initial conditions 𝑥0 and 𝒗0

𝑣0 + 𝜁 + 𝜁 2 − 1 𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 𝑣0 − 𝜁 − 𝜁 2 − 1 𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
𝐴= 𝐵=
2𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1 2𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1

X v0

X0
The motion represented is aperiodic,
eventually diminish to zero but much t
0
slower than critically damped system

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Comparison of motion with different types of
damping

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Energy dissipated in viscous damping
In a viscously damped system, the rate of change of energy with time (dW/dt) is given by
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑥 2
= force x velocity = 𝐹𝑣 = − 𝑐𝑣 𝑣 = −𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

In the case of a damped system, simple harmonic motion, 𝑥 = 𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑑 𝑡

2𝜋/𝜔𝑑 2 2𝜋/𝜔𝑑 2𝜋
𝑑𝑥 2
∆𝑊 = න −𝑐 𝑑𝑡 = න −𝑐 𝜔𝑑 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න −𝑐 𝜔𝑑 )(cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡) 2 𝑑(𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
0 𝑑𝑡 0 0

∆𝑊 = 𝜋𝑐 𝜔𝑑 𝑋 2

This shows that the energy dissipated is proportional to the square of the amplitude of motion and 𝜔𝑑 .

The energy loss in each cycle can be compute dividing by the maximum kinetic or potential energy
∆𝑊 𝜋𝑐 𝜔𝑑 𝑋 2 2𝜋 𝑐 This term is called
= =2 = 4𝜋𝜁 ≈ 2𝛿 specific damping
𝑊 1 𝜔𝑑 2𝑚
𝑚𝜔𝑑2 𝑋 2 capacity
2

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 ke
Formula Sheet for n =
Important parameters me k c
Free vibration ce
=
d = n 1 −  2 2 me k e
A(m)
X …measured from SEP
Governing me x + ce x + k e x = f (t ) Response : x( t ) = x h ( t ) + x p ( t ) 2
equation n = 2f n n =
x + 2 n x + 2n x = f (t ) / m Tn
v0

x = A cos n t + B sin n t
X
Undamped
systems A = x0 B = v0 / n X0

𝜁=0 x = X 0 cos( n t −  ) X 0 = A2 + B 2 ,  = tan −1 B / A Tn

t

B = (v0 + x0 n ) / d
Underdamped 𝑥(𝑡1 ) 2𝜋𝜁 1 𝑥(𝑡1)

systems
x = Ae −nt cos d t + Be −nt sin d t A = x0 X0
𝛿 = ln
𝑥(𝑡2)
=
1− 𝜁2
𝛿= ln
𝑛 𝑥(𝑡𝑛+1)
t
2
x = X 0e −nt cos( d t −  ) X 0 = A2 + B 2 ,  = tan −1 B / A d = 𝛿
𝜁<1 Td Td
𝜁=
4𝜋 2 + 𝛿 2

Critically damped A = x0
systems − n t − n t
x = Ae + Bte B = v0 + x0 n
𝜁=1 t
0

Overdamped
x = Ae (−n +n  2 −1 t ) + Be(− −
n n )
 2 −1 t
systems
A=
( )
v0 +  +  2 − 1 n x0
B=
( )
v0 −  −  2 − 1 n x0
𝜁>1 2n  2 − 1 2n  2 − 1
Dissipated ∆𝑊
energy, viscous ∆𝑊 = 𝜋𝑐 𝜔𝑑 𝑋 2 specific damping
Figures and content adapted from = 4𝜋𝜁 ≈ 2𝛿
Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations
damping system specific damping capacity
capacity 𝑊Pearson sixth edition
Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration,
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Mechanical Vibrations

Coulomb and Hysteretic Damping

Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Florida International University

Figures and content adapted from

Textbook: Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition.
Chapter 2: Free vibrations of a sigle degree of freedom system
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
Coulomb damping arises when bodies slide on dry
surfaces.
The force required to produce sliding is proportional to
the normal force acting in the plane of contact.

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁 = 𝜇𝑊 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔
Equation of Motion is a piecewise function
The friction force acts in a direction opposite to the
The value of the coefficient of friction depends
direction of velocity.
on the materials in contact and the condition of
the surfaces in contact. 𝑥ሶ positive 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = −𝜇𝑁

𝑥ሶ negarive 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝜇𝑁

can be expressed as a single equation (using signum

function)

𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝜇𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
The equation of motion:

𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝜇𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

where 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑥ሶ value is defined as:

1 for 𝑥ሶ >0, -1 for 𝑥ሶ <0, and 0 for 𝑥ሶ =0

For the solution we will assume the equation of motion is a piecewise function

1. When 𝑥ሶ >0, the sign function is positive and the equation becomes,
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = −𝜇𝑚𝑔 and the solution is a harmonic 𝜇𝑚𝑔
𝑥 = 𝐴1 cos 𝜔 𝑛𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔 𝑛𝑡 −
motion plus a constant: 𝑘

2. When 𝑥ሶ <0, the sign function is negative and the equation becomes,
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔 and the solution is a harmonic 𝜇𝑚𝑔
𝑥 = 𝐴3 cos 𝜔 𝑛𝑡 + 𝐴4 sin 𝜔 𝑛𝑡 +
motion plus a constant: 𝑘

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
If we solve the equation for initial conditions x 0 = 𝑥0 and 𝒗0 = 0.
Since the mass started with an initial displacement, it moves from right to left with a negative velocity. Starting in case 2:

𝜇𝑁 𝜇𝑁 This solution is valid for

x 0 = 𝑥0 = 𝐴3 cos 𝜔𝑛 (0) + 𝐴4 sin 𝜔𝑛 (0) − 𝐴3 = 𝑥0 − half the cycle only—that
𝑘 𝑘 𝜋
𝐴4 = 0 is, for 0 < 𝑡 < 𝜔
𝑥ሶ 0 = −𝐴3 𝜔𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑛 (0) + 𝐴4 𝜔𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 (0) 𝑛

𝜋
When 𝑡 = 𝜔 , the mass will be at its extreme left position and its displacement from equilibrium
𝑛
position can be found from

𝜋 𝜋 𝜇𝑁 𝜋 𝜇𝑁 2𝜇𝑁
𝑡=𝜔 𝑥 = 𝑥0 − cos 𝜔𝑛 + = − 𝑥0 −
𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝑘 𝜔𝑛 𝑘 𝑘

2𝜇𝑁
Since the motion started with a displacement of 𝑥0 and, in a half cycle, the value of x became − 𝑥0 − , the
𝑘
2𝜇𝑁
reduction in magnitude of x in time , it can be demonstrated that for the other half to the cycle the reduction
𝑘
4𝜇𝑁
is 𝑘

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping important
equations: The motion stops when 𝑥 < , since the
𝜇𝑁
n 𝑘
restoring force exerted by the spring (𝑘x) will
then be less than the friction force μN. Thus
the number of cycles (n) that elapse before the
motion ceases is given by

4𝜇𝑁 𝜇𝑁
𝑥n = 𝑥0 − 𝑛 ≤
𝑘 𝑘

𝜇𝑁
Slope of the 4𝜇𝑁 Number of 𝑥0 −
n≥ 𝑘
enveloping 𝑘 2𝜇𝑁𝜔𝑛 cycles to stop 4𝜇𝑁
− =
straight lines 2𝜋 𝜋𝑘 𝑘
Frequency is 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

The amplitude reduces linearly with Coulomb 4𝜇𝑁

damping and amount of: 𝑘 2𝜋
Time to stop ∆𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝑛𝜏𝑛 = 𝑛
𝜔𝑛
Therefore: 4𝜇𝑁
𝑥𝑚 = 𝑥m−1 −
𝑘

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping
• Also called solid or structural damping,
is caused by the friction between the
internal planes that slip or slide inside
the material.
• This causes a hysteresis loop to be
formed in the stress-strain or force-
displacement curve. The energy loss in
one loading and unloading cycle is equal
to the area enclosed by the hysteresis
loop.
• It was found experimentally that the
energy loss per cycle due to internal
friction is independent of the frequency
but approximately proportional to the
square of the amplitude.
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping
The motion can be considered to be nearly
The damping coefficient c is assumed to be inversely harmonic, and the decrease in amplitude per cycle
proportional to the frequency, where h is called the can be determined using energy balance.
hysteresis damping constant.
Vibrating frequency is 𝜔𝑑
ℎ ℎ
𝑐= 𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝜔 𝜔

Energy loss for viscous damping ∆𝑊 = 𝜋𝑐 𝜔𝑑 𝑋 2

In term of h: ∆𝑊 = 𝜋ℎ 𝑋 2
Another dimensionless constant used to describe the 𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜁𝜔𝑛 −𝜁𝜔 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑛 sin 𝜔 𝑡
𝑑
hysteric damping is 𝜔𝑑
ℎ
𝛽= Energy loss in term of 𝛽 ∆𝑊 = 𝜋𝑘𝛽 𝑋 2
𝑘
𝑋𝑗 πℎ The equivalent viscous
Logarithmic decrement 𝛿 = ln ≈ ln(1 + π𝛽) ≈ π𝛽 ≈ 2𝜋𝜁𝑒𝑞 = 𝛽 ℎ
𝑋𝑗+1 𝑘 damping is 𝜁𝑒𝑞 = 2 = 2𝑘

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping
Characteristics of the hysteretic loop:
• The graph force- deflection is usually obtained from
experimental measurements on a structure.
• The energy dissipated ∆𝑊 in a cycle is the area
enclosed by the hysteresis loop.
• The constant of the spring k is the slope of the force-
deflection curve.
• The graph give information about the maximum
deflection of the response.
• Using the equation for work we can related the energy
loss with the damping constant and the logarithmic Max. deflection= 8 mm
decrement. Approximate the area using a square and 2 triangles.
• Under hysteretic damping the system behaves as
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = ∆𝑊
underdamped and the response is similar to the a
viscous damping system.

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping, important
equations:
ℎ
Damping coefficient: 𝑐=
𝜔
ℎ
Dimensionless damping constant: 𝛽=
𝑘

Energy loss : ∆𝑊 = 𝜋ℎ 𝑋 2 = 𝜋𝑘𝛽 𝑋 2 ∆𝑊 = Area in hysteretic loop

Equivalent spring constant: 𝑘= Slope of hysteretic loop

When the system is underdamped the answer 𝑣0 + 𝑥0 𝜁𝜔𝑛 −𝜁𝜔 𝑡

would same as a viscous damping system: 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑛 sin 𝜔 𝑡
𝑑
𝜔𝑑

Logarithmic decrement: 𝑋𝑗 2 + 𝜋𝛽 𝑋𝑗 πℎ 1 𝑋𝑜
= ≅ 1 + π𝛽 𝛿 = 𝑙𝑛 ≅ 𝑙𝑛 1 + π𝛽 ≅ π𝛽 = 𝛿 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑋𝑗+1 2 − 𝜋𝛽 𝑋𝑗+1 𝑘 𝑛 𝑋𝑛

𝛽 ℎ 𝛽 ℎ ℎ
Damping ratio: 𝛿 ≅ 2𝜋𝜁𝑒𝑞 ≅ π𝛽 𝜁𝑒𝑞 = = 𝑐𝑒𝑞 = 𝑐𝑐 𝜁𝑒𝑞 = 2 𝑚𝑘 = 𝛽 𝑚𝑘 = 𝑚𝑘 =
2 2𝑘 2 𝑘 𝜔
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Mechanical Vibrations

Stability on Vibrating Systems

Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Florida International University

Figures and content adapted from

Textbook: Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition.
Chapter 2: Free vibrations of a sigle degree of freedom system
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Stability of vibrating systems
• A system is said to be stable if its free-vibration
response neither decays nor grows, but remains
constant or oscillates as time approaches infinity.

• A system is defined to be asymptotically stable if

its free-vibration response approaches zero as
time approaches infinity.

• A system is considered to be unstable if its free-

vibration response grows without bound as time
approaches infinity.

• An unstable system can cause damage to the

system, adjacent property, or human life.

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Stability of vibrating systems
• The static equilibrium position of a system can be found by
setting velocity and acceleration equals to zero in the
equation of motion: 𝑥ሷ = 0, 𝑥ሶ = 0
𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘(𝑥) − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
𝑘

• At the equilibrium position the potential energy is minimum, therefore static equilibrium 𝑑𝑈
position of a system can be found by setting the derivative of the potential energy ቝ =0
𝑑𝑥 𝛿
respect to position equal to zero: 𝑠𝑡

1 2 𝑑𝑈 2 𝑚𝑔
𝑈= 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Stability of vibrating systems
Stability of a system can be explained in terms of its energy.
According to this scheme, a system is considered to be
asymptotically stable, stable, or unstable if its energy decreases,
remains constant, or increases, respectively, with time.
The static equilibrium position will be stable following the behavior
of the second derivative of the potential energy respect to position:

𝜕2𝑈 𝜕2𝑈 𝜕2𝑈

>0 =0 <0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Stability of vibrating systems
• We can also describe the stability of the system according to the signs
of the coefficients of the characteristic equation
Governing Equation Solution is of the form:

𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑐𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡

Characteristic equation :
−𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘 =0 𝑠1,2 = ± − 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚

• If the exponential is positive the response

may grow without bounds.

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Example Consider a uniform rigid bar, of mass m and length L, pivoted at one end and connected
by one spring at the other end and one damper at the middle of the bar. Assuming that
the spring is unstretched when the bar is vertical, derive the equation of motion of the
system for small angular displacements (θ) of the bar about the pivot point, and
investigate the stability behavior of the system.
For small angular displacements the spring and the damper are considered to be always
horizontal.

STEPS FOR THE ANALYSIS:

1. Derive the equation of motion of the

system for small angular displacements
(θ)
2. Find the equilibrium position,
3. Analysis of stability

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Example (cont.)
Applying Equation of Motion. Moment respect to point “0”

ሶ
෍ 𝑀𝑜𝑧 = − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜃𝑐𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑘2𝑙 sin 𝜃 2𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −𝐽𝑜 𝜃ሷ
FBD
1
ሶ
𝜃𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑘4𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = − 𝑚 2𝑙 2
𝜃ሷ
3

Governing Equation
4 2
𝑚𝑙 𝜃ሷ + 𝜃𝑐𝑙
ሶ 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 + 4𝑘𝑙 2 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
3

Equilibrium positions 𝜃ሷ = 0, 𝜃ሶ = 0

4𝑘𝑙 2 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

𝜃1 = 0°
𝜃2 = 180°
4𝑘𝑙 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0 𝑚𝑔
𝜃3,4 = ±cos−1
4𝑘𝑙

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Example (cont.) This is a nonlinear governing equation:

𝜽 = 𝜽1 = 𝟎° 4 2
𝑚𝑙 𝜃ሷ + 𝜃𝑐𝑙
ሶ 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 + 4𝑘𝑙 2 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
Equilibrium position 3
sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
For small rotational displacements: cos 𝜃 ≈ 1
The equation of motion becomes linear for equilibrium position 𝜽 = 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎°
4 2
𝑚𝑙 𝜃ሷ + 𝜃𝑐𝑙
ሶ 2 + 4𝑘𝑙 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝜃 = 0
3

4 2
𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 𝑚𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑞 = 𝑐𝑙 2 𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 4𝑘𝑙 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙
3
The equation can be written as the typical 2nd order differential equation:

𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝜃ሷ + 𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝜃ሶ + 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝜃 = 0

Roots of the polynomial:

The solution has the form: The characteristic polynomial: 2

−𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑘𝑒𝑞
𝑠1,2 = ± −
𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑠2 + 𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡 =0 2𝑚𝑒𝑞 2𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑚𝑒𝑞

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Example (cont.) 𝜽 = 𝜽1 = 𝟎° 𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑠 2 + 𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = 0
Equation of motion for Equilibrium position 𝜃1 = 0
2
4 2 −𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑘𝑒𝑞
𝑚𝑙 𝜃ሷ + 𝜃𝑐𝑙
ሶ 2 + 4𝑘𝑙 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝜃 = 0 𝑠1,2 = ± −
3 2𝑚𝑒𝑞 2𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑚𝑒𝑞

Solution CASE 1 : Radical is negative, 𝒔𝟏,𝟐 are complex , the system is STABLE and oscillates around the equilibrium position

𝑘𝑒𝑞 3 4𝑘𝑙 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙 The spring is capable to overcome the weight.

= >0 4𝑘𝑙 2 > 𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝑚𝑒𝑞 4𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡

Solution CASE 2 : Radical is zero, 𝒔𝟏,𝟐 are real and negative , the system is STABLE the system is in critical damping.

−𝑐𝑒𝑞
𝑠1,2 = 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 + 𝐵𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡
2𝑚𝑒𝑞

Solution CASE 3 : Radical is positive, 𝒔𝟏,𝟐 are real and one is positive, the system is UNSTABLE.
The spring is NOT capable to
𝑘𝑒𝑞 3 4𝑘𝑙 2− 𝑚𝑔𝑙 overcome the weight, 𝜃 𝑡
= <0 4𝑘𝑙 2 < 𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡
𝑚𝑒𝑞 4𝑚𝑙 2 increases exponentially .

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
Example (cont.)
Applying Equation of Motion. Moment respect to point “0”

ሶ
෍ 𝑀𝑜𝑧 = − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜃𝑐𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑘2𝑙 sin 𝜃 2𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −𝐽𝑜 𝜃ሷ

1
ሶ
𝜃𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑘4𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = − 𝑚 2𝑙 2
𝜃ሷ
3

Governing Equation
4 2
𝑚𝑙 𝜃ሷ + 𝜃𝑐𝑙
ሶ 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 + 4𝑘𝑙 2 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
3

Equilibrium positions 𝜃ሷ = 0, 𝜃ሶ = 0

4𝑘𝑙 2 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

𝜃1 = 0°
𝜃2 = 180°
4𝑘𝑙 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0 𝑚𝑔
𝜃3,4 = ±cos−1
4𝑘𝑙

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 Example This is a nonlinear governing equation:
𝜽 = 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝝅 4 2
𝑚𝑙 𝜃ሷ + 𝜃𝑐𝑙
ሶ 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 + 4𝑘𝑙 2 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
3
Equilibrium position
Change of variable 𝛉 = 𝛂 + 𝝅, 𝜶ሷ = 𝜽,ሷ 𝜶ሶ = 𝜽,ሶ The equation can be written in term of 𝛂:

𝜽 4 2
ሶ 2 (cos(α + 𝜋))2 + 4𝑘𝑙 2 sin(α + 𝜋) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(α + 𝜋) − 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛(α + 𝜋) = 0
𝑚𝑙 𝛼ሷ + 𝛼𝑐𝑙
3
𝜶
For small rotational displacements of 𝛂 respect to the equilibrium position: sin 𝛼 ≈ 𝛼
cos 𝛼 ≈ 1

sin(α + 𝜋)= sin(α) cos(𝜋)+ cos α sin 𝜋 = − sin α ≈ −𝛼

cos(α + 𝜋)= cos(α) cos(𝜋) − sin(α) sin 𝜋 = − cos α ≈ −1

4 2
ሶ 2 (−1)2 + 4𝑘𝑙 2 (−𝛼) (−1) − 𝑚𝑔𝑙 (−α) = 0
𝑚𝑙 𝛼ሷ + 𝛼𝑐𝑙
3

The equation of motion becomes linear for equilibrium position, in term of 𝛂:

4 2
𝑚𝑙 𝛼ሷ + 𝑐 𝑙 2 𝛼ሶ + 4𝑘𝑙 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙 (α) = 0
3
Figures and content adapted from Textbook:
Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 The equation of motion becomes linear for equilibrium position, in term of 𝛂:
Example 4 2
𝜽 = 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝝅 𝑚𝑙 𝛼ሷ + 𝑐 𝑙 2 𝛼ሶ + 4𝑘𝑙 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙 (α) = 0
3
Equilibrium position
4 2
𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 𝑚𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑞 = 𝑐𝑙 2 𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 4𝑘𝑙 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙
3
The equation can be written as the typical 2nd order differential equation:
𝜽
𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝜃ሷ + 𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝜃ሶ + 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝜃 = 0 The solution has the form:
𝜶
𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡

Roots of the polynomial:

The characteristic polynomial:
2
−𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑘𝑒𝑞
𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑠2 + 𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡 =0 𝑠1,2 = ± −
2𝑚𝑒𝑞 2𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑚𝑒𝑞
Solution: Radical is always less than first term, the system is STABLE and oscillates around the equilibrium
position
2
𝑘𝑒𝑞 3 4𝑘𝑙 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙 −𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑘𝑒𝑞
= >0 > − 𝑠1,2 = 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑚𝑒𝑞 4𝑚𝑙 2 2𝑚𝑒𝑞 2𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑚𝑒𝑞

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD
 The equation of motion becomes linear for equilibrium position, in term of 𝛂:
Example 4 2
𝜽 = 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝝅 𝑚𝑙 𝛼ሷ + 𝑐 𝑙 2 𝛼ሶ + 4𝑘𝑙 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙 (α) = 0
3
Equilibrium position
4 2
𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 𝑚𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑞 = 𝑐𝑙 2 𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 4𝑘𝑙 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙
3

𝜽 With the definitions:

𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑘𝑒𝑞
𝜁= 𝜔𝑛 = 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2
𝜶 2 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑚𝑒𝑞

The solution is STABLE and could be any of the following depending on the
parameters of the system :

𝜁 = 0, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋0 cos 𝜔 𝑛𝑡 − 𝜙

𝜁 < 1, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋0 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 cos 𝜔 𝑑𝑡 − 𝜙

𝑥(𝑡) =
𝜁 = 1, 𝑥(𝑡) = C1 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 + C2 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡
−𝜁𝜔𝑛 +𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 −1 𝑡 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 −𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 −1 𝑡
𝜁 > 1, 𝑥(𝑡) = C1 𝑒 + C2 𝑒

Figures and content adapted from Textbook:

Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao. Mechanical Vibration, Pearson sixth edition
Prof. Carmen Muller-Karger, PhD