JAWAHAR NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA

BISHNUPUR , MANIPUR

PROJECT ON PHYSICS

A PROJECT REPORT SUJBMITTED TO THE CENTRAL

BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION FOR

THE PARTIAL FULFILL OF AISSCE 2022 - 23

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

RESPECTED, JOEL MOIRANGTHEM

SIR JEETENDRO XII SCIENCE

PGT(PHYSICS) ROLL NO:23
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I am deeply thankful to my Physics

teacher Sir jeetendro for extending his valuable

and scholarly guidance throughout the preparation

of this project.

I wish to extend my sincere thanks to Mr Raghumani

respected Principal,Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya Bishnupur

Manipur for his continuous motivation and moral support

for completing the work.

I am also thankful to all my respected teachers,

library staff, office staff and staff members of the

Physics Laboratory of the school. I am also thankful to the

teachers and staff members of the deportment of

Physics for extending their humonitarian and scholastic

assistance in finding out the solutions of some query

during my work.

Lost but no the least I am indebted to my friends, classmates

and parents for encouraging,and never let me down in my

confidence while completing the project.

 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Moirangthem
Joel singh of class XII (Science) of Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalaya Bishnupur,Manipur
has completed the Investigatory Project
in Physics titled "A STUDY ON PN
JUNCTION DIODE"himself under the
supervision and guidance of Physics
Teacher Sir Jeetendro during the year
2022-23.
The progress of the project has been
continuously reported and has been in
my knowledge consistently.
........................... ...............................
PRINCIPAL SIGN SUBJECT TEACHER SIGN
 CONTENTS

SI NO.
1 Certificate
2 Acknowledgement
3 Introduction
4 Diode Theory
5 Zero Biased Junction Diode
6 Reversed Biased PN
Junction Diode
7 Forward Biased PN
Junction Diode
8 Breakdown Region
9 Useful Diode Parameter
10 Junction Diode Ideal And
Real Characteristics
11 Bibliography
12 Websites
 Introduction

A diode is a specialized electronic component with two

electrodes called the anode and the cathode. Most diodes
are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon,
germanium, or selenium. If we were to make electrical
connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type
materials and then connect them to a battery source, an
additional energy source now exists to overcome the
potential barrier.

The effect of adding this additional energy source results in

the free electrons being able to cross the depletion region
from one side to the other. The behavior of the PN junction
with regards to the potential barrier's width produces an
asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better known
as the PN Junction Diode.
 DIODE (THEORY->
PN JUNCTION, BIASING,
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES)

THEORY:
A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest
Semiconductor Devices around, and which has the
characteristic of passing current in only one direction only.
However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly
with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an
exponential current-voltage (I-V) relationship and therefore
we cannot described its operation by simply using an
equation such as Ohm's law

.
The characteristic curve of a junction diode is also called an
I-V Curve. It is typically a graph showing the current flow at
different
voltages. The current is typically on the y-axis, and the
voltage on the x- axis. This type of graph provides engineers
with a visual record of the operating characteristics of the
component. This information enables them to use the
component more appropriately within a circuit. There are
many different types of diodes, and they all have different
characteristics curves and applications. Here are some
diodes you might come across Zener, Germanium, Gunn,
Tunnel, and Schottky. The current that flows through it is
not proportional to the applied voltage.

If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied

between the two ends of the PN junction, it can supply free
electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to
cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around
the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the
free charges being pulled away from the junction resulting
in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the
effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of
the junction itself allowing or blocking current flow through
the diode.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the
application of a reverse voltage and narrows with an
increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due
to the differences in the electrical properties on the two
sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking
place. One of the results produces rectification as seen in
the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-
voltage)characteristics. Rectification is shown by an
asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias voltage
is altered as shown below.

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device

or as a rectifying device we need to firstly bias the
junction,ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the
voltage axis above, "Reverse Bias" refers to an external
voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An
external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is
said to act in the "Forward Bias" direction.
There are two operating regions and three possible
"biasing" conditions for the standard Junction Diode
and these are:
1.Zero Bias - No external voltage potential is applied
to the PN junction diode.

2.Reverse Bias - The voltage potential is connected

negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and positive, (+ve) to
the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of
Increasing the PN junction diode's width.

3.Forward Bias - The voltage potential is connected

positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and negative, (-ve) to
the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of
Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no
external potential energy is applied to the PN junction.
However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few
holes (majority carriers) in the P-type material with enough
energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the
junction against this barrier potential. This is known as the
"Forward Current" and is referenced as IF
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority
carriers), find this situation favorable and move across the
junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the
"Reverse Current" and is referenced as IR. This transfer of
electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is
known as diffusion, as shown below.

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the

diffusion of any more majority carriers across the
junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority
carriers (few free electrons in the P-region and few holes
in the N-region) to drift across the junction

Then an "Equilibrium" or balance will be

established when the majority carriers are equal and
both moving in opposite directions, so that the net
result is zero current flowing in the circuit. When this
occurs the junction is said to be in a state of "Dynamic
Equilibrium".
The minority carriers are constantly generated due to

thermal energy so this state of equilibrium can be

broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction

causing an increase in the generation of minority

carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage

current but an electric current cannot flow since no

circuit has been connected to the PN junction.

Retime Biasefa PN Junction Biote

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a

positive voltage is applied to the N-type material and a

negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.

The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts
electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the
junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted
away from the junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider
due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high
impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a
high potential barrier is created thus preventing current
from flowing through the semiconductor material.
Increase in the depletion layer due to Reverse Bias
This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN
junction and practically zero current flows through the
junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a
very small leakage current does flow through the junction
which can be measured in micro- amperes, (JA).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the
diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will
cause the diode's PN junction to overheat and fail due to the
avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the
diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of
maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step
downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve
below.
Reverse Characteristics Curve for a junction
Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications
in voltage stabilizing circuits where a series limiting resistor
is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown
current to a preset maximum value thereby producing a
fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes
are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in a
later tutorial.

Forward Biased PN junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a
negative voltage is applied to the N-type material and a
positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this
external voltage becomes greater than the value of the
potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts
for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to flow.

This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels

electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to
cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the
opposite direction towards the junction by the positive
voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current
flowing up to this voltage paint, called the "knee" on the
static curves and then a high current flow through the diode
with little Increase in the external voltage as shown below.
Forward Characteristics Curde for a junction Diode
The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode
results in the depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow which
represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby
allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden
increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V
characteristics curve above as the “knee”point

Reduction in the depletion Layer tone to fortoard Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through
the PN junction allowing very large currents to flow through
the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The
actual potential difference across the junction or diode is
kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at
approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v
for silicon junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct "infinite" current above this
knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore
resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current
flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current specification
causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of
heat than it was designed for resulting in a very quick
failure of the device.
We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal
non-linear device whose l- V characteristic are polarity
dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied
voltage, VD the diode is either Forward Biased VD >0 or
Reverse Biased VD <0. Either way we can model these
current-voltage characteristics for both an ideal diode and
for a real diode.
Breakboton Region

Then something interesting happens at the knee part of the

curve. This point is called the breakdown voltage. Suddenly
there is an increased flow in reverse current. No matter how
much reverse voltage is applied, the voltage across the
diode does not change.
In specification sheets some manufacturers refer to the
reverse current, or leakage current, as the point near the
knee, just before breakdown occurs.
Useful Diode Parameters
The maximum forward bias current (If) of a diode is a very
useful parameter. Different diodes are capable of carrying
different amount of current. If you are placing a protection
diode into a circuit, you will need to know how much current
your circuit will draw, and whether the diode is up to the job
of carrying it.
The forward voltage drop (Vf), also known as the cut-off
voltage, is a very useful parameter worth knowing. This
parameter is defined at a specified current and temperature
in datasheets. This value tells you that the diode will
continue conducting even when the voltage falls as low as
that figure.What most people do not realize is that the
forward voltage drop is ideally specified when the forward
current is zero. This is when the curve cuts the x-axis and the
current is zero.
If you were a crystal radio enthusiast, you would be
interested in this parameter because it determines how
sensitive your crystal radio diode is. Diodes are Very
sensitive to heat and their resistance can change creating a
drift. This is Why datasheets always mention the
parameters taken at a specific temperature. Typically it is at
25 °C.
Junction Diode Ideal And Real Characteristics
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.Physics NCERT Books

2.Fundamental Physics-Pradeep Kshetrapal

3.Concepts of physics-,H.C. Verma

Websites;
1.www.gooogle.com
2.www.slideshare.com
3.www.seminars.nmet