Practical Antennas

By:

Dr. N. K. Dewangan
(Professor)
ETC,BIT, Durg.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.

1
 Syllabus Unit-III Part-A

PART A
Practical Antennas: Effect of earth on antenna
performance; Grounded and ungrounded antennas;
Antenna top loading and tuning; Resonant and non-
resonant antennas; Rhombic antenna; Loop antenna and
Adcock antenna; Yagi antenna; Log periodic antenna;
Horn and Microstrip antenna.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 2

RADIO FREQUENCY CLASSIFICATIONS ALONG WITH THEIR RESPECTIVE APPLICATIONS

WL

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 3

RADIO FREQUENCY CLASSIFICATIONS ALONG WITH THEIR RESPECTIVE APPLICATIONS

WL

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.

4
 Frequency Ranges and Applications-Summary
Sl. No. Band Name Frequency Range Typical Applications

1 VLF 3kHz-30KHz Telegraphy

2 LF 30kHz-300kHz Marine and navigational aids, long

distance point to point service.
3 MF 300kHz-3MHz AM broadcast, navigation, Horbour
telephone etc.
4 HF 3MHz-30MHz Aircraft radio, short wave
broadcasting to distant places
5 VHF 30MHz-300MHz FM, TV, radar, Telephony and so on

6 UHF 300MHz-3GHz Radar, TV, short distance commn

7 MICROWAVE 3GHz-30GHz Radar, satellite commn and so on

8 EHF 30GHz-300GHz Experimental purposes, Amateur,

government
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 5
 Effects of Ground on Antenna Performance

• An antenna located at about 5 length above the ground may

be considered to be in free space.

• In practice this is not always true and hence radiation patterns

found to be much effected by reflection from ground.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 6

 Effects of Ground on Antenna Performance
Ungrounded Antennas Grounded Antennas

• If a source of radiation is put near • When antenna is close to the

ground. ground, then regardless whether
the antenna is grounded or not the
earth acts as a mirror and becomes
• It is assumed that image antenna part of radiating system.
is existing below the ground and • We get antenna of double
is the true mirror image of the size(continuous antenna).
actual antenna. • Adv. over ungrounded antenna is
that only half height of the antenna
is required to produce the same
• Pattern will be like due to array of radiation pattern.
two sources separated by • Marconi Antenna: antenna of
distance 2h. length /4 is grounded. The
voltage and current distribution
remains the same as that of /2
antenna.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 7

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 8
 Ground System & Antenna Losses
At lower frequencies antenna length required becomes long and is generally
vertically earthed due to height problem.
Why proper grounding is required?
• Ground losses occur b/c the I (Current) charging the capacity b/w the antenna
and ground flows through the C (Capacitance) from the antenna to the earth
and then back through earth to the ground point of the transmitter.

• Due to skin effect the current confines itself near the earth surface and
considerable loss of energy occurs due the earth not being perfectly
conducting body.

• Since earth is a poor conductor some special provision is to be made for

returning these currents to the grounding point on the transmitter (Tx) with
the least losses.

• This is why a ground system for vertical grounded antennas are required which
provides a least resistance path for return current through the ground back to
Tx.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 9

Antenna Equivalent Ckt (Tx):

Rl : Equivalent series resistance of loading

coil
Ll: Loading coil inducatance
LA : Inductance of antenna
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 10
Efficiency of Electrically Short Antennas
• Length or height < λ/10 (λ/4 to λ/10).
• Are generally used as vertically grounded antennas
• Having low radiation efficiency.
• Radiation η = Rr/(Rr + Rl).
• Rl includes:
– ohmic loss,
– dielectric loss,
– corona loss,
– ground loss,
– loss due to loading coil etc.
• Efficiency can be increased by:
– Installing elaborate gnd sys
– Reducing the resistance of loading coil
– Occasionally cleaning guy wires
– Using top loading etc.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 11

 Ground System
• Two methods depending upon the nature of soil :

1. Radial buried Ground System: When the ground has

good conductivity.

• It consists of a large no. of radial wires extending from the base

of the tower and placed between 20 to 30 cm below the ground.
• Each radial wire has a separation
of 30 b/w two wires and has a length
at least /4 or preferably /2.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.

12
2. The Counterpoise Conductor Ground System:
• when the ground is of poor conductivity i.e. antenna is to be
installed in a rocky area or at the top of the high buildings.
• It is nothing but a small edition of the radial wire or earth mat
but this time above the surface of the earth and the outer
edge is insulated from it.
• However it is supported above the
ground.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.

13
Effect of Antenna Height
• The actual antenna height should be at least quarter
wavelength above the ground to make it resonant.
• At resonance antenna impedance is purely resistive and
increases radiation resistance.
• When an antenna is not of resonant length for a given
operating frequency its input impedance containing a reactive
element.
• If L < /4 then i/p impedance will have a capacitive reactance
component.
• If L > /4 then i/p impedance will have an inductive
reactance component.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 14

Assume we have a short vertical monopole with a height H and fed
against ground. If H is small compared to the wavelength λ/4 then :
The antenna will act as a capacitance (CV) in series with the radiation resistance
(Rr )and the loss resistance (RG).

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 15

 Antenna Top Loading and Tuning
• When antennas are of not of resonant length such antennas
may be made resonant by adding lumped reactance
(inductance and capacitance) of suitable magnitudes.

• Thus grounded vertical antenna can be lengthened by adding

Lumped inductance & shortened by adding Lumped series
capacitance. This is called the Tuning.

• Radiation efficiency is sacrificed by this way as series

inductance or capacitance add to loss resistance and hence
there is no improvement in radiation resistance.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 16

• Antenna efficiency can be increased by increasing radiation
resistance of the system by “Top Loading“.

• Radiation resistance is proportional to the square of the

average current through the vertical section.

• One way to improve the current distribution is to add

capacitive top loading to the vertical antenna.

• This is done by mounting one or more horizontal conductors

at the antenna top.

• Top loading may assume form of inverted L or T top hat.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 17

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 18
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 19
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 20
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 21
 Resonant Antennas Non resonant Antennas

• Exact no. of half wavelength • No standing wave exists.

long and is open at both • Excited at one end and
ends. terminated correctly at the
• Used for fixed freq other end (no reflected
operation. wave) all incident waves are
• Standing wave exists absorbed.
because forward and back – • Wide band antenna, not
ward wave exist. sharply tuned to one freq.
• Radiation pattern is • Radiation pattern is
bidirectional. Unidirectional.
• These are unterminated • Rhombic, inverted V
antennas. antennas.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 22

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 23
When L= 8 λ, β = 17.5o

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 24

 ANTENNAS FOR HF, VHF, UHF

• Dipole arrays: Broadside and end-fire arrays.

• Folded dipole.
• V antenna.
• Inverted V antenna.
• Rhombic antenna.
• Yagi-Uda antenna.
• Log-periodic antenna.
• Loop antenna.
• Helical antenna.
• Whip antenna.
• Ferrite rod antenna etc.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 25

 The V Antenna
• Two long wire antennas are arranged in the form of a horizontal V, fed at
the apex as shown in figure.
• Length and elevation are chosen to obtain the desired directional
properties.
2λ wire

β =36o, so For 2λ
26
α = 72o wire N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.
• The excitation to each wire is 180oout of phase.
• If inclined angle α (apex angle) of V- antenna is twice of β ( angle of main
lobe wrt to wire) a bidirectional pattern is obtained, which is the sum of
pattern’s of individual arm.
• However bi-directional pattern can be converted into unidirectional by
terminating antenna arms in its characteristic impedance.
• The apex angle ranges b/w 36o to 72o for V antennas of 8λ to 2λ.
• The V antenna offers nearly twice the gain of a single large wire antenna.
• The directivity and gain of these antennas can be increased further by
lengthening the arms.
• Are useful in HF bands.
• The main disadvantage is that high side lobe exists.
• It is easy to construct and they are cheap.
• Using V antenna end fire and broadside antennas can be constructed to
get more directivity.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 27

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 28
 Rhombic Antenna

• It is a non resonant long wire antenna ( usually terminated in a resistance)

and consists of four similar long wire joined together in a rhombus
form/diamond shape.
• Provides greater directivity (20 to 90) than V antenna.
• Very useful for point to point communication (for transmission and
reception in HF band).
• The side of the rhombus, the angle b/w the sides, the elevation,
termination and height above the earth are chosen to obtain the desired
radiation characteristics.
• The lengh of equal radiators vary form 2 to 8λ.
• The terminating resistance is about 800 ohm.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 29

 30
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 31
 Design of Rhombic antenna
[1] Max E or Max output Design:
When height above ground is chosen such that max relative E is obtained for
constant current (I) at desired angle of elevation. E is maximized wrt h.
{condition ∂E/∂h =0}.
– h= λ / (4 sin β) where β is elevation angle
– L= λ / (2 sin2β)
– θ = 90 – β.

[2] Alignment design:

The max of main lobe is considered with the desired elevation angle β. E is
some what lesser than Emax. E is maximized wrt β. {condition ∂E/∂β =0 }.
– h= λ / (4 sin β) where β is elevation angle
– L= λ k / (2 sin2β) where k = 0.74, only length is different in alignment design.
– θ = 90 – β.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 32

Advantages
• The i/p impedance and radiation pattern do not change rapidly over a
considerable freq range.

• Simple and cheap to erect.

• An end to end receiving array of a number of rhombic can be designed to

form a multiple unit steerable antenna (MUSA) system which constitute
the present day ultimate for long distance short wave reception of
horizontally polarized down coming waves.

• Vertical angle of radiation is low and hence these are suitable for long
distance F-layer propagation.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 33

Disadvantages
• It requires a larger space for installation.

• A single rhombic antenna produces fairly large number of minor lobes

which reduces transmission efficiency.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 34

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 35
 Loop Antenna
• Is a radiating coil of any convenient cross-section.
• It may assume any shape e.g. rectangular, square, triangular, hexagonal
and circular.
• A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a loop (or loops) of wire,
tubing, or other electrical conductor with its ends connected to
a balanced transmission line.
• Loops are extensively used in radio receivers, aircraft receivers direction
finding and UHF transmitters.
• Within this physical description there are two very distinct antenna
designs: the small loop (or magnetic loop) with a size much smaller than a
wavelength, and the resonant loop antenna with a circumference
approximately equal to the wavelength.
• Small loops have a poor efficiency and are mainly used as receiving
antennas at low frequencies.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 36

 Large Loop

Small Loop

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 37

 Direction finding with loops
• Since the directional response of small loop antennas includes a sharp null in
the direction normal to the plane of the loop, they are used in radio direction
finding.
• Small vertical loops are used for finding the direction.
• The loop is thus rotated to find the direction of the null.
• Since the null occurs at two opposite directions, other means must be
employed to determine which side of the null the transmitter is on.
• Emf max at θ= 0o and θ= 180o
• Emf zero at θ= 90o and θ= 270o . Z

• Directional pattern is doughnut shape . Vertical

C
Loop D EMW
e2 e1
h
θ =180o
B
A θ = 0o
d

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. Emf, e = e1 – e2 38

Vertical Loop Z

C D
EMW

e2 e1
h

θ =180o θ = 0o
B A
d

Emf, e = e1 – e2

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 39

 40
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 41
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 42
Determination of Sense

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 43

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 44
 Disadvantages of Loop Direction Finders
• It is only suitable for low and medium freq and not for higher freqs except
for a very small distance. In the freq range of 2 to 30 MHz, a loop antenna
is not satisfactory b/c of polarization error due to horizontally polarized
waves.

• Transmission efficiency is very poor and hence cannot be used for

transmission purpose unless the loop designs are modified for UHF uses.

• Spurious induced voltages are produced if nearby loop, wires and

conductors are present.

• It is subjected to antenna effect (vertical effect) and night effect.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 45

 Night Errors
• A loop antenna will give correct bearing only when the
passing EMWs are vertically polarized and there is no
horizontally polarized down incoming waves.

• At night the strength of the horizontal component is

pronounced and we will not get the zero voltage when the
loop is rotated b/c now the horizontal arm will generate emf
of unequal magnitude.

• b/c of these false direction may be found.

• Night error is removed in Adcock antenna.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 46

 Salient Features of Loop Antenna
• Small loops, whose circumference are less than 0.1 λ at the highest freqs,
are suitable for receiving signals up to about 30 MHz.
• Vertical loop antennas are very useful for direction finding appln.
• These are suitable for LF, MF, HF, VHF and UHF ranges.
• The radiation efficiency of a small loop antenna is poor.
• The dimension of the antenna should be of the order of λ for using as
transmitters.
• Loop antenna are used extensively in radio receivers, aircraft receivers, for
direction finding and also in UHF transmitters.
• It has excellent directivity.
• Directional characteristics of loop antennas are improved by shielding
them electro-statically.
• Loop antennas have ferrite cores to increase the effective diameter of the
loop. These are used as broadcast receivers.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 47

 Transmitting Loop antenna
For vertical loop having radius a:

• Radiation Pattern: =Eφ =60 π β [I] a J1(β a sinθ / λ)/r.

– [I]=Retarded current
• Radiation resistance of loop antenna is Rr = 3720 a /λ ,ohm.
– Where a = radius of the loop
• For small loop (2π a / λ) < 1/3
– D= 3/2=1.5

• For large loop (C=2π a / λ) > 5

– D= 4.25 (a/λ)

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 48

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 49
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 50
 Adcock antenna
• Adcock devised an antenna in order to make a direction finding free from
polarization error.
• The two vertical antennas spaced a small distance apart, are crossed over at
their centre to form an H shape.
• The action of this antenna is exactly identical to that of a loop antenna as
far as vertically polarized waves are concerned. This is due to fact that the
resultant current in the output coil of the Adcock antenna is proportional to
the vector difference of the voltages induced in the two vertical antennas
just like that in the loop.
• However, the voltage induced in the two horizontal parts due to horizontally
polarized down sky waves, are of same magnitude and phase and hence
cancelled out.
• Thus horizontally polarized down coming waves have no effect on the
Adcock antenna b/c of its ckt arrangements.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 51

If the horizontal wires are placed inside a metal tube and thereby
shielded from the radio waves, then the antenna system becomes
insensitive to horizontally polarized down coming sky waves and is
comparatively free from the polarization error.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 52

Two vertical antennas are crossed
at centre to form Adcock antenna

horizontal wires are placed inside

a metal tube

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 53

 Comparison b/w Loop and Adcock Antenna
• Loop DF is primarily suitable at lower freqs, whereas Adcock DF is suitable for
higher frequency.

• Loop DF suffers from vertical and horizontal errors whereas in Adcock antenna
DF system the same are minimized to a great extent.

• Small and more no. of turns can be used in loop antenna which is not possible
in case of Adcock antenna ( eqt height is less). Thus induced voltage in Adcock
antenna is less in comparison to loop.

• Loop DF system presents a moderate inductive internal impedance and the

Adcock DF presents internal capacitive impedance. Thus for tuning the system
to resonate, low value of C of negligible loss is needed in the former whereas
high inductive coil is needed in the latter. This increases the physical structure
of the Adcock system.

• Constructional aspect is easier in the loop DF.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 54

 Yagi-Uda Antenna

• It is an array antenna which consists of one active element and a few

parasitic elements.
• The active element consists of a folded dipole whose length is λ/2.
• The parasitic element consists of one reflector and a few directors.
• The length of the reflector is greater than λ/2 and is located behind the
active element.
• The length of each director is less than λ/2 and they are placed in front of
the active element.
• The spacing b/w each element is not identical and hence it can be
considered as a non-linear array.
• The no. of directors depends on the gain requirements.
• The impedance of the active element is resistive.
• The impedance of the reflector is inductive (current lags induced voltage).
• The impedance of the directors are capacitive(current leads induced
voltage).
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 55
• By suitable dimensioning the lengths of parasitic elements and spacing
b/w two elements, the radiated energy is added up in front (i.e .towards
directors) and tend to cancel the backward radiation (i.e. towards
reflector).
• The purpose of reflector and directors is to increase the gain but they load
the driven element.
• Parasitic elements load the driven element and i/p impedance of driven
element reduces. This is why a folded dipole is invariably used as driven
element so that reduction in i/p impedance is compensated i.e. raised.
• Its radiation pattern is almost uni-directional and gives a gain of about 7
dB.
• It is used as a transmitting antenna at HF and used for TV reception at
VHF.
• Folded dipole is used to obtain high impedance for proper matching b/w
transmitter and free space.
• It is relatively broadband b/c of folded diople.
• It has good FBR (about 20 db).
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 56
• The largest and most well-known use is as rooftop terrestrial television
antennas, but it is also used for point-to-point fixed communication
links, in radar antennas,

• and for long distance shortwave communication by shortwave

broadcasting stations and radio amateurs.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 57

 58
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.
Directivity:
• The max directivity of this antena is found to be 9 dB or 7 dB for reflector
spacing b/w 0.15λ and 0.25 λ.
• Director to director spacing is typically 0.25 λ and 0.35 λ, with larger
spacing being common for long arrays and closer spacing for shorter
arrays.
Gain:
• Adding one director in 3 elements (i.e. 4 element Yagi) provides 1 dB gain
enhancement
• Adding one director to increase from 9 to 10 elements in array increases
0.2 dB gain.
• However, addition of reflectors results in fractional increase in gain and
hence usually not preferred.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 59

 Design Parameters
Basic Yagi Antenna (Beam Antenna):
• Consists of three elements, namely reflector, driver and director
• Length of reflector, Lr = 492/ fMHz ,ft.
• Length of driven element, La = 478/ fMHz ,ft.
• Length of director , Ld= 461.5/ fMHz ,ft.
• Element spacing, S = 142/ fMHz ,ft.
Six Element Yagi Antenna:
• Which gives a directivity of about 12 dB with a bandwidth of half power of 10% .
• La = 0.46 λ
• Lr = 0.475 λ
• Ld1 = 0.44 λ
• Ld2 = 0.44 λ
• Ld3 = 0.43 λ
• Ld4 = 0.40 λ
• Spacing b/w reflector and driven element = 0.25 λ
• Spacing b/w director and driven element = spacing b/w directors = 0.31 λ
• Diameter of the elements = 0.01 λ
• Length of array = 1.5 λ
• Folded dipole is fed by300 ohm two wire TL.
60
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 61
 Folded dipole
• It is an antenna composed of two or more parallel and closely spaced
dipole antennas connected together at their ends with one of the dipole
antennas being centre fed.
L= λ/2

approx
λ/100

I
Feed point
• The currents in the elements are substantially equal and in phase.
• Its radiation pattern is the same as that of a straight dipole (but
bidirectional).
• The i/p impedance is four times that of the st. Dipole i.e. Re= 4×73=292 Ω.
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 62
• Folded dipole antenna differs form the conventional dipole mainly in two
respects : directivity and bandwidth.
• The directivity is bidirectional.
• The folded dipole antenna does not accept power at any even
harmonics(i.e. 2nd, 4th, ..etc ) however it works with low VSWR on odd
harmonics. If any folded antenna functions at 20 MHz, it will also function
at 60 and 100 MHz freqs.
• It has the advantages of high i/p impedance, greater bandwidth with
better impedance matching characteristics.
• Rr of two arm folded dipole= 292 Ω
• Rr of three arm folded dipole = 657Ω
• If the diameter of two arms of folded dipole are different, impedance
transformation of 1.5 to 25 is achievable.
• A simple λ/2 dipole has a terminal resistance of 73 ohm so that an
impedance transformer is reqd to match this antenna to a 2 wire TL of
300 to 600 ohm. This impedance is provided by folded dipole.
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 63
 Log-Periodic Antenna
• The i/p impedance variation of the antenna with the log of frequency is
periodic and hence the name.
• is a multi-element, directional, narrow-beam antenna that operates over a
broad band of frequencies.
• A particular form of the log-periodic design, the log-periodic dipole
array or LPDA, is often used in television antennas that work in the VHF band.
The log-periodic design looks very similar to the Yagi antenna, but is very
different electrically. LPDA and Yagis are often combined in television antennas
that cover both VHF and UHF.
• Its impedance, directional patterns and directivity are constant with
frequency. It is freq independent antenna.
• It is a broad band antenna.
• The gain of a well designed antenna lies b/w 7.5 and 12 dB.
• They are used in VHF and UHF bands.
• It is a non-linear array where the spacing b/w elements is unequal.
• They are used for TV reception and can receive a number of channels.
• It is more efficient than Rhombic antenna.
• It is an array of non-identical dipoles which are all excited equally.
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 64
Zin

log f

Impedance characteristic of Log periodic antenna

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 65

 Basic concept

• The LPDA normally consists of a series of dipoles known as "elements"

positioned along a support boom lying along the antenna axis.
• The elements are spaced at intervals following a logarithmic function of
the frequency, known as d or sigma (σ ).
• The length of each element is a function of the desired frequency
response; for broadband reception this leads to a series of ever-shorter
dipoles towards the "front" of the antenna. The relationship between the
lengths is a function known as tau (τ ).
• The ever-decreasing lengths makes the LPDA look, when viewed from the
top, like a triangle or arrow with the tip pointed towards the transmitter.
• Sigma and tau are the key design elements of the LPDA design.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 66

• Spacing factor, σ = Sn/2Ln=Sn/Sn-1.
• Sn= Dn-1 – Dn
• α = wedge angle or inclined angle = 2 tan-1 [( 1- τ)/ 4 σ ]
• τ = Dn/Dn-1=Ln/Ln-1.
• Isbel curves give the value of τ and σ for a specified gain of the antenna
(For ex- for gain of 9 db, τ = 0.861 and σ = 0.162)
• The scale factor, τ lies b/w 0 and 1 for a given wedge angle, α.
• If α is large, τ is small.
• typical value α =30o, τ = 0.7
• The performance in terms of gain is improved if τ is small and α is large.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 67

• Every element in the log-periodic design is "active", connected electrically
to the other elements.
• It is normal to drive alternating elements with 180° (π radians) of phase
shift from one another. This is normally done by connecting individual
elements to alternating wires of a balanced transmission line.
• Often the transmission line can be seen zig-zagging across the support
boom holding the elements.
• A common design element is to use two booms that also acts as the
transmission line, mounting the dipoles on the alternate booms. Other
forms of the log-periodic design replace the dipoles with the transmission
line itself, forming the log-periodic zig-zag antenna.
• Many other forms using the transmission wire as the active element also
exist.
• The operational freq band limit of LPDA is necessarily determined by the
freqs at which longest and shortest dipoles are half-wave resonant, i.e. L1
=λL/2 and LN = λU/2
• Where λL and λU are the WLs corresponding to the lower and upper
freqs limit.
• The longer dipole behind the most active dipole behaves as a relector and
the adjacent dipole in the front acts as a director. The radiation is then off
the apex.
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 68
 Log-periodic antenna, 250–2400 MHz

69
Log-periodic antenna, 400–4000 MHz N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 70
 Horn Antenna
• A waveguide, when excited at one end and open at the second end, radiates
poorly, b/c of open ckt large portion is reflected back towards excited end
(mismatch b/w the WG and free space). Apart form this diffraction around
edges will provide a poor radiation, and a nondirective radiation pattern.

• So Horn antenna may be regarded as a flared out or opened out waveguide at

second end to improve the radiation efficiency, directional pattern and
directivity.

• Horn antennas are extensively used at microwave freqs under the condition
that power gain needed is moderate. Horns are widely used as antennas
at UHF and microwave frequencies, above 300 MHz.

• For high power gain, since the horn dimensions becomes large, so the other
antenna like lens or parabolic reflector etc are preferred rather than horns.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 71

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 72
 Types of Horns

• Sectoral horn
• Pyramidal horn
• Conical horn
Sectoral horn is of two types: Conical horn
• 1. Sectoral H-plane horn
• 2. Sectoral E-plane horn

Sectoral H-plane horn

Pyramidal horn
Sectoral E-plane horn

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 73

• In sectoral horn flaring exists only in one direction

• If flaring is along the direction of electric field, it is called

sectoral E-plane horn, fig (b).

• If flaring is along the direction of magnetic field, it is called

sectoral H-plane horn, fig(c).

• If flaring is along E and H, it is called Pyramidal horn, fig (a).

• If the walls of a circular WG are flared out, a Conical horn is

obtained, fig (d). A horn in the shape of a cone, with a circular
cross section. They are used with cylindrical waveguides.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 74

 Design equations of horn antenna

θ
b l d axis

δ = path difference
l= axial length θ = 2 tan-1(d/2l)= 2 cos-1[l/(l+δ)] Eqn (1)
d= aperture dimension l= d2/(8 δ) Eqn (2)
θ =flare angle
Figure (1)

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 75

 d

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 76

• The function of the horn is to produce a uniform phase front with a larger
aperture in comparison to a WG and thus the directivity is greater.
• Although the principle of equality of path length is applicable to horn
design but in different sense i.e. Instead of specifying that the wave over
the phase of the horn mouth is in phase exactly, we allow that phase may
deviate but an amount less than the specified amount.
• Eqns (1) and (2) give the design eqns of the horn antenna.
• If flare angle θ is very large the wavefront on the mouth of the horn will
be curved rather than the plane wave. This will result in non-uniform
phase distribution over the aperture, resulting increased beam width
and decreased directivity.
• If the flare angle is small it will result in small aperture area for a specified
length, l.
• Thus there is optimum aperture angle given by Eqn (1).
• The maximum directivity is achieved at the largest flare angle for which δ
does not exceed a value.
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 77
• Typical values of δ are :
• 0.25λ for E-plane horn
• 0.32λfor conical horn,
• 0.40λ for H-plane horn.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 78

 HPBW of Optimum flared horns
Approximate formulae:

• φE = 56 λ/ dE, degrees
• φH = 66 λ/ dH, degrees
• φE = HPBW in E-plane
• φH = HPBW in H-plane
• dE = aperture in E-plane in free space wavelength.
• dH = aperture in H-plane in free space wavelength.
• Directivity of horn is D = 7.5 Aa/ λ2.
• Gp = 4.5 Aa/ λ2.
• Aa , physical area of horn mouth = dE × dH

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 79

 Microstrip antenna
• In spacecraft or aircraft applications, where size, weight, cost,
performance, ease of installation, and aerodynamic profile
are constraints, low profile antenna, microstrip or patch
antenna is used at freqs above 100 MHz.

• A patch antenna is a narrowband, wide-beam antenna

• It is fabricated by etching the antenna element pattern in

metal trace bonded to an insulating dielectric substrate, such
as a printed circuit board, with a continuous metal layer
bonded to the opposite side of the substrate which forms
a ground plane.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg.

80
• Common microstrip antenna shapes are square, rectangular,
circular and elliptical, but any continuous shape is possible.

• Some patch antennas do not use a dielectric substrate and

instead made of a metal patch mounted above a ground plane
using dielectric spacers; the resulting structure is less rugged
but has a wider bandwidth.

• Because such antennas have a very low profile, are

mechanically rugged and can be shaped to conform to the
curving skin of a vehicle, they are often mounted on the
exterior of aircraft and spacecraft, or are incorporated
into mobile radio communications devices (cellular phones).

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 81

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 82
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 83
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 84
 Rectangular patch
• The most commonly employed microstrip antenna is a rectangular patch.

• The rectangular patch antenna is approximately a λ/2 long section of

rectangular micro strip transmission line whose thickness t<<λ and h<<λ.

• When air is the antenna substrate, the length of the rectangular microstrip
antenna is approximately one-half of a free-space wavelength.

• As the antenna is loaded with a dielectric as its substrate, the length of the
antenna decreases as the relative dielectric constant of the substrate
increases.

• The resonant length of the antenna is slightly shorter because of the

extended electric "fringing fields" which increase the electrical length of
the antenna slightly.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 85

• Linear and circular polarization can be achieved with microstrip and arrays
of mocrostrip elements with single or multiple feeds may be used for
greater directivity.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 86

 Specifications

• The dielectric loading of a microstrip antenna affects both its radiation

pattern and impedance bandwidth.

• As the dielectric constant of the substrate increases, the antenna

bandwidth decreases which increases the Q factor of the antenna and
therefore decreases the impedance bandwidth

• The radiation from a rectangular microstrip antenna may be understood as

a pair of equivalent slots. These slots act as an array and have the highest
directivity when the antenna has an air dielectric and decreases as the
antenna is loaded by material with increasing relative dielectric constant.

• The half-wave rectangular microstrip antenna has a virtual shorting plane

along its center. This may be replaced with a physical shorting plane to
create a quarter-wavelength microstrip antenna. This is sometimes called
a half-patch. The antenna only has a single radiation edge (equivalent slot)
which lowers the directivity/gain of the antenna.
N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 87
 Questions
1. Discuss the effect of ground on antenna’s performance.
2. What is antenna top loading and tuning.
3. Determine the voltage induced in a frame aerial (loop antenna) that has
12 turns and is 1 m square. The incident wave of 100 μV/m field strength
and of 10 MHz frequency. The frame of the aerial is parallel to the
direction of propagation of the waves.
4. Obtain design data of a Rhombic antenna to operate at 30 MHz if the
angle of elevation is 10o, 30o, and 40o.
5. Obtain alignment design parameter of Rhombic antenna to operate at 30
MHz when the required elevation angle is 30o (take k= 0.74).
6. Explain design details of a rhombic antenna.
7. Explain resonant and non resonant antennas.
8. Give the methods of excitation of Tower Antenna.
9. Write short notes on Grounded and ungrounded antennas.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 88

10. A circular loop antenna with uniform in phase current has a diameter
D. What is (a) far field pattern (b) radiation resistance (c)
directivity when D=2λ.
11. Derive emf equation of loop antenna.
12. Give the design details of rhombic antenna. Give the directional
pattern and uses.
13. Explain rhombic antenna.
14. Explain loop antenna as a direction finder. How sense of direction is
determined in direction finding applications?
15. Explain night error in direction finding using loop antenna.
16. What is Yagi-Uda antenna? Design a 6 elements Yagi antenna to get
a directive gain of 12 dB.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 89

17. What is microstrip antenna? How it is made? And where it is used?
18. What is Log-periodic antenna? Mention important characteristics of
this antenna.
19. Design a log-periodic antenna to obtain a gain of 9 dB and to operate
over a frequency range of 125 MHz-500 MHz.
20. Why is an EM horn antenna a well matched antenna? At what
frequencies are such antenna used?
21. Why folded dipole is used in Yagi antenna?
22. What is Adcock antenna? Compare it with loop antenna.

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 90

Thank You

N.K.Dewangan, Professor, ETC, BIT, Durg. 91