Government College of Engineering,

Yavatmal.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Manufacturing Processes - I

UNIT 1

CASTING PROCESS
 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

CASTING
Introduction:
The metal casting industry plays a key role in all the major sectors of our economy. There are
castings in locomotives, cars, trucks, aircraft, factories, and everywhere. Metal casting is one
of the oldest manufacturing methods. In metal casting, metal is melted and poured into a
cavity and after solidification of the metal in the cavity, the metal takes the exact shape of the
cavity. The solidified object is then taken out from the cavity either by breaking the cavity or
taking the cavity apart. The solidified object is called the casting. The cavity is also known as
mould. The shape and size of the mould matches with the product requirement. However,
depending upon the shape complexity and the metal the size of the mould may differ with the
size of the product requirement. the mould into which the molten metal is poured is made of
heat resistant material. Sand, being the heat resistant, is the most often used material for
making the mould. However, permanent mould made of metal can also be used to cast
various products. This process allows to produce the complex parts in one go.

Advantages:

The metal casting process is widely used in casting because of following advantages.

1. Very thin sections, because of the flow ability of the liquid metal, can be cast by the
metal casting process, which otherwise are difficult to produce by other shaping
processes.
2. Intricate and complex shapes can be made by this process.
3. Any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous can be cast.
4. The tooling required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result,
for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.
5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this
way.
6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.
7. Metal casting is a process highly adaptable to the requirements of mass production.

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 2

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Limitations:

1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by casting processes are
a limitation to this technique. Many new casting processes have been developed which can
take into consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of
these processes are die casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed
molding process, and shell molding process.
2. The metal casting process is a labour intensive process

History:

The history of metal casting reaches back almost 5,000 years BC. A brief development of
metal casting technology is given below:

3200 B.C. A frog made from copper metal, the oldest known casting in existence, was cast in
Mesopotamia.

233 B.C. Cast iron plowshares are poured in China.

500 A.D. Cast crucible steel was first produced in India

1455 The cast iron pipe to transport the water was used in Dillenburg Castle in Germany.

1480 The Vannoccio Biringuccio "father of the foundry industry," in Italy is the first man to
document the foundry process.

1709 The first foundry flask for sand and loam molding was created by Englishman Abraham
Darby. 1809 A. G. Eckhardt of Soho, England developed the Centrifugal casting process.

1896 American Foundrymen's Association (Now American Foundrymen's Society) was

formed.

1897 B.F. Philbrook of Iowa rediscovered the Investment casting process. Though the roots
of investment casting process can be traced when bronze dancing girl found at Mohen-jo-
daro around 3000 BC .

1947 The Shell process was invented by J. Croning of Germany during WWII.

1958 H.F. Shroyer was granted a patent for the full mold process.

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 3

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

1968 The Coldbox process was introduced by L. Toriello and J. Robins for high production
core making.

1971 The Japanese developed V-Process molding. This method uses unbounded sand and the
sand was bind by vacuum.

Applications:

Fig 01: Metal Cast Part

Casting Terminology:

Fig 02: Casting Terminology

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 4

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

 Flask or molding box: A frame made of metal or wood or plastic, in which the mold is formed.
Lower molding flask is known as drag, upper molding flask as cope.
 Pattern: The replica of the object to be cast is known as pattern. The cavity in the mould is created
with the help of the pattern.
 Parting line: The dividing line between the two molding boxes that makes up the mold.
 Molding sand: Sand, which is sued for making the mould is called as molding sand. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions. The molding sand must
possess various properties such as permeability, flow ability, cohesive strength, etc.
 Facing sand: In order to give a better surface finish to the casting, a small amount of fine
carbonaceous material, known as facing sand, is usually sprinkled on the paring surfaces of the
molding boxes.
 Core: The part of mold, made of sand, used to create openings and various shaped cavities in the
castings.
 Pouring basin: A funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is
poured.
 Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal flows from the pouring basin, and reaches the
mold cavity. It controls the flow of metal into the mold.
 Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
 Gate: A passageway through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
 Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity. The chaplets are used to
prevent the core against buckling or metallostatic pressure.
 Riser: The shapes of the Risers are like a sprue, which are placed at that part of the casting which
is solidified in the last. the risers takes care of the shrinkage of the solidifying metal.
 Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
 Drag: The bottom half of a horizontally parted mold.
 Cope: The top half of a horizontally parted mold.
 Draft: Slight taper given to a pattern to allow drawing from the sand.

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 5

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Steps in Making Casting:

1. Pattern Making
2. Core making
3. Moulding
4. Melting & Pouring
5. Fettling & cleaning
6. Testing & inspection

 Pattern Making:
The pattern is a physical model of the end product to be produced by metal casting process. It
is an replica of the cast product. Several features depending upon the requirement of the end
product and the type of metal are added in the pattern with an aim to produce a right casting.
The pattern produced is used in the development of the mould to make the cavity in which the
molten metal is filled through sprue and ingates.

 Core Making:
Hollow castings can be produced with the help of introducing the core in the cavity produced
in the mold. Cores are usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to form the
interior surfaces of castings.

 Moulding:
Mold production is initiated by placing the pattern in the mould box and then the pattern is
packed in sand aggregate. The sand aggregate consists of sand, binder and moisture. The sand
aggregate is then rammed to make the mould dense and vents are produced, on the top surface
of the mould, to let the gases generated after pouring the metal to escape.

 Melting & Pouring:

The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting and once the
metal is melted, it is poured in the molding box to produce the casting. However, depending
upon the requirement, molten metal may or may not be treated or refined before pouring.

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 6

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

 Fettling & Cleaning:

Fettling is nothing but removing all the unwanted attachments or the portions which are attach
to the cast product. In this case, the provisions for either breaking the extra attachment or
cutting these attachments by flames or by electric torches. For cleaning, liquid solvent based
agents or solid particles of iron sorts they also are used, that is by short blasting you may use
sand also like sand blasting.

 Testing & Inspection:

Before go for packaging, the final casting has been gone through testing & inspection. It is
essential to ensure that surface finished, cleaned product is metallurgical ok. The product
must be free from any casting defects. To find out defects, different techniques are used to
determine defects in casting.

Patterns:
The pattern is not the exact replica of the object to be made by metal casting process but some
modifications are provided on the pattern to take care of various process aspects such as
shrinkage, hot tear, distortion, stress, core seat etc. For a hollow casting core patterns are
needed to produce. The pattern can be made out of various materials. The cost of the pattern is
reflected on the cost of the casting. Hence use of expensive pattern should be limited to the
case when a large quantities of castings need to be produced.

Functions of Pattern:
 A pattern is used to prepare a mold cavity.
 For hollow casting core prints are added to the pattern to support the core in the mould cavity.
 Gates, Riser, and channels may become the part of the casting. However, in most of the cases
they are not an integral part of the pattern.
 Efforts should be made to provide all allowances in a proper manner on the pattern and the
surface of the pattern need to be made smooth. It results into less casting defects and low cost.
 A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.

Materials used for Pattern:

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 7

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Some key factors are in mind before choosing a material for the pattern:

 The materials used in the pattern should be cheap in cost and easily available in the market
 The materials should have good surface finish.
 The material should have withstood high temperatures and does not change its shape at high
temperatures.

Generally 5 different types of materials are used to make pattern.

 Wood
 Metal
 Plaster of Paris
 Plastic
 Wax

Wood:

Woods are easily available and price of the wood is quite low compare to other materials, so it satisfy
the key factors which are used for pattern making.

Advantages of using wood as a pattern material are:

1. Wood is light in weight.

2. Easily available in market.
3. It can be machined into any shape.
4. It has a good surface finish.

However wood is attracted to moisture and sometimes it can change shape on high
temperature or after dry out from moisture, this is an important con of using wood as a

pattern. Not only this reason woods are very weak in strength, and it wears out quickly due to
its low resistance to sand abrasion.
To avoid the problem due to moisture, seasoning of wood is done to control the
percentage of moisture inside wood before used as a pattern.
Due to its weak strength & quick wearing out property, it is not used for very big
casting.
Generally pine, teak, deodar, walnut & mahogany woods are used as pattern
materials. Among the natural woods, seasoned mahogany wood is the best choice for pattern
where large number of casting is required.

Metals & alloys:

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 8

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

In metals, cast iron, brass, aluminium are generally used in patterns. It gives smooth surface finish;
this is the only reason that metals are used in large production casting workshops.

Advantages of using metal patterns are:

 Expensive but more dimensionally stable & durable.

 Used where repetitive production of casting is required in mass production.
 Deformation is less.
 Smooth surface finish.

Although there are some disadvantages of using this type of pattern like it is expensive, heavy,
sometimes rusting effect occurred on the surfaces of the metals.

Plaster of Paris:

Gypsum plaster i.e. plaster of paris mixed with correct quantity of water forms hard mass with high
compressive strength. Plaster expands on solidification, thus by choosing plaster of proper expansion
ratio it is possible to offset shrinkage of casting.

The main advantage is that it can cast into intricate shape. However, it is not for repetitive
usage as it is fragile.

Plastics:

Different types of plastics are nowadays used in pattern because of their lighter weight, strength,
dimensional stability, resistance to wear & abrasion and also for less cost. Thermoplastics and
polystyrene are commonly used for making patterns and thermosetting plastics such as phenolic and
epoxies are also used in a pattern.

There are few advantages of using pattern and those are:

 Light in weight
 Less expensive
 Good compressive strength
 Free from moisture.

However, they have less strength and not good abrasion resistant.

Wax:

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 9

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

A wax pattern used in the investment casting process. Paraffin wax, bees waxes are coated with other

material to achieved desired properties. However it needs little care handling otherwise it can be
broken, and it is used in small casting.

Types of Pattern:

Various types of patterns used in metal castings are:

1. Single piece pattern

2. Split or two piece pattern
3. Match plate pattern
4. Cope & Drag pattern
5. Gated pattern
6. Sweep pattern
7. Skeleton pattern
8. Loose piece pattern

Single piece pattern:

The single piece or one piece pattern is inexpensive than all other types of patterns. This type of
pattern is used for relatively simple shapes & does not create any withdrawal problem. It is frequently
used in prototype development & very small scale production. This type of pattern is expected to be
entirely in the drag & for easy removal of pattern, one of the surface should be flat so that it can be
used as parting line.

Fig 03: Single piece pattern

Split or two piece pattern

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 10

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Split pattern is most common in metal casting industries. The pattern is split along parting surface; the
position of the slip is determined by the shape of casting. One half of the pattern is mould into the
cope & other one is in drag. The two halves of the pattern must be aligned properly by the use of
dowel pins, which are fitted in the cope half of the pattern. These dowel pins precisely match with the
holes provided in drag surface.

Used when it is difficult to withdraw pattern from the mould because of the shape of the
casting or when the depth of the casting is too high. Also, used for intricate shape casting.

Fig 04: Split or Two piece pattern

Match plate pattern:

When there is requirement of large scale production of small size casting, match plate pattern is good

alternative. Match plate pattern requires less time the location of the pattern inside cope & drag. This
pattern is made in two halves and is on mounted on the opposite sides of a wooden or metallic plate,
known as match plate. The gates and runners are also attached to the plate. Both the cope & drag can
be manufactured simultaneously with the help of match plate pattern. Higher dimensional accuracy
can be achieved.

Fig 05: Match plate pattern

Cope & Drag Pattern:

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 11

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

This pattern is similar to split piece pattern. In this case, cope and drag part of the mould are prepared
separately. This is done when the complete mould is too heavy to be handled by one operator. The
pattern is made up of two halves, which are mounted on different plates. For large quantities to be
produced cope & drag halves of split pattern are attached to separate metal or wooden plates. Used for
mass production & continuous production.

Fig 06: Cope & Drag pattern

Gated Pattern:

In the mass production of casings, multi cavity moulds are used. Such moulds are formed by joining a
number of patterns and gates and providing a common runner for the molten metal. These patterns are
made of metals, and metallic pieces to form gates and runners are attached to the pattern.

Fig 07: Gated Pattern

Sweep Pattern:

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 12

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular moulds of symmetric kind by revolving a sweep
attached to a spindle. Actually a sweep is a template of wood or metal and is attached to the spindle at
one edge and the other edge has a contour depending upon the desired shape of the mould. The pivot
end is attached to a stake of metal in the center of the mould. Suitable for large castings like bells &
for ornamental purpose.

Fig 08: Sweep pattern

Skeleton Pattern:

When only a small number of large and heavy castings are to be made, it is not economical to make a
solid pattern. In such cases, however, a skeleton pattern may be used. This is a ribbed construction of
wood which forms an outline of the pattern to be made. This frame work is
filled with loam sand and rammed. The surplus sand is removed by strickle board. For
round shapes, the pattern is made in two halves which are joined with glue or by means of screws etc.

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 13

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Fig 09: Skeleton Pattern

Loose Piece Pattern:

Loose piece pattern is used when pattern is difficult for with drawl from the mould. Loose
pieces are provided on the pattern and they are the part of pattern. The main pattern is removed first le
aving the loose piece portion of the pattern in the mould. Finally the loose piece is withdrawal
separately leaving the intricate mould.

Fig 10: Loose piece pattern

Cooling & Soldification:

 Solidification of Pure metal:

Transformation of molten metal back into solid state .Solidification differs depending on
whether the metal is a pure element or an alloy. A pure metal solidifies at a constant
temperature equal to its freezing point same as melting point. The cooling curve of pure metal
is shown in the fig.

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 14

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Fig. 11: Cooling curve of pure metal

 The solidification occurs at prescribed time duration. In local solidification time, the molten
metal heat of fusion is delivered into mould. First liquid cooling occurs till freezing start. The
solidification occurs at time duration. Even after solidification is over, solid cooling occurs at
a particular rate.
 The grain structure in pure metals depends on the heat transfer in the mould & thermal
properties of metal. The mould wall acts as a chiller & hence solidification start first in the
molten metal closer to the mould wall. A thin skin of solid metal is first formed near the
mould wall. Skin thickness increases to form a shell around the molten metal as solidification
progresses.
 When the solidification continues inwardly, heat is removed through mould wall & thin solid
skin. Here the grain grows as needles with preferred orientation. As these needles enlarge,
side branches develop, and as these branches grow, further branches formed right angle to
first branch. This type of grain growth is referred as dendritic growth.

Fig 12: Solidification in Pure metals.

Solidification of Alloy:

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 15

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Fig 13: Cooling curve in Alloys

 In alloys, solidification will not occur at particular temperature. It happens at temperature

range. This range depends upon the alloy composition.
 Solidification occurs between liquidus line & solidus line. Freezing starts at liquidus
temperature & ends at solidus temperature. A skin layer is formed at mold end & dendrites
grow in a similar fashion normal to the mold wall.
 However, because of the temperature difference between liquidus & solidus line, the nature
of the dendritic growth is such that an advancing zone is formed in which both liquid & solid
metal exist together. The solid portions are the dendrite structures that have formed
sufficiently to hold the small regions of liquid metal in the matrix.
 As the solidification continues & dendrites grow, an imbalance in composition between
solidified metal & remaining molten metal will develop. This composition imbalance will
finally result in segregation of the elements. Segregation of the element can be microscopic &
macroscopic.

Fig 13: Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting, showing segregation of

alloying components in center of casting

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 16

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Solidification Time:
 Solidification takes time.

 Total solidification time TST = time required for casting to solidify after pouring

 TST depends on size and shape of casting by relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule

 where TST = total solidification time; V = volume of the casting; A = surface area of casting;
n = exponent usually taken to have a value = 2; and Cm is mold constant .

 Cm depends on mold material, thermal properties of casting metal, and pouring temperature
relative to melting point.

 Value of Cm for a given casting operation can be based on experimental data from previous
operations carried out using same mold material, metal, and pouring temperature, even though
the shape of the part may be quite different.

 A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio cools and solidifies more slowly than
one with a lower ratio. To feed molten metal to main cavity, TST for riser must greater than
TST for main casting. Since riser and casting mold constants will be equal, design the riser to
have a larger volume-to-area ratio so that the main casting solidifies first.

Pattern Allowances:

Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting.
Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified in the
finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be made. The
selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid rejections. The
allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows:

1. Shrinkage Allowance
2. Draft Allowance
3. Machining Allowance
4. Distortion Allowance
5. Shake Allowance

Shrinkage Allowance:

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 17

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

The various metals used for casting contract after solidification in the mold. Since,
contraction is different for different materials; therefore, it will differ with the form or type of metal.
Major three stages in shrinkage:
 Liquid shrinkage
 Solidification shrinkage
 Solid shrinkage

Liquid shrinkage:
It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state to solid state at
the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the
casting, is provided in the mold.

Fig 14: Liquid shrinkage

Solid Shrinkage:
Two effects are seen in this stage. First, contraction causes further reduction in the height of casting.
Second effect, top centre portion is the last to get freezed. The amount of liquid metal present to feed
the top centre portion of the casting becomes restricted. Absence of metal in this region creates a void
in the casting. This will converted into shrinkage cavity. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is
provided on pattern.

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 18

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Fig 15: Solid shrinkage

Draft Allowance or Taper Allowance:

When pattern is drawn from the mould, there is always a possibility of damaging the edges of
mould cavity. Draft is a taper provided on the vertical surface of the pattern to facilitate easy removal
of pattern from the mould cavity.
The amount of draft provided is depend on:
 Shape & size of the casting
 Depth of casting
 Moulding method
 Moulding material

Generally, the size of draft is 5 to 30 mm per meter or average 20 mm per meter. But draft sufficiently
large, if permissible, will make mould easier. The taper or draft provided generally 1 0 to 20

Fig 16: Draft Allowance

Machining or finishing Allowance:

The allowance provided on the pattern to take care of dimensional accuracy & surface finish
of the end product is known as machining or finishing allowance. This allowance is given in addition
to shrinkage allowance. Sand casting, in general, provides poor surface finish. In order to achieve
desired surface finish, the casting needs to be machined. The allowance to take care of extra metal
removed to achieve the surface finish is called machining allowance.

Machining allowance is given due to following reason:

 Castings get oxidized inside the mould due to heat treatment. Scale thus formed required to be
removed.
 For removing surface roughness, slag, dirt & other imperfections from the casting.

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 19

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

 For obtaining exact dimensioning on casting.

 To achieve desired surface finish on the casting.

Machining allowance depends upon following factors:

 Method of machining used like turning, grinding, boring etc.

 Characteristics of metal. Ferrous or non ferrous material.
 Method of casting used. Centrifugal casting requires more allowance on the inner side. Die
casting need little machining, sand casting requires more.
 Size & shape of the casting. For long castings, greater allowance is required. Thicker sections
are tends to solidify late & impurities tend to collect there. These requirements needed more
machining allowance.
 Degree of finish required. A high degree of finishing requires more machining allowance.

Fig 17: Machining or Finishing Allowance

Distortion or Camber Allowance:

The distortion in casting can also happen due to its typical shape. For example, if the casting
has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at the closed end causing the
vertical legs to look slightly inclined. This can be prevented by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L
shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the casting after distortion will have its sides
vertical. This allowance is known as distortion or camber allowance.

The distortion in the casting, because of the shape of the casting may occur due to internal
stresses, which are developed due to unequal cooling of different section of the casting and hindered
contraction. Measures taken to prevent the distortion in casting include:

 Modification of casting design

 Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect
 Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion allowance

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 20

 Manufacturing Processes – I H.V.Ingole

Fig 18: Distortion Allowance

Rapping or Shaking Allowance:

When a pattern is removed from the molding sand aggregate, the pattern is rapped all around
its vertical sides. This rapping is done to enlarge the mold cavity on its vertical sides so that pattern
removal from the mould becomes smooth. Since it enlarges the final casting made, the pattern made
initially should be smaller in size. There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is
highly dependent on foundry personnel practice involved. It is a negative allowance & is to be applied
only to those dimensions that are parallel to the parting line.

GCOE Yavatmal (Mechanical Engineering Department) Page 21