APPLIED MATHEMATICS II

CHAPTER-1: SEQUENCE AND SERIES

1.1. DEFINITION AND TYPES OF SEQUENCE

SEQUENCE

Asequence is a function whose domain is the collection of all integers greater than or equal to a
given integer m (usually 0 or 1) where as the range may be any set S.

REAL SEQUENCE

A real sequence is a function whose domain is the collection of all integers greater than or equal
to a given integer m (usually 0 or 1) where as the range is a subset of the set R of real

numbers.For example, f ( n )=(−1 )nforn ≥ 1, g ( n )= ()

1 n
2
forn ≥ 0,h ( n ) =n2 forn ≥ 3are sequences.

∞ ∞
If f ( n )=a nfor n ≥ m, then we would write { a n }n=m for the sequence. The symboln in{ a n }n=m is called
an index and m is called the initial index.

RANGE OF A SEQUENCE

The set of all distinct terms of a sequence is called its range.

Note: In a sequence { a n }, the number of terms of a sequence is always infinite. The range of a
∞
sequence may be a finite set. For example, ifa n=(−1 ) , then{ a n }n=1= {−1 , 1,−1 ,1 , … }.The range
n

of sequence { a n }= {−1 , 1 }, which is a finite set.

CONSTANT SEQUENCE

A sequence{ a n } defined by a n=c ∈ R for all n is called a constant sequence. Thus

{a n }= { c , c , c , … } is a constant sequence withrange= { c }, a singleton.

1
BOUNDED AND UNBOUNDED SEQUENCE

The sequence { a n } is said to be bounded if and only if there exists a real number M such that

|an|≤ M for each n .

That is, if the range of the sequence is bounded.

The sequence is said to be unbounded if and only if it is not bounded.

Examples:(a) The sequence

n { }
(−1 )n
is bounded, since
(−1 )n
n | |
≤ 1 for each positive integer n .

(b) The sequence {(−1 )n n } is not bounded.

(c) Every constant sequence is bounded.

CONVERGENT SEQUENCE

A sequence { a n } is said to converge to the real number l if and only if for each ε > 0, there exists a
real number N >0 ( N depending onε ) such that

|an−l|< ε ∀ n> N .

The real number l is called the limit of the sequence { a n }.

The sequence { a n } is said to be convergent if and only if there is a real number l such that { a n }
converges tol .

The sequence { a n } is said to be divergent or to diverge if and only if it is not convergent.

Example:By definition show that the sequence {1n } converges to 0.

1
Solution: Let ε > 0 be given, and choose a real number N such that N= .Then forn> N , we have
ε

|1n −0|= 1n < N1 =ε. Hence lim 1n =0.

n→∞

2
Theorem: Every convergent sequence has a unique limit OR a sequence cannot converge to
more than one limit.

∞
Example: Show that the sequence {(−1 )n }n=1diverges.
n
Solution: We have (−1 ) = {
1 for n even
−1 for n odd
.

If l ≥0 , then for odd values of n we have |(−1 )n −l|=|−1−l|≥1 But if l<0, then for even values

of n we have |(−1 )n −l|=|1−l|≥ 1.

Consequently, for any ε such that 0< ε ≤1, there is no number l satisfying the definition of
convergent sequence.

DIVERGENT SEQUENCE
(i)A sequence { a n } is said to diverge to ∞ if given any positive real number M , there exists a
positive integer N (depending on M ) such that
a n> M ∀ n ≥ N

and we write nlim

→∞
an =∞ .

(ii) A sequence { a n } is said to diverge to −∞ if given any positive real number M , there exists
a positive integer N (depending on M ) such that
a n<−M ∀ n ≥ N

and we write nlim

→∞
an =−∞ .

(iii) A sequence{ a n } is said to be a divergent sequence if it diverges to + ∞ or −∞ .

That is, a n → ∞ or a n →−∞.
Examples:(a) The sequences{ n } and { n 2 } diverge to ∞ .

(b) The sequences{−n } and {−n2 } diverge to −∞ .

3
 ∞
Theorem: Let{ a n }n=mbe a sequence,and f be a function defined on[ m , ∞¿ such that

f ( n )=a n for n ≥ m.

If lim f ( x )=∞(¿−∞), then { a }∞ diverges and lim a n=∞ (¿−∞ ). Thus

x→ ∞ n n=m x→ ∞

lim a n=lim f (x) .

x→ ∞ x→ ∞

∞
Example: Show that the sequence { n 2 }n=1 diverges.

Solution: Let f ( x )=x 2 for x ≥1. Then f ( n )=n2 for n ≥1. Since lim x 2 ¿ ∞, we conclude that
x→ ∞

2
lim n ¿ ∞ . Hence, the sequence { n 2 }∞ diverges.
x→ ∞ n=1

OSCILLATORY SEQUENCES

If a sequence { a n } neither converges to a finitenumber nor diverges to + ∞ or −∞ , it is called an

oscillatory sequence. For example, the sequences {(−1 )n } and {(−1 )n n } are oscillatory sequences.

NULL SEQUENCE

A sequence { a n } is said to be a null sequence if it converges to zero. That is,nlim

→∞
an =0. For

example, the sequences {1n },{ n1 },{ 21 } and {√ n+1−√ n}are null sequences.
2 n

MONOTONIC SEQUENCES

∞
(i) A sequence { a n }n=m is said to be increasing if and only if a n ≤ an +1 ∀ n ≥ m.
That is, a m ≤ a m+1 ≤ a m+2 ≤ ….

{ } { }
∞ ∞
1 n
For example, the sequences 1− and are increasing.
n n=1 n+ 1 n=1

∞
(ii) A sequence { a n }n=m is said to be decreasing if and only if a n ≥ an +1 ∀ n ≥ m.
That is, a m ≥ a m+1 ≥ a m+2 ≥ ….

{ } {}
∞ ∞
1 1
For example, the sequences 1+ and are decreasing.
n n=1 n n=1

4
 ∞
(iii) A sequence{ a n }n=m which is either increasing or decreasing is called a monotonic sequence.

{ } { } {}
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1
For example, the sequences 1− , sin and are monotonic.
n n=1 n n=1 n n=1

∞
Note that a sequence need not be increasing or decreasing. For example, the sequence {(−1 )n }n=m
is neither increasing nor decreasing because it oscillates between 1 and −1.

Theorem: If { a n } is a monotone bounded sequence, then it is convergent.

1.2. PROPERTIES OF CONVERGENT SEQUENCES

∞ ∞ ∞
Let { a n }n=m and { b n }n=m be convergent sequences. Then the sum { a n+ bn }n =m , any scalar multiple

{}
∞
an
(provided nlim bn ≠ 0) all converge, with
∞ ∞
{k a }
n n=m , product { a n b }
n n=m and the quotient
bn →∞
n=m

(i) nlim
→∞
k a n=k lim an
n→∞

(ii) nlim ( a n ± bn ) =lim an ± lim b n

→∞ n →∞ n→ ∞

(iii) n→∞ (
lim an b n= lim an lim bn
n →∞ )( n→ ∞ )
lim an
an n→ ∞
(iv) lim =
n → ∞ bn lim bn
n→ ∞

{ }
2
n π
Example: Use the above theorem to prove that the sequence sin is convergent and
2 n+1 n
find the limit of the sequence.
n2 π n π
Solution: sin = n sin
2n+ 1 n 2 n+1 n

We see that the sequence {2 n+1

n
} is convergent and lim 2 n+1
n 1
=¿ ¿ and also the sequence
2 n→∞

{n sin πn } is convergent andlim n sin πn =π .

n→∞

5
Therefore, lim
n→∞ [ n
2 n+ 1
π
]
n sin = lim
n π 1
lim n sin = π . Thus the given sequence is
n n→ ∞ 2 n+1 n → ∞ n 2
π
convergent and its limit is .
2
Theorem:The SqueezingTheorem for Sequences

Ifnlim
→∞
an =lim bn and { c } ∞ is any sequence such that a ≤ c ≤ b for n ≥ m, then { c } ∞
n →∞ n n=m n n n n n=m

converges, and moreover

lim an =lim bn= lim cn .
n→∞ n →∞ n→ ∞

Examples:
sin2 n
1. Show that lim =0.
n→∞ n
Solution: We know that −1 ≤sin n ≤ 1. This implies that 0 ≤ sin 2 n≤ 1.
2
sin n 1
⟹0≤ ≤ .
n n

Since nlim 0=0 and lim 1 =0, it follows from the squeezing theorem for sequences that
→∞ n→∞ n

2
sin n
lim =0.
n→∞ n

ln n
2. Show that lim =0.
n→∞ n
1 1
Solution: For t >0, we have ≤ , so that
t √t
n n
1 1
|
ln n=∫ dt ≤∫ dt=2 √ t n =2 ( √ n−1 ) ≤2 √ n .
1 t 1 √t 1
ln n 2 √ n 2 0=0 and lim 2 =0, it follows from the squeezing
Therefore,0 ≤ ≤ = . Since nlim
n n n → ∞ n → ∞ √n

ln n
theorem for sequences that lim =0.
n→∞ n

3.
cos n
n
→ 0 because
n | |
cos n |cos n| 1
=
n
≤ .
n
1 1 1
4. → 0because n ≤ .
2 n
2 n

6
5. (−1 )
n 1
n |1 1
| 1
→0 because (−1 )n ≤ and clearly → 0.
n n n
Example: Using L’Hopital’s rule show that

{ }
l nn
{( ) }
n
(a) is converges to 0 n+1
n (b) is converges to 2
n−1
Solution:
1

x→ ∞ x ∞ ( x→∞ 1
)
(a) lim l nx ∞ form =lim x =0.⟹ lim ¿ l nn =0 ¿ . Thus,
x→∞ n
l nn
n
is converges to 0 . { }
⟹ lim
n →∞
l nn
n
=0. Thus,
l nn
n { }
is converges to 0 .

( ) ( )
x
x+ 1 x +1
(b) Let f ( x )= . Then l n f ( x )=x l n .
x−1 x−1

⟹ lim x l n (
x−1 )
x +1
( ∞ .0 form )
x→∞

lim l n ( x−1
x +1
) 0 form = lim 2 x =2(U sing L ’ Hopital ’ s rule).
2

⟹
x→ ∞

1 ( 0 ) x −1 x→∞
2

{( ) }
n
l n f ( x )=2 ,then lim f ( x )=e
lim l nf (x)
n+1
Since lim
2
x→∞
=e . Thus, converges to e 2.
x→ ∞ x→ ∞ n−1
∞ ∞
Theorem: (a) If { a n }n=m converges, then { a n }n=m is bounded.
∞ ∞
(b) If { a n }n=mis unbounded, then { a n }n=m diverges.
∞
Note:(i).A bounded sequence may diverge. For example, {(−1 )n }n=1 is bounded but it is not
convergent.
(ii). Abounded monotonic sequence is convergent.

{ }
∞
2n
Example: Prove that the sequence is convergent.
n! n=1

Solution: The elements of the given sequence are:

7
 1 2 3 4 n n+1 n n+1
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2
, , , ,⋯ , , ,…=2 ,2 , , , … , , … , ,⋯
1! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! n ! ( n+1 ) ! 3 3 n! ( n+1 ) !
We see that a 1=a2 ≥ a3 ≥ a 4 , and so the given sequence may be decreasing.If a n ≥ an +1, i.e.,
2n 2 n+1
⟺ 2 ( n+1 ) ! ≥ ( 2 ) n !⟺ 2 ( n+1 ) n ! ≥2 ( 2 n! ) ⟺n+ 1≥ 2.
n n +1 n n
≥
n ! ( n+1 ) !
If n=1, then 2=2and ifn ≥ 2, then the sequence is decreasing and hence monotonic. Since

|| { }
n ∞
2 n 2n
≤2 for all , we conclude that the sequence is bounded. Thus, the sequence is
n! n! n=1

bounded monotonic sequence. Therefore, it is convergent.

1.3. SUBSEQUENCE AND LIMIT POINTS

Let { a n } be a given sequence. If { n k } is a strictly increasing sequence of natural numbers (i.e.,
n1 <n 2< n3 <… ¿, then { an } is called a subsequence of { a n }.
k

Examples:
∞
(i) The sequence{ 1 ,3 ,5 , } , { 2, 4 , 6 , … } ,and{ 1 ,5 , 9 , … } areall subsequences of the sequence{ n }n =1 .

(ii) { a 2 n } , { a2 n−1 } , { an } are all subsequences of a sequence { a n } .

2

Remark:
(a) If { u n }is subsequenceof{ a n }and{ v n }is a subsequence of { u n }, then{ v n } is a subsequence of { a n } .
(b) Every sequence is a subsequence of itself.
A real number l is called a limit point of a sequence { a n } if and only if every neighborhood of l
contains infinitely many terms of the sequence.
That is, there exists ε > 0 such that { a n } ∩ ((l−ε , l+ ε )¿ {l¿}) ≠ ∅ .
Note:
a) Limit point of a sequence is different from limit of a sequence.
b) If for a n , ε> 0 , an ∈ ( l−ε ,l+ε ) for finitely many values of n , then l cannot bea limit point of
{a n }.
c) Limit point of a sequence need not be a terms of a sequence.

For example, 0 is a limit point of the sequence {1n }.

Example: Show that the sequence {(−1 )n } has two limit points.

8
Solution: Let a n=(−1 )n, then a n= {
−1 w h en n is odd
1 w h en nis even
Thus every neighborhood of −1 contains all the odd terms (since each ¿−1) of sequence.
Therefore −1 is a limit point of the sequence.
Also, every neighborhood of 1 contains all the even terms (since each ¿ 1) of sequence. Therefore
1 is a limit point of the sequence.
Example: Show that the sequence{ n } has no limit point.
1
Solution:Let l be anyreal number, then the neighborhood l− ,l+
4
1
4 ( )
of l contains at most one

term of the sequence { n }. Hence,l is not a limit point of the sequence { n }.

1.4. DEFINITION OF INFINITE SERIES

∞
If{ a n }n=1 is a sequence of numbers (complex or real), then the expression of the form
∞
a 1+ a2+ ⋯+ an +⋯=∑ a n
n=1

(i.e., the sum of the terms of the sequence, which is infinite) is called an infinite series.
The numbers a 1 , a2 , a3 , ⋯ are called the terms of the series.
The sum of the first n terms is
n
Sn=a1 +a2 + ⋯+a n=∑ a k.
k=1

∞
This expression is called the n partial sum of the series∑ an=a1+ a2 +⋯ +an + ⋯.
th

n =1

S1=a1 S4 =a1 + a2+ a3

S2=a1+ a2 .
S3=a1 +a2 +a 3 .
.
n
Sn=a1 +a2 +a 3+ ⋯+ an=∑ ak .
k =1

9
S1 , S 2 , S 3 , S 4 , … are the first, second, third, fourth,… partial sums of the series.Thus { Sn } ∞n=1 is
∞
called the sequence of partial sums of the infinite series ∑ an. Therefore, to every infinite
n =1

∞
series ∑ an, there corresponds a sequence{ Sn } of its partial sums.
n =1

10
Example: Compute the fourth partial sum for each of the following series.

∑( )
∞ ∞ ∞
1 n
(−1 )n
a) ∑1 c)
3
e) ∑ n
n =1 n =1 n =1

∞ ∞
b) ∑n d) ∑ (−1 )n
n =1 n =1

1.5. CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE, PROPERTIES OF CONVERGENT SERIES.

CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE OF SERIES

An infinite series converges or diverges according as the sequence { Sn } of partial sums
converges or diverges.
Definitions:
∞
(i) The series ∑ an converges (or is said to be convergent) if the sequence { Sn } of its partial
n =1

∞
sums converges. Thus,∑ an is convergent if nlim
→∞
S n=finite .
n =1

If nlim
→∞
S n=S , then the number S is called its value or sum, and we write

∞
S=∑ an =a1 +a2 + a3+ ⋯ .
n=1

∞
(ii) The series ∑ an diverges (or is said to be divergent) if the sequence { Sn }of its partial sums
n =1

∞
diverges. Thus,∑ an is divergent if nlim
→∞
S n=+ ¿ ∞(¿−∞)¿.
n =1

Example:Discuss the convergence or otherwise of the series

∞
1 1 1 1 1
+ + +…+ =∑ .
1(2) 2( 3) 3(4 ) n( n+1) n=1 n( n+1)
1 1 1
Solution:Here a n= = − for n ≥ 1. Putting n=1 ,2 , 3 , … ,n , we have
n(n+1) n n+1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a 1=1− , a2= − , a 3= − ,. . . , an−1= − , an= − .
2 2 3 3 4 n−1 n n n+1

11
Hence, Sn=a1 +a2 +a 3+ ⋯+ an−1+ an

( 12 )+( 12 − 13 )+( 13 − 14 )+…+( n−1

¿ 1−
1
− )+ ( −
1
n n n+1 )
1 1
.

1
Thus, Sn=1− .
n+1

Since nlim
→∞
S n=1, it follows that the given series converges and the sum is 1. That is,

∞
1
∑ n( n+1) =lim Sn =1.
n→∞
n =1

∞
1
Note: (i) The series ∑ is called a telescoping series because when we write the
n =1 n( n+1)
partial sums, all except the first and last terms cancel.
∞
1 1 1 1
(ii) The series ∑ =1+ + + +⋯ is known as harmonic series.
n =1 n 2 3 4
∞
1
Example: Show that the series ∑ diverges.
n =1 n

Solution: Observe that

1
S2 =S2 =1+ ;
1
2

2
1 1 1
2 3 4
1 1 1
S2 =S 4=1+ + + ≥1+ + + =1+2
2 4 4
1
2
; ()
3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S2 =S 8=1+ + + + + + + ≥ 1+ + + + + + + =1+3
2 4 4 8 8 8 8
1
2
. ()
In general,
1 1 1
2 3 4 ( )(
1 1 1 1
5 6 7 8
1
2 +1 ) (
1
S2 =1+ + + + + + + + …+ n−1 + …+ n
n

2 )
1 1 1
2 4 4
1 1 1 1
8 8 8 8 (
≥ 1+ +( + ) + ( + + + )+…+ +…+
1
2 2 )
1
n n

¿ 1+n ( 12 ).
Since lim 1+n
n→∞ [ ( )]
1
2
=∞ , it follows that the sequence { Sn } of partial sums is unbounded.

∞
1
Hence, ∑ diverges.
n =1 n

12
A DIVERGENCE TEST
∞
Theorem:If the infinite series ∑ an is converges, then nlim
→∞
an =0.
n =1

∞
Proof: Let { Sn } be the sequence of partial sums for ∑ anand lim Sn =S . Therefore,
x→ ∞
n =1

ε ε
∀ ε >0 , ∃ Ν > 0 such that|Sn −S|< ∀ n ≥ Ν . Also, |Sn +1−S|< ∀ n ≥ Ν . Then
2 2
ε ε
|an+1|=|S n+1 −S n|=|S n+1−S+ S−Sn|≤|S n+1 −S|+|S−S n|< 2 + 2 =ε .

So |an+1|< ε ∀ n ≥ Ν . Therefore, nlim

→∞
an =0.

Note: The converse of the above theoremis false.That is, if nlim

→∞
an =0 , it does not follow that the

series is necessarily convergent.In other words it is possible to have a divergent series for which
∞
lim an =0. For example, lim 1 =0, but ∑ 1 diverges.
n→∞ n→∞ n n =1 n

∞
Theorem: If nlim
→∞
an ≠ 0 , then the series ∑ a is divergent.
n
n =1

∞
Proof: Assume that ∑ an is convergent, then by above theoremnlim
→∞
an =0. But this contradicts
n =1

the hypothesis. Therefore, the series is divergent.

Example: Show that the following two series are divergent.
∞ ∞
n2 +1
a) ∑ 2n 2 b) ∑ 2 (−1 )n +1
n =1 n =1

1
lim n2+ 1 lim 1+ 2
Solution:(a) n →∞ n→∞ n 1 . Thus, the series is divergent.
¿ ¿ ≠0
2n
2
2 2
∞
n +1
(b)∑ 2 (−1 ) =2−2+2−2+ ⋯ . lim an =lim 2 (−1 )
n +1
n→∞ n →∞
which
n =1

does not exist. Therefore, the series is divergent.

GEOMETRIC SERIES

13
 ∞
A geometric series is a series of the form ∑ cr , where c and r are constants and c ≠ 0. The
n

n=m

convergence of a geometric series depends entirely on the choice of r .

Theorem (Geometric Series Theorem)
∞
Let r be any number, and let c ≠ 0 and m ≥0 . Then the geometric series ∑ crnconverges if and
n=m

only if |r|< 1.
For |r|< 1,
∞ m
cr
∑ crn= 1−r
.
n=m

Note: The number r is called the ratio of the geometric series. By the above theorem, the sum of
a convergent geometric series is equal to the first term (c r m) divided by 1−r .
Example:Find the sum of the following series

∑ ( 14 )
∞ n ∞
4
(b) ∑ 14 ( 0.3 )
n
(a) (Ans: ) (Ans: 1.8)
n =1 3 n =1

Remarks:
∞
(i) Not all geometric series converges. For example, ∑ 3 ( 5.4 ) diverges because
n

n =1

r =5.4>1.
(ii) Geometric series allows us to express any repeating decimal as a fraction. For example,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 ∞ n
1 1 1 1
0.3333 …=3 +3 +3 + …=∑ 3 .
10 10 10 n=1 10

( ) is geometric with r = 101 . Thus the series converges (since

∞ n
1
The series ∑ 3
n =1 10
3

( )
∞

( )
1 n
1 1 10 1
|r|= <1 ). Since the first term is 3 1 = 3 , it follows that ∑ 3 = = .
10 10 10 10 1 3
n =1
1−
10

COMBINATION OF SERIES
Theorem:
∞ ∞ ∞
(a) If ∑ anand ∑ bnconverge, then ∑ ( an ± bn ) also converges and
n =1 n =1 n =1

14
 ∞ ∞ ∞

∑ ( an ± bn )=∑ an ± ∑ bn.
n =1 n=1 n =1

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
(b) If ∑ an converges and c ∈ R , then∑ can also converges, and ∑ can=c ∑ a n.
n =1 n =1 n =1 n=1

∞ ∞ ∞
1
(c) If ∑ an diverges and c ∈ R , then ∑ can also diverges. For example, ∑ 4 diverges.
n =1 n =1 n =1 n
∞ ∞ ∞
(d) If ∑ an converges and ∑ bn diverges, then ∑ ( an +b n ) is divergent.For example,
n =1 n =1 n =1

( 31n + 31 ) diverges.
∞

∑ n
n =1

∞ ∞ ∞
(e) If both ∑ an∧∑ bn are divergent, then ∑ ( an +b n ) may or may not be convergent.
n =1 n =1 n =1

∞ ∞
1 2 1 −1
For example, if a n=b n= , then∑ ( an +b n )=¿ ∑ ¿ which is divergent. But, ifa n= andb n=
n n =1 n=1 n n n
∞
, then∑ ( an +b n )=¿ 0 ¿which is convergent.
n =1

( 24 − n (n+1) ) converges, and find its sum.

∞
2
Example: Show that the series ∑ n
n =1

Solution: Since the series

∞

∑ 24n is geometric, we have

∞

∑ 24n =
4 ( 12 ) =4, and we know that
n =1 1
n =1
1−
2
∞ ∞
1 2
∑ n( n+1) =1. This implies that ∑ =2 . Therefore, the series
n =1 n =1 n( n+1)

( ) ( )
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
4 2 4 2 4 2
∑ −
2 n (n+1)
n converges and ∑ n − =∑ n −∑
n (n+1) n=1 2 n=1 n(n+1)
=4−2=2.
n =1 n =1 2

Exercise:
1. Find a formula for the partial sums of the series. For each series determine the partial sums
have a limit. If so, find the sum of the series.

∑( )
∞ ∞ n
1
a) ∑1 c)
4
n =1 n =1

∞ ∞
3n+1 3n
b) ∑ 5n−1 d) ∑ (−1 ) n

2n+1
n =1 n =1

15
 ∞
2. ∑ (−1 )n ( 0.3 )nExpress the repeating decimal as fraction
n =1

a) 0.6666 … c) 0.0242424 …
b) 0.454545 … d) 0.232232232 …

1.6. A NONNEGATIVE TERM SERIES

∞
A series whose terms are nonnegative is called nonnegative term series. The partial sums { Sn } n=1
∞
of a nonnegative term series ∑ an form an increasing sequence. That is,
n =1

Sn=a1 +a2 +…+ an ≤ a1+ a2 +…+ an +a n+1=Sn +1 for n ≥ 1. Thus if{ Sn } ∞n=1 is bounded, then lim S n
n→∞

∞
exists. This implies that ∑ an converges. By contrast, if { Sn } n=1 is unbounded, then nlim S n cannot
∞
→∞
n =1

∞
exist. This implies that∑ an diverges.
n =1

1.7. CONVERGENCE TEST FOR NON NEGATIVE(POSITIVE ) TERM SERIES

a) INTEGRAL TEST
∞
Theorem: Let { a n }n=1 be a nonnegative sequence, and let f be a continuous and decreasing
∞
function defined on [ 1 , ∞ ] such that f ( n )=a n for n ≥ 1. Then the series ∑ an converges if
n =1

and only if the improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx is converges. That is,

1

∞ ∞
(i) If ∫ f ( x ) dx converges, then the series ∑ an converges.
1 n =1

∞ ∞
(ii) If ∫ f ( x ) dx diverges, then the series ∑ an diverges.
1 n =1

∞
1
Example:Show that the series ∑ diverges.
n =1 n ln n
1
Solution:Let f ( x )= for x ≥ 2. Then f is continuous and decreasing on [ 2 , ∞ ], and
x ln x
1
f ( n )= for n ≥ 2.
n ln n

16
 [ |]
∞ b
1
Now, ∫ f ( x ) dx= lim ∫ dx=lim ln ( ln x ) b
2 b→∞ 2 x ln x b →∞ 2

¿ lim [ ln ( ln b )−ln ( ln 2 ) ] =∞.

b→∞

∞ ∞
1
This implies that ∫ f ( x ) dx diverges. Hence, by the integral test, the series ∑ diverges.
2 n =1 n ln n
∞
1
Example: Show that the p-series ∑ p converges.
n =1 n
∞
1 1
Solution: If p ≤0 , then lim p
≠ 0 . This implies that ∑ p diverges.
n→∞ n n =1 n

∞ ∞
1 1
If p=1 , then ∑ =∑ which we know diverges (harmonic series).
n n=1 n
p
n =1

1
Assume that p ≠1. Let f ( x )= p for x ≥ 1. Then f is continuous and decreasing on [ 1 , ∞ ] and
x
1
f ( n )= p
≥ 0 for n ≥ 1.
n

[ |] [ ( )]
∞ b
1 1 b =lim 1 1
Now, ∫ f ( x ) dx= lim ∫ dx=lim −1 .
1 b→∞ 1 x
p
b → ∞ ( 1− p)x
p−1
1 b → ∞ 1− p b p−1

If p>1, then lim

b→∞ [ (
1
1− p b
1
p−1 )]
−1 exists, and if 0< p<1 , then lim
1
b → ∞ 1− p b
1
p−1
−1
[ ( )] does not
exist.
∞ ∞
1
Hence, ∫ f ( x ) dx converges if p>1, and diverges if p ≤1. Therefore, the series ∑ converges if
1 n =1 np
p>1, and diverges if p ≤1.
∞ ∞
1 1
For example, the series∑ 1.001 converges; and the series∑ 0.999 diverges.
n =1 n n =1 n
Note: We should not inter from the integral test that the sum of the series is equal tothe
value of the integral.
∞ 2 ∞ ∞ ∞
1 π 1
In fact∑ 2 = whereas∫ 2 dx=1. Therefore, in general,∑ an ≠∫ f ( x ) dx .
n =1 n 6 1 x n =1 1

∞
lnn
Example: Determine whether the series ∑ converges or diverges.
n =1 n

17
 lnx
Solution: The function f ( x )= is nonnegative and continuous for x ≥ 1. But it is not
x
' 1−l n x
obvious whether f is decreasing or not. So we compute the derivative f (x )= 2 . Thus
x
f ' ( x ) <0 when x >e . It follows that f is decreasing when x >e . And so we apply theintegral
test.

[ |] [ ]
∞ ∞ b 2 2
ln x lnx ( ln x ) b ( ln b )
∫ f (x )dx=¿=∫ x dx =¿ blim ∫
→∞ 1 x
=lim
b→∞ 2 1 b→∞
=lim
2
−0 = ∞¿ ¿. Since the
1 1

∞ ∞
lnx lnn
improper integral ∫ dxdiverges, then the series ∑ also diverges by the integral test.
1 x n =1 n

∞
Example: Determine whether the series ∑ ne
−n
is convergent or divergent.
n =1

Solution:Let f ( x )=xe− x. We see that f is continuous, decreasing &nonnegative for x ≥ 1.So we

apply the integral test.Hence,
∞ b

∫ xe dx=¿ lim ∫ xe d x=lim [−e ( x+ 1 ) ] ¿ ¿.

−x

b→∞ 1
−x

b→ ∞
−x

[ ]
∞
−( b+1 ) 2
⟹∫ xe dx=¿ lim
−x
+ ¿.
1 b →∞ eb e
lim b+1 lim b+1 lim 1
Since b →∞

eb ( ∞
∞ )
form , we can use the L’Hopitals rule and we obtain
b →∞

eb
=
b →∞
b
e
=0.

∞ ∞
2
Therefore,∫ xe dx=¿ ¿ and so the series ∑ ne is convergent by integral test.
−x −n

1 e n =1

Exercise: Determine whether the given series are convergent or divergent using integral test.
∞ 1
a) ∑ n l1nn c) ∑ e
∞ n

n =1 2
n =1 n

( n+3n ) ¿
∞
ln ∞
b) ∑ d) ∑ ( n+1 ) 1
n =1
¿ n =1 √ l n ( n+1 )
b) COMPARISON TEST
∞ ∞
Theorem: Suppose that ∑ an∧¿ ∑ bn ¿are series with nonnegative terms.
n =1 n=1

18
 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
(i) If∑ bnconverges and0 ≤ an ≤ bn for all n ≥ 1, then ∑ anconverges, and ∑ an ≤ ∑ b n.
n =1 n =1 n =1 n=1

∞ ∞
(ii) If ∑ bn diverges and 0 ≤ bn ≤ an for all n ≥ 1, then ∑ andiverges.
n =1 n =1

Example: Determine whether the following series are convergent or divergent.

a) ∞
4
∞
b) ∑ n c) ∑ √1n
∞ n =1 3 +1
∑ 2 n2 +43 n+1
n =1

n =1

Solution:
∞ ∞ ∞
3 3 3 3 1
a) Observe that 2 <
2n + 4 n+1 2n
2 for all n ≥ 1and ∑ 2
= ∑ 2 converges since
2 n=1 n
∑ n12 is a p-
n =1 2 n n =1

∞
3
serieswith p=2>1 . Therefore, by comparison test theorem ∑ 2 converges.
n =1 2 n +4 n+1
b &c): Exercise
∞ 2
3 sin n
Example:Show that the series ∑ converges.
n=0 n!
∞
3 sin 2 n 3 1
Solution: Here we notice that ≤ for n ≥ 0. But we notice that∑ converges. This
n! n! n=0 n !

∞
3
means that∑ also converges. So by the comparison test the given series converges.
n=0 n!

c) LIMIT COMPARISON TEST

∞ ∞
Theorem: Let ∑ an∧¿ ∑ bn ¿be two series of nonnegative terms. Suppose
n =1 n=1

lim an
n→ ∞
=L, where L is a positive number.
bn
∞ ∞
(i) If ∑ bn converges, then ∑ anconverges.
n =1 n =1

∞ ∞
(ii) If ∑ bn diverges, then ∑ andiverges.
n =1 n =1

Example: Test whether the following series are convergent or divergent.

19
 ∞ ∞
4 n−3
a) ∑ 3 b) ∑ 3 12
n =1 n −5 n−7 n =1 √ 8 n −5 n

Solution:

a) Let a n=
4 n−3
=
n 4−( 3n ) =
4−
3
n
. Now, take b n=
1
, then
( ) ( )
3
n −5 n−7 3 5 7 2 5 7 n2
n 1− 2
− 3 n 1− 2
− 3
n n n n
3
lim an lim 4−
n ∞ ∞
= n→ ∞ ∑ bn=∑ n12
n→ ∞
=4> 0 and is a convergent p-series (with p=2). Hence,
( )
bn 5 7
1− 2 − 3 n =1 n =1
n n
∞
4 n−3
by the limit comparison test (i), the series ∑ 3 converges.
n =1 n −5 n−7
b) Exercise
Exercise: Use the integral test, the comparison test or limit comparison test to determine whether
the series converges or diverges.
∞ ∞ ∞ 2
a) ∑ ( 1 )2 c) ∑ 1
e) ∑ n3n−n−1
−1
n =1 n+1 n =1 √ n2 +1 n =1

∑ n2√−3
∞ ∞
1 n
b) ∑ d) ∑ ( n−11)( n−2 ) f)
n =1 √ n3 +1 n =1 n =1

d) RATIO TEST
∞
Theorem: Let ∑ an be a nonnegative series. Assume thata n ≠ 0for all n and that
n =1

an+1
lim =r (possibly ∞ ).
n→∞ an
∞
(a) If0 ≤ r <1, then ∑ anconverges.
n =1

∞
(b) If r >1, then ∑ andiverges.
n =1

(c) Ifr =1, then from this test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about the convergence or
∞
divergence of∑ an.
n =1

20
 ∞
2n
Example: Show that the series∑ converges.
n =1 n !

n n+1
2 2
Solution: Let a n= . Then a n+1= .
n! ( n+1) !
a n+1 2n+1 n ! 2
So, r =lim =lim . n =lim =0. Since r <1, the series converges.
n →∞ an n →∞ (n+1)! 2 n →∞ n+1

∞
2n
Example: Show that the series ∑ 2 diverges.
n =1 n

Solution:Exercise

e) ROOT TEST
∞
Theorem: Let∑ an be a nonnegative series and assume that
n =1

lim √ an=r (possibly ∞ ).

n

n→∞

∞
(a) If 0 ≤ r <1, then ∑ an converges.
n =1

∞
(b) If r >1, then ∑ an diverges.
n =1

(c) If r =1, then from this test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about the convergence or
∞
divergence of ∑ an.
n =1

Example: Show that

∑ ( 2 n+ 5)
∑ ( ln
100 )
∞ n ∞ n
n n
(a) converges (b) diverges
n=0 n =1

Solution:
(a) Taking the nth roots of the terms of the series, we get

√( )
∞
n n n 1
=∑
n
r =lim = . Thus, the root test implies that the seriesconverges.
n →∞ 2n+5 n=1 2 n+5 2

√( )
n ∞
ln n ln n
=¿ ∑
n
(b) r =lim =∞ ¿. This implies that the series diverges by root test.
n →∞ 100 n=1 100

21
Note:Ratio Test is likely to be effective when the factorials or powers appear in the terms of the
series, whereas Root Testis likely to be effective when powers (and not factorials) appear in the
terms of the series. So, Ratio test is more frequently used than the Root Test.
Exercise: Determinewhether the given series are convergent or divergent.
∞ n +1 ∞ n 3 ∞
(−1) (−1) n nn
a) ∑ 2n b) ∑ 3n c) ∑ n!
n =1 n =1 n =1

1.8. ALTERNATING SERIES AND ALTERNATING SERIES TEST

If the terms in a series are alternately positive and negative, we call the series alternating
series. For example, the series
∞ ∞
1 −1 1 1
∑ (−1 ) n+1
3 =3−9+27−81+⋯ and∑ (−1 )
n n
= + −
( 2n ) ! 2 24 720
+⋯
n =1 n =1

are alternating series.

Theorem: (Alternating series test)

If { a n }n=1 be a decreasing sequence of positive numbers such that nlim an =0. Then the alternating
∞
→∞

∞ ∞
series ∑ (−1 ) a n and ∑ (−1 )
n n+1
an converge.
n =1 n =1

Example:Show that
∞ ∞

∑ (−1 )n+1 1n converges ∑ (−1 ) 1

n
a) b) converges
n =1 n =1 ln n
Solution:

{}
∞
1 1
(a) Since is a decreasing, nonnegative sequence and lim =0, the series satisfies the
n n=1 n→∞ n
∞
1
hypothesis of the alternating series test. Hence, the series ∑ (−1 )
n+1
converges.
n =1 n
(b) Exercise

1.9. ABSOLUTE AND CONDITIONAL CONVERGENCE

∞ ∞
Theorem: If ∑ |an| converges, then ∑ an converges.
n =1 n =1

∞
sin n
Example:Show that ∑ 3 converges.
n =1 n

22
 | |
∞
sin n 1
Solution: Since
n
3
≤ 3 forn ≥ 1, and since
n
∑ n13 converges (because it is a p-series with
n =1

| |
∞
sin n
p=3 ), it follows that by the comparison test ∑ 3 converges. So, by the above theorem, the
n =1 n
given series also converges.

∞
Definition: Let ∑ an be a convergent series.
n =1

∞ ∞
(i) If ∑ |an| converges, we say that the series ∑ an converges absolutely.
n =1 n =1

∞ ∞
(ii) If ∑ |an| diverges, we say that the series ∑ an converges conditionally.
n =1 n =1

∞
sin n
Examples:(i) The series ∑ 3 converges absolutely.
n =1 n

∞
1
(ii) The series ∑ (−1 )
n+1
converges conditionally.
n =1 n

Note: All convergent nonnegative term series converge absolutely.

1.10. GENERALIZED CONVERGENCE TEST

∞
Theorem: Let ∑ an be a series.
n =1

(a) Generalized Comparison Test:

∞ ∞
If |an|≤|an| for n ≥ 1, and if ∑ |bn| converges, then ∑ an converges (absolutely).
n =1 n =1

(b) Generalized Limit Comparison Test:

||
an ∞ ∞
If lim
n→∞ bn
= L , where L is a positive number, and if ∑|bn| converges, then∑ an converges
n =1 n =1

(absolutely).

(c) Generalized Ratio Test:

23
Suppose that a n ≠ 0 for n ≥ 1and that lim
n→∞ | |
an +1
an
=r ¿).

∞
 If r <1, then ∑ an converges (absolutely)
n =1

∞
 If r >1, then ∑ an diverges.
n =1

 If r =1, then from this test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about the convergence of
the series.

(d) Generalized Root Test:

Suppose that a n ≠ 0 for n ≥ 1 and that nlim

→∞
√
n
|an|¿ r ¿).
∞
 If r <1, then ∑ an converges (absolutely).
n =1

∞
 If r >1, then ∑ an diverges.
n =1

 If r =1, then from this test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about the convergence of
the series.
∞ n
x
Example:Show that∑
n =1 n
(i) Converges absolutely for|x|<1;
(ii) Converges conditionally for x=−1; and
(iii)Diverges for x=1 and for|x|>1.
Solution: If x=0 , then the series obviously converges.
If x ≠ 0 , then

lim
n→∞ | | |
an +1
an
=¿ lim
x n+1 n
n→ ∞ (n+1) x
n |
=¿ lim | |
n
n → ∞ n+1
x =|x|¿ ¿.

∞ n
x
Therefore, the generalized ratio test implies that the series ∑ n
converges absolutely for|x|<1
n =1

and diverges for|x|>1.

∞ n ∞
x 1
For x=1, the series∑ becomes the harmonic series∑ which diverges.
n =1 n n =1 n

24
 ∞
(−1 )n
For x=−1, the series becomes∑ which converges (alternating series).Since
n =1 n

| |
∞ ∞ n
(−1 )n ∞ 1 (−1 )
∑ =∑ which diverges, we conclude that ∑ converges conditionally.
n =1 n n=1 n n =1 n
∞ 2n +1
x
Example: Show that∑ (−1 )
n
.
n=0 2 n+ 1
(i) Converges absolutely for |x|<1;
(ii) Converges conditionally for |x|=1; and
(iii)Diverges for |x|>1.

CHAPTER-2: POWER SERIES

2.1. DEFINITION OF POWER SERIES AT ANY X 0and X 0=0.

A power series (about x 0 or centered at x 0 ¿ is a series of the form

∞

∑ c n( x−x 0)n=c 0+ c 1(x −x0 )+c 2 (x−x 0)2 + ⋯ (1)

n=0

where x is a variable and the c n ' s are constants called the coefficient of the series.
If x 0=0 , we obtain a power series (centered at 0 )
∞

∑ c n x n=c 0 + c1 x+ c2 x 2+ c3 x 3+ ⋯ (2)
n=0

25
 ∞ ∞
( x−3 )n ∞ x n ∞ (−1 )n x 2 n
Example:∑ n! x , ∑ , ∑ , ∑ 2n
n
2 are power series.
n=0 n=1 n n=0 n! n=0 2 ( n ! )

Note:Every power series defines a function whose domain is the collection of those of x for
which the power series converges.
Example: For what values of x the following series converges?
∞ ∞
xn
a) ∑ n! x n c) ∑ n!
n=0 n=0

∞
∞
( x−3 )n (−1 )n x2 n
b) ∑ n
d) ∑ 2n 2
n =1 n=0 2 (n ! )
Solution:
a) Let a n=n ! x n. If x ≠ 0 , then

lim
n→∞ | |
an +1
an
=lim ( n+1 )| x|=∞ .
n →∞

By the generalized ratio test, the series diverges when x ≠ 0 . Thus the given series converges only
when x=0 .
( x −3 )n
b) Let a n= . Then
n

lim
n→∞ | | |
an +1
an
=lim
n
n →∞ n+ 1
( x−3) ¿|x−3| .|
By the generalized ratio test, the given series is absolutely convergent (and therefore convergent)
when |x−3|<1 and divergent when |x−3|>1.
Now, |x−3|<1 ⟺2< x < 4, so the series converges when 2< x <4 and diverges when x <2 or x >4
.
The ratio test gives no information when |x−3|=1, so we must consider x=2 and x=4
separately.
∞ ∞
1 n1
If x=4, the series becomes ∑ which is divergent. If x=2, the series is ∑ (−1 ) which
n =1 n n =1 n
converges. Thus the given power series converges for 2 ≤ x < 4.

2.2. CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE, RADIUS AND INTERVAL OF

CONVERGENCE

26
 ∞
Theorem: For a given power series ∑ c n ( x−x 0 ) , there are only three possibilities:
n

n=0

(i) The series converges only when x=x 0;

(ii) The series converges for all x ;
(iii) There is a positive number R such that the series converges if |x−x 0|< R
and diverges if |x−x 0|> R .
The number R in case (iii) is called the radius of convergence of the power series.By
convention, the radius of convergence R=0 in case (i) and R=∞ in case (ii).
The interval of convergence of a power series is the interval that consists of all values of x
for which the series converges. In case (i) the interval consists of just a single point x 0; in case
(ii)the interval is(−∞ , ∞ ), and in case (iii) the interval is one of ( x 0−R , x 0 + R ),
¿.
Remark: When x=x 0 ± R , anything can happen- the series might converge at one or both
endpoints, or it might diverge at both endpoint.
Example: We summarize here the radius and interval of convergence for each of the
examples already considered as follows.
Power Series Radius of Convergence Interval of convergence
∞
R=1 (−1 , 1 )
∑ xn
n=0

∞
R=0 [ 0 , 0 ] = {0 }
∑ n! x n
n=0

∞
( x−3 )n R=1 [ 2 , 4)
∑ n
n =1

∞
(−1 )n 2n R=∞ (−∞ , ∞ )=R
∑ 2n 2 x
n=0 2 ( n! )

In general, the Ratio Test (or sometimes the Root Test) should be used to determine the radius of
convergence R .
The Ratio Test and Root Test always fail when x is an endpoint of the interval of convergence.
So, the endpoint must be checked with some other test.
Example: Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the following series

27
 ∞
(−3 )n x n ∞
n( x +2)n
a) ∑ b) ∑
n=0 √ n+1 n =1 3n+1
Solution:
(−3 )n x n
a) Let a n= . Then
√n+1

lim
| | |
an +1
n → ∞ an
=lim
n →∞
(−3 )n+1 x n +1 √ n+1
√n+ 2 (−3 ) x n → ∞
n n | | √ |
¿ lim −3 x
n+1
n+2
= 3| x|.

By the generalized ratio test, the given series converges if 3|x|<1 and divergesif 3|x|>1. Thus it
1 1 1
converges |x|< and diverges if |x|> . Thus the radius of convergence is R= . This implies
3 3 3

that the series converges in the interval ( −13 , 13 ). But we must now test for convergence at the
endpoint of the interval.

( )
n
n −1
−1 ∞ ( −3 ) ∞
If x= , the series becomes 3 1 which diverges (observe that it is a p-
3 ∑ √ n+1 ∑ √ n+1 =
n=0 n =0

1
series with p= < 1 or use integral test).
2

()
n
n 1
1 ∞ (−3 ) ∞ −1 1
If x= , the series is 3 (−1 )n which converges when < x ≤ . So, the interval
3 ∑ √ n+1 =∑ √n+1 3 3
n=0 n=0

of convergence is ( −1 1
]
, .
3 3

n
n( x +2)
b) Let a n= n +1 . Then
3

lim
n→∞ | | |
an +1
an
=lim
n →∞ n 3 3 |
n+ 1 (x+ 2) |x +2|
¿ .

|x +2| |x +2|
By the generalized ratio test, the given series converges if <1 and diverges if >1. So,
3 3
it converges |x +2|<3 and diverges if |x +2|>3 . Thus the radius of convergence is R=3. The
inequality |x +2|<3 can be written as −5< x <1. So, we test the series at the endpoints −5 and 1.

28
 ∞ n ∞
n (−3 ) 1
When x=−5 , the series is∑ n+1 = ∑ n (−1 ) which diverges by divergence test (
n

n=0 3 3 n=0
lim (−1 )n n≠ 0 ).
n→∞

∞ n ∞
n ( 3) 1
When x=1, the series is ∑ = ∑ n which also diverges by divergence test. Thus the
3 n+1 3 n=0
n=0

series converges only when when −5< x <1. So, the interval of convergence is (−5 , 1 ).
Exercise: Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the series
∞ ∞
xn ( x−2)n ∞
(−1)n n2 xn
a) ∑ n
d) ∑ 2 f) ∑
2n
n =1 n=0 n +1 n =1

∞ ∞
xn (−1)n x n ∞
b) ∑ n! e) ∑
n+1
g) ∑ n! (2 x−1)n
n=0 n=0 n=0

∞ n n
3 (x + 4)
c) ∑ √n
n =1

2.3. REPRESENTATIONS OF FUNCTIONS AS POWER SERIES

Here we represent certain types of functions as sums of power series by manipulating geometric
series or by differentiating or integrating such a series.
∞
Since ∑ x =1+ x + x + x + ⋯ is a geometric series with r =x and G1=1 , then
n 2 3

n=0

∑ x n =1+ x + x 2 + x 3+ ⋯= 1−1 x when |x|<1. (*)

n=0

∞
1
is expressed as a sum of a power series∑ x when |x|<1.
n
Therefore, the function f ( x )=
1−x n=0

1
Example:Express as the sum of a power series.
1+ x
Solution: Replacing x by −x in equation (*), we have
∞ ∞
1 1
=∑ (−x ) =∑ (−1 ) x n=¿ 1−x+ x 2−x 3 +… ¿.
n n
=
1+ x 1−(−x ) n=0 n=0

∞
1
=∑ (−1 ) x n.
n
Therefore,
1+ x n=0
1
Example: Express 2 as the sum of a power series and find the interval of convergence.
1+ x
Solution: Replacing x by - x 2 in equation (*), we have
29
 ∞ ∞
1 1
= = ∑
1+ x 1−(−x ) n=0
2 2
( −x ) =∑ (−1 )n x 2 n=1−x 2+ x 4 −x 6+ ⋯.
2 n

n=0

Since this is a geometric series with r =−x 2 and G 1=1, it converges when|−x 2|<1 ¿).
Therefore, the interval of convergence is (−1 , 1 ).
Example: Find a power series representation and interval of convergence forthe series
1
a)
x+2
x3
x+2
Solution:
a) To put this function in the form of equation (*), we first factor 2 from the denominator

( )
∞ n ∞ n
1 1 1 1 −x (−1 ) n
= = = ∑ =∑ n+1 x
x+2
( ) ( ( ))
2 1+
x
2
2 1−
−x
2
2 n=0 2 n=0 2 .

This series converges when |−x2 |<1i.e., |x|<2. So the interval of convergence is (−2 , 2) .
∞ n ∞ n ∞ n−1
x3 1 (−1 ) (−1 ) (−1 )
b) =x 3 =x 3 ∑ n+1 x n=∑ n+1 x n +3=∑ n−2 x n.
x+2 x +2 n=0 2 n =0 2 n=3 2
1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3
¿ x − x + x − x +… . So the interval of convergence is (−2 , 2 )
2 4 8 16

2.4. DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION OF POWER SERIES

∞
The sum of a power series is a function f ( x )=∑ c n ( x−x 0 ) whose domain is the interval of
n

n=1

convergence of the series. We would like to differentiate and integrate such functions, and the
following theorem says that we can do so differentiating or integrating each individual term in
the series. This is called term-by-term differentiation and integration.

Theorem: (Differentiation and integration theorem for Power Series)

30
 ∞
If the power series ∑ c n ( x−x 0 )n has radius of convergence R>0, then the function f defined by
n=0

∞
f ( x )=c 0+ c1 ( x−x 0 ) +c 2 ( x−x 0 )2 +…=∑ c n ( x −x 0) n is differentiable (and therefore continuous) on
n=0

the interval ( x 0−R , x 0 + R ) and

∞
(i) f ( x )=c 1 +2 c 2 ( x−x 0 ) +3 c 3 ( x−x 0 ) +…=∑ n c n ( x −x0 )
' 2 n−1

n=1

n+ 1

(ii) ∫ f ( x ) dx=c+ c 0 ( x−x 0 ) + c1

( x −x0 )
2
( x−x 0 )
3 ∞
( ( x−x 0 ) )
+c 2 +…=c+ ∑ c n .
2 3 n=0 n+1
The radii of convergence of the power series in equation (i) and (ii) are both R .
Note:
1) Equations (i) and (ii) in the above theorem can be rewritten in the form

[ ]
∞ ∞
d d
(iii)
dx
∑ cn ( x−x 0 )n =∑
n=0 n=0
[ c ( x−x 0 )n ]
dx n

[ ]
∞ ∞
(iv) ∫ ∑ c n ( x−x 0 )n dx=∑ ∫ c n ( x−x 0 ) dx .
n

n=0 n=0

2) The radius of convergence remains the same when a power series is differentiated or
integrated, this does not mean that the interval of convergence remains the same. It may
happen that the original series converges at an endpoint, whereas the differentiated series
diverges there.
1
Example: Express as the sum of a power series
( 1−x )2
∞
1
=1+ x+ x + x + ⋯=∑ x
2 3 n
Solution: We know that
1−x n=0

∞
1
=1+2 x +3 x + ⋯=∑ nx
2 n−1
Differentiating each side of the equation, we have 2
( 1−x ) n =1

∞
1
2 ∑
n
We can replace n by n+1 and write the answer as = ( n+1 ) x
( 1−x ) n=0

(∑ )
∞
d xn ∞
xn x
=∑ =e
dx n=0 n ! n=0 n !
Example –8: Show that

31
 n
∑ nx ! x
Solution: The series converges for all . The Differentiation Theorem tells us that

( )
∞ n−1
x n ∞ nx n−1 ∞ x n−1 ∞
xn
∑ nxn ! d
∑ n ! = ∑ n ! = ∑ ( n−1 ) ! = ∑ n !
n=1 converges as well and that dx n=1 n=1 n=0 .

We see that f ( x )=f ' ( x ) for all real values of x . The function f satisfies the differential equation
dy dy 1
= y ⟹ =dx ⟹∫ dy =∫ dx
dx y y
x+C 1 x x c1
⟹ l ny =x+C 1 ⟹ y=e =Ce ∴ y=Ce where C=e
∞ n
x
From f ( x )=∑ , we see that f ( 0 )=1
n =0 n!
[Remember that we take x °=1 even when x=0 for convenience in writing the general term]
∴ f ( x )=Ce x andf ( 0 ) =1⟹ C=1 i.e. f ( x )=e x and we have the desired result.
∞ n 2 3
x x x
∴ e x =∑ =1+ x + + + ⋯ ∀ x
n=0 n! 2! 3 !
∞ n n 2 3
(−1 ) x x x
Moreover, e =∑
−x
=1−x + −¿ +⋯ ¿ for all real values of x
n=0 n! 2! 3!
The radius of convergence is the same as the original series. i.e. R = 1.
Theorem-3: (Integration Theorem for Power Series)
∞
∑ C n ( x−x 0 )n
Let n=0 be a power series with radius of convergence R>0 .
∞ c
∑ n+1n (x −x0 )n+1
Then n=0 has the same radius of convergence, and
∞ ∞ cn ∞

( ) (∫ )
x x
∫0 ∑ c n (t−t 0 )n dt = ∑ ( x−x 0 )n+1= ∑ C n (t−t 0 )n dt for | x |< R .
n=0 n+1
0
n=0 n=0

∞
(−1 ) n n+1 ∞ (−1 )n−1 n
ln ( 1+x )= ∑ x =∑ x for | x |<1 .
Example –9: Show that n=0 n+1 n=1 n

∞
1
= ∑ x n for | x |<1
Solution: 1−x n=0

32
 1
x =∑ (−1 )n t n
Replacing by – t in this equation, we obtain 1+t for | t |<1.
x 1 x (−1 )n x n+1
⇒ ln (1+x )=∫0 dt=∫0 ( ∑ (−1 )n t n ) dt =∑ for | x |<1 .
1+t n+1
2 3 4
x x x
ln ( 1+ x ) =x− + − +⋯
Hence 2 3 4
∞
¿
arctanx= ∑ n 2n+1
2n+1for |x|<¿¿
Example –10: Show that n=0 (−1 ) x ¿ 1.

Solution: If |t |<1 , then |t 2 |<1. Therefore since we have

∞
1
2 ∑
= (−1 )n t 2n for | t |<1.
1+t n=0
Then the Integration Theorem yields
∞ ∞
(−1 )n 2 n+1
( )
x 1 x
arctan x=∫0 dt=∫ ∑ (−1 )n t 2n dt= ∑ x for | x |<1 .
1+t 2 n=0 2 n+1
0
n=0

x3 x5 x7
arctan x=x− + − +⋯
3 5 7
In expanded form the power Series

Remark: The radius of convergence remains the same when a power series is differentiated or

integrated, this does not mean that the interval of convergence remains the same. It may happen

that the original series converges at an endpoint, whereas the differentiated series diverges there.

Exercise-3: 1. Express the following functions as the sum of a power series.

a.
1
( 1+ x )2
b.
x2
( 1+ x )3
c.ln ( 1−x
1
) d.ln ( 1−x
1+ x
)

33
 x x
e −1−x e −1−x
2. Find a power series expansion for 2 and use it to evaluate lim 2
x x⟶ 0 x
.
3. Evaluate the following indefinite integral as a power series.
x
e −1
x
x−tan−1 x
a. ∫
x
dx b. ∫ x3 dx

2.1. Taylor Series, Taylor Polynomial and Application

Let f be the function defined by

∞
f ( x )=∑ Cn ( x−x 0 ) =C 0 +C 1 ( x−x 0 ) +C 2 ( x −x0 ) + ⋯+C n ( x −x0 ) + ⋯(1)
n 2 n

n =0

where |x−a|< R .
Let’s try to determine what the coefficients C n must be in terms of function f .
If we put x=x 0 in equation (1), f ( x 0 ) =C 0
Successive differentiation of the function in (1) and substitute of x=x 0 in equation gives.
f ( x )=C 1+ 2C 2 ( x−x 0 ) +3 C 3 ( x −x0 ) + ⋯ ;|x−x 0|< R ⟹ f ' ( x 0 )=C 1
' 2

f '' ( x ) =2C 2 +6 C3 ( x−x 0 ) +12 ( x−x 0 )2 +⋯ ,|x−x 0|< R ⟹ f '' ( x0 ) =2 C2=2 ! C 2

f ( x )=6 C 3 +24 ( x−x 0 ) +60 C 5 ( x −x0 ) + ⋯ ,|x−x 0|< R ⟹ f ( x 0 )=6 C 3=3 !C 3

'' ' 2 ' ''

If we continue to differentiate and substitute x=x 0, we obtain f (n )(a)=n ! C n

Solving this equation for the nth coefficient C n , we get
f ( n) ( x0 )
C n= . . . (*)
n!
(*) is valid even for n ,=0 as 0 !=1∧f (0 )=f
Theorem-4: If f has a power series representation (expansion) at a, that is,
∞
if f ( x )=∑ Cn ( x−x 0 ) ,|x−x 0|< R then its coefficients are given by the
n

n =0

f ( n) ( x0 )
formula C n= ∧¿
n!

34
 (n )
∞
f ( x0) f ' ( x0) f '' ( x 0 )
f ( x )= ∑ n
( x−x 0 ) = f ( x 0 ) + 2
( x −x0 ) + 2! ( x−x 0 ) +¿
n =0 n! 1!
f ' ' ' ( x0 ) 3 f (n ) ( x 0 ) n
3!
( x−x 0 ) ⋯ + n ! ( x−x 0 ) +⋯
and this series is called the Taylor Series of the function fat x 0 (or about x 0 or centered at x 0).
For the special case x 0=0 , the Taylor series becomes
(n )
∞
f ( x0 ) n '
f (0)
''
f (0)
' ''
f ( 0)
( )
f n (0 )
f ( x )=∑ x =f ( 0 ) + ❑ x + ❑ x 2 + ❑ x 3 +⋯+ ❑ xn + ⋯
n =0 n! 1! 2! 3! n!
a nd this series is called the Maclaurin Series.

2.1.1. Polynomial Approximation

Define a polynomial Pn of degree (at most n) by the formula
' '' '' ' ( n)
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
Pn=f ( x 0 ) + ( x−x 0 ) + ( x−x 0 )2+ ( x−x 0 )3 ⋯+ ( x−x 0 )
n
1! 2! 3! n!
(k )
n
f ( x0 )
=∑ ( x −x 0 )k
k=0 k!
This polynomial Pn is called the nth Taylor polynomial of f at x 0 .
It is possible to measure the accuracy of this polynomial approximation.

n
f (k ) ( x 0 )
Given f ( x ) , x 0 andn .Let r n ( x )=f ( x )−Pn ( x )=f ( x )−∑ ( x−x 0 )
k

k=0 k!

= remainder (error) made in approximating f ( x ) by Pn ( x ).

x
f ( x )=e about x=0 .
Example –11: Construct the Taylor polynomial for
Then determine a. Pn (1) and b. P5 (1)

(3 ) ( n)
x x x
Solution: f ( x )=e , f ' ( x )=e , f '' ( x )=e and f =e x and f =e x for all n.

' '' '' ' (n )

f (0) f (0 ) 2 f (0 ) 3 f (0 ) n
Thus, Pn ( x )=f ( x 0 ) + x+ x+ x ⋯+ x
1! 2! 3! n!

35
 2 3 4 n
x x x x n
1+x+ + + +⋯+
2! 3! 4! n!
∑ ❑❑
= = k=0

1 1 1 1 n
Pn ( 1 )=¿ 1+1+ + + +⋯+ ∑ ❑❑
As a result, 2! 3! 4! n! = k=0

163
n=5 , weotain¿ P5 ( 1 )=¿ ≈ 2.71667
For = 60

We expect Pn ( x ) to approximate f ( x ). Since the value of f ( 1 ) =e is 2.71828 (accurate to six

digits) and since ¿ P5 (1 ) ≈ 2.71667 . We find that ¿ P5 (1 ) approximates e with an error of about
0.00161

π
Example –12:Find the Taylor polynomial of degree 5 for f ( x )=cos x at x 0= .
2

f ( x )=cosx ⟹ f ( π2 )=0, f ' ( x )=−sinx ⟹ f ' ( π2 )=−1

f ( x ) =−cos x ⟹ f ' ' ( )=0 f ( π2 )=1
'' π ' ''
( x )=sin x ⟹ f ' ''
2

f (4 ) ( x )=cos x ⟹ f ( 4 ) ( π2 )=0 f ( 5)
( x ) =−sin x ⟹ f ( 5) ( π2 )=−1
Therefore, ¿ P5 ( x ) =0+ (−1 ) x− ( π
2 ) 1 π 3
+0+ (x− ) + 0+
3! 2
−1
5!
π 5
(x− )
2

( )
3 5
π 1 π −1 π
= − x− + ( x− ) + (x− )
2 3! 2 5! 2

Theorem-5: (Taylor’s Inequality)

If on some interval I containing x 0 ,|f (n+1) (x )|≤ M for some constant M, then

M
|r n ( x )|≤ ( n+1 ) ! |x −x0|
n+1
for all x in I .

Note: If lim r n ( x )=0 , then the Taylor series of the function f converges to Pn ( x ) .
x→ ∞

36
Example -13: Find the Maclaurin series for f ( x )=sin x and prove that it represents for all x

Solution: f ( x )=sin⟹ f ( 0 )=0 , f ' ( x )=cos x ⟹ f ' ( 0 )=1

f '' ( x ) =−sin x ⟹ f ' ' ( 0 )=0 f '' ' ( x )=−cos x ⟹ f ' ' ' ( 0)=−1
(4 ) (4)
f ( x )=si n x ⟹ f ( 0 ) =0
Since the derivatives repeat in a cycle of four, we can write the Maclaurin series as follows.
(4)
f ' (0) f ' ' ( 0 ) 2 f ' ' ' ( 0 ) 3 f ( 0) 4 3 5
x x x
7
f ( 0 )+ x+ x + x + x + ⋯=x− + − =¿
1! 2! 3! 4! 3! 5 ! 7 !
n
x3 x 5 x7 ∞
(−1 ) 2 n+1
sin x=x− + − +⋯= ∑ x
3! 5! 7! n=0 ( 2 n+1 ) !

Hence

Since f (n+ 1) ( x )=± sinxor ± cosx , we have |f (n +1) (x)|≤1, for all x . i.e. M =1

n +1
M |x|
Hence, |r n ( x )|≤
n+1
|x| =
( n+1 ) ! ( n+1 ) !

n+1
|x|
But If lim |r n ( x )|= lim =0.
x→ ∞ x →∞ ( n+1 ) !

It follows from the sandwich theorem that lim

x→ ∞
|r n ( x )|=0 and therefore, li x m
→∞
r n ( x )=0 for all

values of x .

Therefore, sinx is equal to the sum of its Maclaurin series. That is, for all x

n
x3 x 5 x7 ∞
(−1 ) 2 n+1
sin x=x− + − +⋯= ∑ x
3! 5! 7! n=0 ( 2 n+1 ) !

x2 x4 x6 ∞
(−1 )n 2 n
cos x=1− + − +⋯= ∑ x x
Similarly 2 ! 4 ! 6 ! n=0 ( 2 n ) ! for all

Example-14: Find the Maclaurin series for f ( x )=( 1+ x )k wherek is any real number and|x|<1.
Solution: f ( x )=( 1+ x )k ⟹ f ( 0 )=1
' k−1
f ( x )=k ( 1+ x ) ⟹ f ' ( 0 )=k

37
 '' k−2 ( )
f ( x ) =k ( k −1 )( x + x ) ⟹ f ' ' 0 =k ( k −1 )
'' ' k−3 '' '
f ( x )=k ( k−1 ) ( k −2 )( 1+ x ) ⟹ f ( 0 )=k ( k −1 ) ( k−2 )
n ❑
f ( 0 )=k ( k −1 ) ( k−2 ) ⋯ ( k −n+1 )
∞ n ∞
f (0 ) n k ( k −1 ) ⋯ ( k−n+1 ) n
Thus, the Maclaurin series of f ( x )=( 1+ x ) is ∑ k
x =∑ x
n=0 n! n=0 n!
∞
k ( k −1 ) ⋯ ( k −n+1 ) n ∞ k n
Hence, ( 1+ x ) =∑
k

n=0 n!
x =∑
n=0 n
()
x and it is called Binomial series.

If its nth term is a n, then

| |
k ( k−1 ) . . . ( k−( n−1 ) ) (k −n)x n +1❑
∗❑n !
If
lim
x→ ∞ | |
a n+1
an
=lim
x→∞
( n+ 1 ) !
k ( k −1 ) . . . ( k −( n−1 ) ) x n

| |
k
−1
= lim |
k −n
x→ ∞ n+1
x =lim
x→∞
n
1+
1 |
x =|x|
n

Thus, by the generalized ratio test, the binomial series converges if |x|<1 and diverges |x|>1.
Theorem-6(Binomial series): If k is any real number and |x|<1, then
∞ 2 3
k ( k−1 ) x ❑ k ( k−1 )( k−3) x ❑
( 1+ x ) =∑ k xn =1+ kx +
k

n=0 n
() 2!
+
3!
+. ..

Example-15: a.
∞
1/2 x n=1+ 1 x+ 2 2
x ( )( ) ( )( )( )
1 −1 2 1 −1 −3 3
2 2 2
x
( 1+ x )1/ 2=∑
n=0
( ) n 2 2!
+
3!
+ .. .

()
1 /2
∞ 1
b. ( 1−x ) =∑ 2 (−1 ) x
2 n 2n

n=0
n

( )( ) ( )( )( )
6
1 −1 4 1 −1 −3
x x
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
¿ 1− x + + + .. .
2 2! 3!
1
Example-16: Find the Maclaurin series for the function f ( x )= and its radius of
√ 4−1
convergence.

38
 ( )
−1
1 1 1 x
= = 1− 2

Solution: √ 4−1
√(
2 4
4 1−
x
4 )
−1 −x
Using the binomial series with k = and with x replaced by we have
2 4

( )(
∞ −1
( ) )
−1 n
1 1 x 1 −x
= 1− 2
= ∑ 2
√ 4−1 2 4 2 n=0
n
4

[ ( )( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )( ) .. . ( −(n−1) )
]
−1 −3 −1 −3 −5 −1 −3 −5 −1
1 +( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( 4 )
1 −1 −x 2 2 −x 2 2 2 2
−x 2 2 2 2
3
−x n
+ + + +. . .
2 2 4 2! 4 3! 4 n!

=
1
2 [
1
1+ x +
8
1∗3 2 1∗3∗5 3 1∗3∗5∗. . .(2 n−1) n
2! 8
2
x+
3!8
3
x +
n!8
n
x +. . .
]
From the binomial series, the series converges when |−x4 |<1. i.e |x|< 4
Thus, the radius of convergence is R=4
Example-17: a. Approximate the function f ( x )= √3 x by a Taylor polynomial of degree 2 at
x 0=8.
b, How accurate is this approximation when 7 ≤ x ≤ 9 ? (Use Taylor’s inequality).
1
Solution: a. f ( x )= √3 x=x 3 ⟹ f ( 8 )=2
−2
' 1 1
f ( x )= x 3 ⟹ f ' ( 8 )=
3 12
−5
−2 3 −1
f '' ( x) = x ⟹ f ' ' ( 8 )=
9 144
Thus, the second degree Taylor polynomial is
' ''
f ( 8) f (8 ) 2
P2 ( x)=f ( 8 ) + ( x−8)+ ( x−8)
1! 2!
1 1 2
= 2+ ( x−8 ) − ( x−8)
12 288
Hence, the desired approximation is
1 1
√3 x ≈ P2 ( x ) =2+ ( x−8 )− ( x−8)
2
12 288

39
b, Using the Taylor’s inequality with n=2 and x 0=8 , we have
M
|r 2 ( x )|≤ 3 ! |x−8|
3
where |f ' '' ( x )|≤ M
8 8
8 8
( ) 10 3 10 3 '' '
Since x ≥ 7 , we have x ≥ 7 and so f x = x ≤ 7 <0.0021
3 3
27 27
Hence, take M =0.0021
Also 7 ≤ x ≤ 9 iff −1 ≤ x−8≤ 1 iff |x−8|≤1
Then the Taylor inequality gives
M 0.0021 3 0.0021
|r 2 ( x )|≤ 3 ! |x−8| =
3
|x−8| ≤ ∗1< 0.0004
6 6
Thus, if 7 ≤ x ≤ 9 ,then approximation in part (a) is accurate to within 0.0004.
Exercise-4:
1. Find the Maclaurin Series for f(x) and find the associated radius
of convergence.

a. f ( x)=xe x b. f ( x )=ln ⁡(1+ x ) c. f ( x )=Coshx

2. Find the Taylor Series for f(x) centered at the given values

1 1
a. f ( x )= ; x 0=4 b. f ( x )= ; x 0=1
√x x2

3. i. Approximate f by a Taylor polynomial with degree n at the number x 0.

ii. Use Taylor in equality to estimate the accuracy of the approximation f ( x)≈ Pn ( x) when

x lies in the given interval.

2

a. f ( x )=e x ; x 0=0 , n=3 0 ≤ x ≤0.5

b. f ( x )=x ln x ; x 0=0 ,n=3 0.5 ≤ x ≤1.5

40