Unit -4

Compressors -Introduction -uses -classification -Reciprocating compressor -

Working -types

Introduction

Air compressor is a machine which increases the pressure of air and delivers it at a
high pressure.

It is driven by a prime mover (engine or electric motor).

Air compressor takes in atmosphere air, compresses it to desired pressure.

High pressure air is delivered to a receiver (storage vessel) from which it may be
used for required purpose.

The volume of air delivered by the compressor per unit time is called capacity
(output) of a compressor.

General arrangement of compressor.

The compressors, fan and blower are power absorbing machines means they need
energy for their operation.
Fan

The fan consists of a single rotating ring of inclined flat or curved vanes rotating at
a high speed.

The air trapped between the vanes is compressed to create positive pressure in the
air.

It is used for air circulation and production of low pressure blast air.

Blower

In the blower the air is trapped in the space formed by two sets of lobes, and
compressed to pressure up to 3.6 bar.

High pressure may be achieved by placing two or more blowers in series, having
inter cooler between each stage.

Uses of Compressed Air

 For operating pneumatic hand tools such as rivet sets and drills.
 For spraying painting in automobile industry
 For driving mining tools where fire risks may preclude the use of I. C engine
or electric motor.
 To supply the air blast in bessemer converter and blast furnace.
 To operate air brakes in automobiles, ram lifts and pneumatic conveyers.
 To supercharge I. C engine and to inject the fuel in CI engines.
 For filling air in automobiles tyres
 To transmit power for operation of machines
 To clean machines and workshop floor
 To convey materials like concrete or sand along a pipe line.
Classification

Depending on design and principle of operation, all compressors can be divided

into two groups

 Reciprocating Compressors
 Rotary Compressors

Reciprocating Compressor is a positive displacement compressor in which the

compression is carried out by containing air between the cylinder walls and the
piston and reducing the volume by the movement of the piston.

Reciprocating compressors are used where high pressures are required.

Rotary Compressors, the compression of air is achieved by revolution of a rotor

about the axis.

The air trapped in a number of compartments acquire pressure and velocity. Rotary
compressors are used where large volumes of air are to be deal at medium
pressure.

Rotary compressors are further classified as

 Positive displacement rotary compressor, and

 Dynamic (non -positive) type rotary compressor.

In positive displacement type rotary compressor the air is trapped in the space
between two surfaces .

As the surfaces engages, the spaces in between reduces and compression occurs.
Examples :Roots blower, vane blower, lysholm compressors and screw
Compressor

In dynamic type rotary compressor the air is not contained within the specific
boundaries but it is in a continuous steady flow throughout the machine.

In this type air is compressed by the dynamic action of rotating blades or vanes
which accelerate and compress the air.

Example :Centrifugal (radial) and axial flow compressors.

Reciprocating Compressors

It consists of a cylinder in which piston reciprocates by means of an external

source of work.

The cylinder cover accommodates two valves, one is intake valve and the other
discharge valve. Both valves are opened and closed automatically due to pressure
difference.

Working of Reciprocating compressor

When the piston moves downwards, the pressure in the cylinder is made less than
the atmospheric pressure, the inlet valve opens and the air flows into the cylinder.

During the return stroke (upward movement) of the piston, the pressure in the
cylinder walls rise, and the inlet valve closes when the pressure in the cylinder is
just above of the atmospheric pressure.

The pressure of air steadily increases to a desired level (greater than the receiver
pressure), the discharge valve opens and compressed air is discharged into a
receiver from which the high pressure air is dispensed to required purpose.

At the end of upward stroke, a small volume of air at high pressure is left in the
clearance volume.
As the piston moves down on the next stroke this air expands and pressure falls
just below the atmosphere.

Then the inlet valve opens and air flows into the cylinder, and the cycle is repeated.

Classification of Reciprocating compressors

Depending on the operation :

Single acting compressor

 Air is compressed by one side of the piston means compressions takes place
in one direction of the piston motion.
 It has one cycle per revolution of crankshaft.

Double acting Compressor

 Air is compressed by the both sides of the piston means the compression
takes place in both the direction of the piston motion.
 There are two cycles per revolution of crankshaft.

Number of stages

Single stage compressor

Air is compressed from suction pressure to delivery pressure in a single cylinder

only

Multi stage compressor

Air is compressed from suction pressure to delivery pressure in more than one
cylinder.

Method of cooling

 Air cooled compressors

  Water cooled compressors.

Work done by single stage reciprocating air compressor with no clearance

volume :

A compressor is to be considered ideal if there is no clearance space.

In ideal compressor it is assumed that all the air taken during the suction will be
delivered, and no air will be left in the cylinder at the end of the return
(compression) stroke.

Further the pressure is maintained constant during suction and delivery of air, and
there is no pressure drop in the valves.

0-1 volume of air V1 at a pressure P1 and temperature T1 is drawn into the

cylinder .
1-2. Airis compressed polytropically from pressureP1 to P2,volume decreases
from V1 to V2and temperature increases from T1 to T2 .

2-3 Delivery of compressed air to receiver at pressure P2.

The net energy transferred during this cycle is equal to the work supplied to
compressor and is equal to the area of PV diagram ‘01230'

∲ W = area of PV diagram ‘01230'

= area under 3,2 + area under 2,1 – area under 1,0

= P2V2+ (P2V2–P1V1)/(n–1)–P1V1

= (n/n–1)[P2V2–P1V1]

= (n/n–1)mR[T2–T1]

= (n/n–1)mRT1 [(T2/T1)–1]

But T2/T1= (P2/P1)n–1/n

∲ W = (n/n–1)mRT1 [(P2/P1)n–1/n–1]…….1

∲ W = (n/n–1)P1V1 [(P2/P1)n–1/n–1]………2

If the compression process (process 1-2) is adiabatic. Then the work required per
cycle is obtained by substituting γ for n in equation (1)

∲ W = (γ/γ–1)P1V1 [(P2/P1)γ –1/ γ –1]

∲ W = (γ /γ –1)mRT1 [(P2/P1)γ –1/ γ –1]

For isothermal compression, P1V1= P2V2.

∲ W =P1V1loger = mRT1loger.

Where r = compression ratio.

Power required to run the compressor

A single acting reciprocating compressor will perform N cycle per minute when its
speed in N rpm.

Work done /min = ∲ W.N

Power required to run the compressor

P = ∲ W.N / 60 kW.

For double acting compressor

P = ∲ W.2N / 60

Heat rejected in Compression

Q = Cv(T2–T1)+ (P1V1–P2V2)/(n–1)

= Cv(T2–T1)–R(T2–T1)/(n–1)

= (T2–T1)[Cv –R/n–1]

= (T2–T1)[Cv –(Cp–Cv)/(n–1)]

= Cv (T2–T1)[1–(γ –1)/(n–1)]

= Cv (T2–T1)[(n–γ)/(n–1)].

Q = Cv[ (n– γ)/ (n–1)]. (T2– T1)

Effect of Compression

After suction, the compression process can be isothermal, polytropic or isentropic.

Process 1-2’shows the adiabatic process (PVγ = C) which can be obtained at high
speed without cooling the air.
Process 1-2 shows polytropic process (PVn = C) .It can be obtained at high speed
and cooling of air during compression.

Process 1-2” shows isothermal process (PV = constant) which can be achieved at
low speed and perfect cooling of air during the compression.

It may be noted that the work done in each cycle is different, and is the least when
the compression is isothermal.

Efficiencies of Compressor

The effective performance of a compressor is determined by its efficiencies.

Isothermal efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of isothermalpower to the indicator power (actual power).

Isothermal efficiency = (Isothermal power )/(indicator power )

ηISO = Piso /ppoly= Piso /pact

Mechanical Efficiency

It is the ratio of indicated power of the compressor to the brake power.

ηmech = I. P / B. P

Overall Isothermal efficiency

The ratio of Isothermal power of the compressor to the shaft power (required to
drive the compressor) is known as overall efficiency.

Overall Isothermal efficiency = Isothermal power /shaft power

Shaft power or brake power is the power supplied to compressor from the prime
mover and is obtained from brake test.

Volumetric efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of actual volume of air drawn per stroke at STP to the
piston displacement.

Volumetric efficiency = actual volume of air drawn per stroke at STP /stroke
volume

The actual volume air drawn into the compressor, measured at STP conditions
iscalled free air.

The volume of free air delivered FAD will be less than the swept or stroke volume
of the piston.

The volume of free air compressed and delivered per minute is known as capacity
of compressor.

Volumetric efficiency = compressor capacity /piston displacement.

Numerical Problems

1.Compute the work required to Compress 1 kg of air at 25 °C and 100 kpa

to10Mpa pressure if the compression process is :

I) Isothermal
II) Adiabatic and
III) polytropic with n= 1.35.
Solution :

m =1 kg ,P1 = 100kpa, T1 = 25+273 = 298K.

P2= 10 Mpa = 10×106/103 = 10×103 kPa

Assume R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.

I) Isothermal compression

∲ W = mR T1 loge (P2/ P1)

= 1×0.287×298× loge (10000/ 100)

= 393.86kJ

II) Adiabatic compression

∲ W = (γ / γ –1) mR T1 [(P2/ P1) γ –1/ γ – 1 ]

= (1.4/1.4–1) ×1×0.287×298[(10000/ 100) 1.4 –1/ 1.4 – 1 ]

= 299.34×2.7276

= 816.48kJ.

III) Polytropic process with n = 1.35

∲ W = (n/n–1) mR T1 [(P2/ P1) n–1/n– 1 ]

= (1.35/1.35–1) ×1×0.287×298[(10000/ 100) 1.35–1/1.35– 1 ]

= 329.886×2.3

= 758.74kJ

2.A single stage, single acting reciprocating compressor is required to compress

0.015 m3 of air per cycle from 1 bar to 6 bar pressure. Calculate the power required
if the compresor runs at 180RPM under the following conditions of compression.
a) Isothermal b) polytropic, n = 1.25 c) adiabatic, γ = 1.4.

Solution :

a) Isothermal compression

V1 = 0.015 m3/cycle

P1 = 1 bar = 100kN/m2

P2 = 6 bar = 600kN/m2

For Isothermal process V1/ V2= P2/ P1 = r

∲ W = P1V1 loge (r) = P1V1 loge (P2/ P1)

= 100×0.015 loge (6/ 1)

= 2.687kJ/cycle.

Power required, P = ∲ W.N/60

= (2.687×180)/60

= 8.061kW

Polytropic Compression

∲ W = (n/n–1) P1V1 [(P2/ P1) n–1/n– 1 ]

= (1.25/1.25–1) × 100×0.015 [(6/ 1) 1.25–1/1.25– 1 ]

= 7.5×0.431

= 3.232 kJ/cycle.

Power required, P = ∲ W.N/60

= (3.232×180)/60
 = 9.696 kW.

Adiabatic Process

∲ W = (γ / γ –1) P1V1 [(P2/ P1) γ –1/ γ – 1 ]

= (1.4 / 1.4 –1) × 100×0.015 [(6/ 1) 1.4 –1/ 1.4 – 1 ]

= 5.25×0.668

= 3.504 kJ/cycle

Power required, P = ∲ W.N/60

= (3.507×180)/60

= 10.521 kW.

3.In a single stage single acting air compressor of 30 cm diameter, 40 cm stroke

makes 100 RPM. It takes air at 1 bar and 20 °C at a pressure of 5 bar. Calculate the
mean effective pressure and power required to drive it when compression is
Isothermal and adiabatic.

Solution :

P1 = 1 bar, P2 = 5 bar

d=30 cm = 0.3 m, l = 40 cm = 0.4m,N = 100RPM

Neglecting Clearance volume

V1=Vs = (π/4)d2 ×l

= (π/4)(0.3)2×0.4

= 0.0283 m3/cycle

Considering Isothermal compression

∲ W = P1V1 loge (P2/ P1)

= 100×0.0283 loge (5/ 1)

= 4.55 KJ/cycle.

Pm. Vs = ∲ W = 4.55

Pm. = 4.55/0.0283

= 160.78 kN/m2

= 1.6078 bar

Power required ,P = ∲ W.N/60

= (4.55×100)/60

= 7.58kW

Considering adiabatic compression (γ = 1.4 )

∲ W = (1.4 / 1.4 –1) ×100×0.0283 [(5/ 1) 1.4 –1/ 1.4 – 1 ]

= (1.4 / 0.4) ×100×0.0283 [(5/ 1) 0.4/ 1.4 – 1 ]

= 5.78KJ/ cycle.

Pm. = 5.78/0.0283

= 204.24 kN/m2

= 2.0424 bar

Power required,

P = ∲ W.N/60

= (5.78×100)/60
 = 9.63kW

4.The following data relates to a double acting single cylinder 7.5 kW air
compressor

Suction pressure = 0.9 bar

Delivery pressure = 6 bar

Average piston speed = 120m/min.

Law of compression, pV1.25= constant

Determine the cylinder dimensions if stroke to diameter ratio is 1.25.Neglect the

clearance volume.

Solution :

P1 = 0.9 = 90 kN/m2,P2 = 6bar = 600kN/m2

2 LN = 120m/min.

L/d = 1.25.

Work done per cycle = pm×vs = (n/n–1) P1V1 [(P2/ P1) n–1/n– 1 ]

Neglecting clearance volume, Vs = V1

pm = (n/n–1) P1V1 [(P2/ P1) n–1/n– 1 ]

= (1.25/1.25–1) ×90 [(600/ 90) 1.25–1/1.25– 1 ]

= 207.65kN/m2

Indicated power , I .P=( pm . ×a. × l. × 2N)/60

7.5=( 207 .65×a. × 120)/60

a=(60× 7.5)/ ( 207 .65 × 120)

a=0.01806m2

We have a = (π/4 )d2

0.01806 = (π/4 )d2

d= √(4×0.01806)/π

d= 151 mm

Stroke length, l = 151 ×1.25

L = 189mm

Numerical Problems

1. Air at 1 bar and 27 °C is taken into single stage single acting reciprocating
air compressor with law of pV1.1 = constant to a final pressure of 7 bar and
compressor takes 1m3/min.Calculate the indicated power and Isothermal
efficiency. Also calculate the cylinder dimensions and power of the motor
required to drive compressor. Speed of compressor 5 rps.stroke to bore ratio
1:5 , ηmech = 85%, ηtrans = 90%

Solution:

P1 = 1 bar, P2 = 7 bar

T1= 27+273 = 300K.

V1 = 1m3/min

N = 5 rps = 300 r.p.m.

W = (n/n–1) P1V1 [(P2/ P1) n–1/n– 1 ]

 = (1.1/1.1–1) ×100 ×1 [(7/ 1) 1.1–1/1.1 – 1 ]

= (1.1/0.1) ×100 ×1 [(7/ 1) 0.1/1.1 – 1 ]

= 212.86 kJ/min.

Indicated power = 212.86/60

= 3.548kW.

In case of Isothermal compression,

W = P1V1 loge (r) = P1V1 loge (P2/ P1)

= 100×1loge (7/ 1)

= 194.59kJ/min.

Piso = 194.59/60

= 3.243 kW.

Isothermal Efficiency = Piso /Pact

= [3.243/3.548] × 100

= 91.4%

Cylinder Dimensions

Volume drawn per cycle = 1/300

= 3.33 ×10−3 m3.

Neglecting clearance,

V1 = (π/4 )d2 × L

L/d = 1.5
π ×1.5 d3 /4 = 3.33 ×10−3

d= 3√(3.33 ×10−3×4)/ π ×1.5

d = 0.1414m = 141.4 m.

And l= 1.5 ×141.4 = 212.1 m

Power of the motor :

Consider efficiency of compressor

ηmech = IP/BP

BP = (IP/ ηmech )

= 3.548/0.85 = 4.174 kW.

Consider transmission efficiency :

Power of motor = 4.174/0.9

= 4.638 kW.

2.Following data relates to a performance test of a single acting 14cm × 10 cm

reciprocating compressor :

Suction pressure = 1 bar

Suction temperature = 20 °C

Discharge pressure = 6 bar.

Discharge temperature = 180 °C

Speed of the turbine = 1200 rpm

Shaft power = 6.25 kW.

Mass of air delivered = 1.7 kg /min.

Calculate the following by showing the process on p-v and T-s diagram :

 The actual volumetric efficiency

 The indicated power
 Isothermal efficiency
 Mechanical efficiency
 Overall Isothermal efficiency.

Solution :

d = 14 cm = 0.14 m, l = 10cm = 0.1 m, N = 1200rpm, m = 1.7kg/min.

P1 = 1 bar = 100 kN/m2

T1 = 20+273 = 293 K.

Assume R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.

Actual volumetric efficiency :

Swept Volume, Vs = (π/4)d2×L×N

= (π/4)(0.14)2×0.1×1200

= 1.847 m3/min .

Free air delivered, V1 = mRT1/P1

= (1.7 ×0.287×293)/100

= 1.429 m3/min .

Volumetric efficiency = FAD /Vs

= (1.429/1.847) ×100
 = 77.38%.

Indicated power :

T2/T1 = (P2/P1)n−1/n

n−1/n = ln (T2/T1) / ln(P2/P1)

= ln (453/293) / ln(6/1)

= 0.2432.

n−1/n = 0.2432.

n−1= 0.2432. n

0.7568 n = 1 or n = 1.32.

Wnet = (n/ n−1)mRT1 [(P2/P1)n−1/n −1]

= (1.32/1.32−1) ×1.7×0.287 × 293 [(6/1)1.32−1/1.32 −1]

= 320.78 kJ/min.

IP = 320.78 /60

= 5.346 Kw

Isothermal Efficiency

Isothermal work = mRT1log e(P2/P1)

= 1.7×0.287 × 293 log e(6/1)

= 256.14 kJ/min.

Isothermal Power = 256.14/60 = 4.296Kw

ηiso = Piso/Pind
 = [4.269/5.346] ×100

= 79.85%

Mechanical Efficiency

ηmech = Pind/Psh

= [5.346/6.25] ×100

= 85.5%

Overall Isothermal efficiency :

ηiso,overall= Piso/Psh

= [4.269/6.25] ×100 = 68.3%

3.A Compressor discharges 0.5 m3 per min free air at 6.5 bar.Free air is measured
at 1 bar and 15 °C. Isothermal compression efficiency is 0.72 Mechanical
efficiency is 0.9 .Determine the shaft power.

Solution :

P1 = 1 bar,

P2 = 6.5 bar.

Volume of free air = 0.5 m3 per min

W ISO = P1 V1log e(P2/P1)

= 100× 0.5 log e(6.5/1)

= 93.59 kJ/min.

Piso = 93.59 /60

= 1.5598kW.
Considering the compression efficiency

Indicated power = Isothermal power /Isothermal efficiency

IP = 1.5598/ 0.72

= 2.166 kW

Shaft power (BP) = IP/ ηmech

= 2.166/0.9

= 2.407 kW.

Single stage Air compressor with Clearance ,clearance ratio, work done
volumetric efficiency.

Single stage Air compressor with Clearance

In actual compressor there is a free space between cylinder cover and the piston at
the end of discharge stroke position. This free space is called Clearance volume.

The clearance is essential in a compressor at allow space for valve operation and to
provide mechanical freedom.
At the end of delivery stroke (2-3) some air remains in the clearance space at
delivery pressure (p2),because piston will move only up-to 3.

This air will expand down to suction pressure (Point4) before a fresh air is
introduced. Therefore free air enters the cylinder from point 4 to 1.

Thus the actual volume of air taken in is (V 1 – V4),although the piston has
transferred of (V1 – V3).This effect reduce the capacity of the Compressor.

Clearance ratio :

The clearance ratio (k) may be defined as a ratio of the clearance volume (V c) to
the piston displacement (V1 – V3).

Clearance ratio, k = [V3/(V1 – V3)]

= Vc/ VS

Vc = V3 = k VS

Volumetric efficiency :

Considering clearance,

volumetric efficiency = effective swept volume /swept volume

ηV = VS –(V4 – V3)/ (VS)

= VS – V3 [(V4 / V3 )–1) ]/ (VS)

But V3 = k VS and. V4 / V3 = (P3/P4)1/n = (P2/P1)1/n

ηV = VS – k VS [(P2/P1)1/n –1) ]/ (VS)

= 1– k(P2/P1)1/n +k

ηV = 1+k– k(P2/P1)1/n
 It may be noted that for given pressure ratio, (P 2/P1) the volumetric efficiency
increases as clearance ratio decreases.

Then the compressor with small clearance will have higher volumetric
efficiency.

For a given Clearance ratio (k) volumetric efficiency decreases with increase in
pressure ratio.

In practice, the air that is sucked in during suction stroke differ from STP
conditions.

Considering p0 and T0 are pressure and temperature of air at STP, and V1 is the
effective stroke volume.

p0 V0/ T0 = p1V1/T1

V0= [p1 T0/ p0T1]. V1

= [p1 T0/ p0T1]. V1

= [p1 T0/ p0T1]. (V1– V4)

ηV = V0/ VS

= [p1 T0/ p0T1]. [(V1– V4)/ (V1 – V3)]

ηV = [p1 T0/ p0T1]. 1+k– k(P2/P1)1/n

Expression for Work done :

Work of compression = area 01250

= (n/n–1)p1V1[(P2/P1) n–1/n–1) ]

Work done during Expansion = area 04350

 = (n/n–1)p4V4[(P3/P4) n–1/n –1) ]

= (n/n–1)p1V4[(P2/P1) n–1/n –1) ].

Net work done per cycle = area 01250 – area04350

= (n/n–1)p 1V1[(P2/P1) n–1/n –1) ] –(n/n–1)p1V4[(P2/P1) n–1/n –

1) ].

= (n/n–1)p1 (V1– V4) [(P2/P1) n–1/n –1) ]

∲W = (n/n–1) p1effective stroke volume [(P2/P1) n–1/n –1) ]

Then I. P = (∲W .N)/60 for single acting compressor

= (∲W 2.N)/60 for double acting compressor.

N = rpm of compressor.

Effect of clearance

 Work done per kg will not change, but required to drive a compressor will
be reduced.
 Clearance reduces volumetric efficiency due to decrease in effective swept
volume.

Actual PV diagram
In this case, the suction and delivery pressures are not constant due to throttling
effect in suction and delivery valve.

The suction takes place in the cylinder at a pressure less than the atmospheric
pressure and the discharge takes place at a pressure greater than the delivery
pressure in the delivery pipe line.

Factors influencing the volumetric efficiency

An increase in delivery pressure reduces the effective swept volume (v 1 –v4’) <(v1 –
v4),there will be a corresponding decrease in volumetric efficiency.

The volumetric efficiency decreases rapidly with increase in delivery pressure at

first, and then more slowly for later high pressure.

Leakage of air past the piston will also decreases the amount of air delivered, and
as the delivery pressure is increased,more air will leak past the piston during the
compression process.

Frictional effects in the air itself and turbulence in air passages give rise to a
reduction in the suction pressure in the cylinder and subsequently volumetric
efficiency decreases.

The air drawn into the cylinder at a lower temperature than the expanded air left in
the clearance will decrease the volumetric efficiency.
The incoming air is heated, and thus expands and allows less quantity of air into
cylinder .

As a result volumetric efficiency is decreased.

Unit -5

Module -6

Numerical Problems

1.A single stage, double acting compressor has a free air delivery of 14
m3/min,measured at 1.013 bar and 15 °C. The pressure and temperature in the
cylinder during induction are 0.95 bar 15 °C.The delivery pressure is 7 bar and
index of compression and expansion is 1.3.clearance Volume is 5% of the swept
volume. Calculate I) Indicated power II) volumetric efficiency.

Solution :

V0= 14 m3/min, n= 1.3

At T0 = 288K, p0 = 101.3 kN/m2

Suction conditions

P1= 95 kN/m2 , T1 = 288K

V1 = p0V0/p1

= (101.3 ×14) /95

= 14.928 m3/min.

Indicated Power

Indicated Power = (n/n–1)p1V1[(P2/P1) n–1/n–1) ]

 = (1.3 /0.3) × (95 ×14.928)/60[(7/0.95) 0.3/1.3 –1]

= 59.967 kW.

Volumetric efficiency

ηV = [p1 T0/ p0T1]. 1+k– k(P2/P1)1/n

Given clearance volume is 5 % of the swept volume.

VC = 5% of swept volume

VC = 0.05 Vs

We know that k = VC/VS

K = 0.05 Vs/ VS

K = 0.05

ηV = 1+0.05– 0.05(7/0.95)1/1.3[(95/101.35) × (288/288)].

= 0.817 ×95/101.3

= 0.766

= 76.6%

2.A single stage single acting compressor delivers 14 m3 of free air per minute
from 1 bar pressure to 7 bar. The speed of the compressor is 300 r. p. m. Assuming
that compression and expansion follows the law pv1.35 = constant and Clearance is
5% of swept volume, find the diameter and stroke of the compressor. Take stroke
length is 1.5 times the bore diameter.

Solution :

Volume of free air delivered = 14 m3 per minute.

 = 14/300 = 0.0467 m3 / cycle .

Volumetric efficiency = 1+k– k(P2/P1)1/n

Where K = clearance ratio = 5/100 = 0.05

Volumetric efficiency = 1+0.05 – 0.05(7/1)1/1.35

= 0.839 = 83.9%

Volumetric efficiency = free air delivered /swept volume

0.839 = 0.0467/Vs

Vs = 0.0467/0.839

= 0.0556 m3/cycle.

Vs =( π/4) d2 × L

0.0556 = ( π/4) d2 × 1.5d

d= 3√(4×0.0556)/ π ×1.5

d = 0.361 m

= 361 mm

L = 1.5 ×361 = 541.5mm

3. A single stage double acting air compressor running at 5 rps delivers air at 7 bar
from 1 bar and 27 °C.The amount of free air delivered is 0.015 m 3/sec.If the
clearance volume is 5 % of swept volume and index of expansion /compression is
1.3.calculate the volumetric efficiency, indicated power and cylinder dimensions if
L/D is 1.2.

Solution :
P1 = 1 bar ,P2 = 7 bar

Free air delivered = 0.015 m3/sec,N = 5 rps

Clearance ratio, k = 0.05

Volumetric efficiency = 1+k– k(P2/P1)1/n

= 1+0.05– 0.05(7/1)1/1.3

= (1.05–0.223) = 0.827 = 82.7%

W = (n/n–1)p1V1[(P2/P1) n–1/n–1) ]

= (1.3 /0.3) × 100 ×0.15)[(7/1) 0.3/1.3 –1]

= 65×0.5668

= 36.842 kJ/sec.

Indicated power = 36.842 kw

Stroke volume = V1/ ηV

= 0.15/0.827

= 0.1814 m3/sec

For double acting,

( π/4) d2 × L× 2N = 0.1814

But l = 1.2 d

( π/4) d2 × 1.2 d × 2×5 = 0.1814

( π/4) × 1.2 d3 × 2×5 = 0.1814

d = 3√(0.1814 ×4)/( π × 1.2 × 10)

 = 0.268 m

d = 268 mm

L = 1.2 ×268 = 321.6mm

Numerical Problems -II

1.A Single acting single -stage compressor has a cylinder of 200 my diameter and
300 mm stroke. It runs at a speed of 500 RPM. The air is taken in at standard
atmospheric pressure and temperature. The compression pressure is 6 bar. The
clearance volume is 5% of the stroke volume. The index of compression and
expansion is 1.3.Detetmine

 Volumetric efficiency, and

 The brake power required to drive the compressor, if the mechanical
efficiency is 75%.

Solution :

Intake conditions

Pressure, po = 101.3kN/m2= 1.013 bar

Temperature To = (15+273) = 288K.

Volumetric efficiency

Volumetric efficiency = (V1−V4)/(V1−V3)

To find Cylinder volume, V1:

V1 = Vc+ Vs

Stroke volume, Vs = (V1−V3) = (π/4) × d2×L

= (π/4) ×(0.2)2×0.3 = 0.00942m3

Clearance volume VC = V3 = 0.05(Vs)

VC = V3 = 0.05(0.00942)

VC = V3 = 0.00989m3

Now, cylinder volume

V1 = Vc+ Vs

V1 = 0.000471+ 0.00942 =0.00989m3

To find volume, V4:

Considering polytropic expansion process ,(3-4)

V4 = V3(p3/p4)1/n

= 0.000471(6/1.013)1/1.3

=0.00185 m3

Volumetric efficiency = (0.00989−0.00185)/(0.00989−0.000471)

= (0.00804/0.00942)×100

= 85.3%

Brake power required to drive the compressor :

Work required /cycle = (n/n−1)P1(V1−V4)[(p2/p1)n−1/n– 1]

= (1.3/1.3−1)×101.3 (0.00804)[(6/1)1.3−1/1.3– 1]

= (3.529×0.5076)

= 1.79 kJ/cycle

INDICATED POWER = (∲W. N)/60

 = (1.79 ×500)/60

= 14.93 kW

Mechanical efficiency = 80%

ηmech = I. P/B.P

B. P = 14.93 /0.8

B. P = 18.66kw

2.A single stage Air compressor is required to deal with 30m3 of free air per hour
at 1 bar. The delivery pressure at 450 RPM is 6.5 bar. Calculate the clearance
ratio, the IMEP, B. P if the mechanical efficiency is 0.8 ,isthothermal efficiencyis
0.76 and volumetric efficiency is 0.75.

Solution : P1 = 1 bar, p2 = 6.5 bar, N= 450 RPM

To find clearance ratio

Volumetric efficiency ,ηV= 1+k −k (p2/p1)1/n

0.75 = 1+k −k (6.5)1/1.4

2.807 k = 0.25

k = 0.25/2.807

= 0.089= 8.9%

Indicated Mean effective Pressure

IMEP, pm= ∲W/ Vs

For finding indicated work :

Indicated work = Isothermal work /Isothermal

Isothermal work ∲W = p1V1loge(p2/p1)

Free air delivered per cycle, = 30/(60×450)

= 1.1×10−3m3

= 100×1.1×10−3loge(6.5/1)

= 0.2059kJ/cycle.

Indicated work = 0.2709 /0.76

= 0.2709 kJ/cycle.

For finding stroke volume

Volumetric efficiency = free air delivered /stroke volume

0.75 =1.1×10−3/Vs

Vs = 1.1×10−3 / 0.75

Vs = 1.47×10−3

IMEP, pm= ∲W/ Vs

= 0.2709/1.47×10−3

IMEP = 1.843 bar

IP = (∲W. N)/60

=(0.2709×450)/60

= 2.032 kW

B. P = I. P/ ηmech

= 2.032 /0.8
 = 2.54kW

3. An air compressor with a clearance 5% of the stroke, draws in air at 0.965 bar,
compress it according to law pv1.25= constant and delivers at 4.14 bar. Find the
volumetric efficiency, if the temperature of air with in the cylinder during suction
stroke at 30 °C.

Solution :

STP conditions

P0 = 101.3 kN/m2

T0 = (15+273) = 288K

Suction Conditions

P1 = 0.965 bar 96.5 kN/m2

T1 = 30+273 = 303 K

Clearance ratio, K = (5/100) = 0.05

Volumetric efficiency = [1+k −k (p2/p1)1/n] p1T0/p0T1

= [1+0.05 −0.05(4.14/0.965)1/1.25].(96.5 ×288)/101.3×303

= 0.8897 ×0.9054

= 0.805 = 80.5%.

Methods of saving the work -Multi stage compressor

Methods of saving the work

The energy required for compressing is at least if it is possible to compress the air
isothermally.
But Isothermal compression is not practicable. However it is possible to get
Isothermal compression approximately.

The methods are used to bring the compression near to the Isothermal
compression.

 Cold water -spray

 Cooling the compressor cylinder with water jacket.
 Multi stage compression.

Cold water -spray

In this method cold water is sprayed in to the cylinder to reduce the temperature of
air.

The effect of this is to decrease the value of compression index nearer to the
Isothermal. The work saved by cold water spray is represented by shaded area in
the indicator diagram.

1-2’ represents the compression when the cold water is sprayed into the cylinder.

Cooling the compressor cylinder with water jacket :

This results the change in the value of index n near to unity, thus reduce the work
necessary to run the compressor.

Multi -Stage Compression

In this method, the air is compressed in two or more stages in separate cylinders.

The air after compression in first cylinder is passed to an inter cooler, where it is
cooled by air or water before passing to the next high pressure cylinder .

By this method, air is effectively cooled, and if intercooling I’d perfect, the
temperature of air is returned to initial temperatures.

This method is more effective than the water jacketing the cylinder and cold water
spray into the cylinder.

Inter Cooler

Inter cooler is a heat exchanger in which heat is removed from the air after
compression. Cooling water passes through the tubes and air circulates over the
tubes through a system of baffles.
Inter cooler is mounted horizontally between the cylinders. The air, after
compression, in the first stage passes through an inter cooler where it is cooled to
initial suction temperature (if cooling is complete) ,and then is passed to high
pressure cylinder and compressed.

The compressed air from the HP cylinder in some times passed through an after
cooler to cool the air before entering into the receiver. This avoids receiver to store
air at high temperature.

Multi stage Compressor

The compression of air in single stage had many disadvantages and its use is
limited where low pressure is required.

Compression of air to high delivery pressure in a single stage may require large
cylinder, and to withstand high pressure, the cylinder wall must be thick, making it
heavy and bulky .

Multi stage compression is more efficient and mostly employed for rising the high
pressure .
Advantages

 It provides a facility to install an inter cooler between the stages.

 Less power is required to deliver the same quantity of air at the same
delivery pressure.
 The mechanical balance of the machine is also better due to phasing of the
operations in stages.
 In each stage the pressure range may be kept within the desired limits,
resulting in small losses of air due to leakage and improved volumetric
efficiency.
 Better lubrication due to lower temperature.
 The low pressure cylinder of a multi stage compressor may be lighter since
the maximum pressure there in is low, resulting in low weight for a given
capacity.

Work required for maximum efficiency

The work required for multi stage compression is less for the same inlet conditions
and the same delivery pressure than the single stage compression.
In low pressure cylinder, the air is compressed to intermediate pressure, p 2
according to the law pvn = constant .

Work required per cycle in L. P cylinder

W1 = (n/n−1).p1V1[(p2/p1) (n−1/n) – 1]

Similarly, the air is compressed in 2 stage to increase pressure from p 2 to delivery

pressure p3.

Work required per cycle in HP cylinder

W2 = (n/n−1).p2V2[(p3/p2) (n−1/n) – 1]

Total work required,

W = (n/n−1)[ p1V1{(p2/p1) (n−1/n) – 1} + p2V2{(p3/p2) (n−1/n) – 1}] ….1

If the intercooling is perfect, the point 2’ will be on the Isothermal line means at
point 2.

Then p1 V1 = p2 V2

Substitute this in equation (1)

W = (n/n−1)p1V1[(p2/p1) (n−1/n) +(p3/p2) (n−1/n) – 2]

If the compression is adiabatic, then the total work done

W = (γ/ γ−1)p1V1[(p2/p1) (n−1/n) +(p3/p2) (n−1/n) – 2]

Power required = W. N /60

Where N = speed of compressor in RPM

HEAT REJECTED IN INTERCOOLER

Heat rejected in intercooler = m. Cp(T2’− T2).if intercooling is perfect T2 = T1

Conditions for Maximum efficiency, Numerical Problems

Conditions for Maximum efficiency:

In figure(b) ,the shaded area represents work saved in carrying out compression in
two stages with intercooling.

In figure (a), the intermediate pressure is quite low relative to P 3,whereas in figure
(b) the intermediate pressure is high.
In both cases the amount of work saved is small as in figure(c ).It shows that there
exists an optimum value of P2 for which the work required will be a minimum
means work saved will be maximum.

To determine the optimum value for intermediate pressure, the following

Assumptions are made :

 The indices of compression in each cylinder are equal means compression in

each cylinder follows the law pVn = constant .
 Intercooling is complete and perfect, means the air is cooled back to initial
temperature T1 in the inter cooler.
 There is no pressure loss in inter cooler
 Suction and delivery of air takes place at constant pressure
 The effects of clearance are neglected.

The work required per cycle for 2 -stage air compressor with perfect intercooling is
given by the equation.

W = (n/n−1)p1V1[(p2/p1)(n−1/n)+(p3/p2)(n−1/n)– 2]……(1)

For fixed intake and delivery pressures, and for a constant value of n, the only
variable for a given compressor is p2.

The optimum value of p2can be obtained by differentiating the above equation .

Noting that n, p1 and V1 are constant.Thus (n/n−1)p1V1= constant.

Let (n−1/n) = a

W = constant ×[(p2/p1)a +(p3/p2)a– 2]

W = constant ×[(p2)a(p1)−a +(p3)a(p2)−a– 2]

Differentiating the above equation

dW/dp2 = a. (p2)a−1 (p1)−a−a.(p2)−a−1(p3)a

For minimum work

dW/dp2 = 0

a(p2) a−1 (p1)−a− a. (p2) −a−1 ( p3) a = 0

a(p2) a−1 (p1)−a= a. (p2) −a−1 ( p3) a

Dividing throughout by a, and re -arranging the terms

(a(p2) a−1 (p1)–a)/a= (a. (p2) −a−1 ( p3) a)/a

(p2) a/ (p1a.p2)= (p3) a/ (p2a.p2)
Multiplying through out by p2
[(p2) a/ (p1a.p2) ] ×p2= [(p3) a/ (p2a.p2)]×p2
p2/p1 = p3/p2. ……(2)
Hence ,for maximum efficiency the pressure ratio in each cylinder is same.
From equation (2),the optimum value of p2 is given by the equation
p2= √(p1× p3)
Hence ,for maximum efficiency, the intermediate pressure is the geometric
mean of the suction and delivery pressures.
From equation (1) & (2) it is clear that the work done in each stage is same.
Work done per cycle
W = (2n/n−1)p1V1[(p2/p1)(n−1/n)−1].
Numerical Problems
1. Find the power required to compress 25 m 3/h of air at 101.3 kpa,20°C to a
pressure ratio of 7 in LP cylinder, cooled at constant pressure to 25°C in an
intercooler, then again compressed in HP cylinder to a pressure ratio of 6.0.

Solution :
 T1 = 20+273 =293K, T2 = 25+273 =298K

p2/p1 = 7, v1= 25/60 = 0.417m3/min

p1 = 101.3kpa,p2 = 7×101.3 = 709.1kpa.

p3/p2 =6
For finding v2:
v2= (p1/p2)(T2/T1).v1
= (1/7)×(298/293).×0.417
v2= 0.06 m3/min
Power required :
Powered required = work done /60
For finding out work done by the compressor

W = (n/n−1)[p1V1{(p2/p1)(n−1/n)– 1} +p2V2{(p3/p2)(n−1/n)– 1}]

Assuming n= 1.4

W = (1.4/1.4−1)[101.3×0.417{(7)(1.4−1/1.4)– 1} +709.1×0.06{(6)(1.4−1/1.4)– 1}]

W = 3.5(31.413+28.442)

W = 209.49 kJ/min.

Power required :

Power required = 209.49/60

= 3.4915 kJ/sec.

2. In a two stage compressor, the work output is found to be 350 kJ per kg of

air. It is used to compress 1 kg of free air from 1 bar pressure and 32 °C
initial temperature. If the value of n= 1.3 and R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.Find the
intermediate pressure.
Solution :T 1 = 32 +273 = 305 K,p1= 1 bar ,W = 350 kJ/kg.

Intermediate pressure :

p2= √(p1× p3)

For finding p3 pressure :

Work done for two stage air compressor,

W = (2n/n−1)mRT1[(p3/p1) (n−1/2n) −1].

= (2×1.3/1.3−1)1×0.287×305[(p3/p1) (1.3−1/2×1.3) −1].

350 = 758.64 [(p3/p1) (0.3/2.6) −1].

(p3/p1) (0.3/2.6)= [(350/758.64)+1]

(p3/p1) (0.3/2.6)= 1.4613

p3= p1×(1.4613)2.6/0.3

= 1×26.77

p3 = 26.77 bar

Intermediate pressure

p2= √(1×26.77)
P2 = 5.17 bar

Numerical Problems

1.2kg/sec of air enters the LP cylinder of 2 -stage compressor. The overall pressure
ratio is 9:1. The air at inlet to the compressor is at 100kpa andy35°C. The index of
compression in each cylinder is 1.3.Find the inter cooler pressure for perfect
intercooling. Also find the minimum power required for compressor and
percentage saved over single stage compressor.

Solution :

m = 2 kg/sec,p1 = 100kpa,T1 = 35+273 = 308 K

n = 1.3 ; p3/p1 = 9

Inter cooler pressure :

p2 = √(p1 ×p3)

For finding p3:

p3/p1 = 9

p3 = p1 ×9

= 100×9

p3= 900kpa

p2 = √(p1 ×p3)

= √(100 ×900)

p2= 300kpa

Minimum Power required

For two stage air compressor

W1 = (2n/n−1)mRT1[(p3/p1) (n−1/n) −1].

= (2×1.3/1.3−1) ×2 ×0.287×308[(300/100) (1.3−1/1.3) −1].

= 1532.2 × 0.2885
 = 442.04 kJ/sec.

Minimum power required, P1 = 442.04kW

Consider single air Compressor

W1 = (n/n−1)mRT1[(p2/p1) (n−1/n) −1].

= (1.3/1.3−1) ×2 ×0.287×308[(9/1) (1.3−1/1.3) −1].

= 766.1× 0.6604

= 505.92kJ/sec.

Minimum power required, P2= 505.92kW

Power saved :

% saved = (P2 −P1)/P2 × 100

= (505.92 −442.05)/505.92× 100

= 12.62%.

2.Air from an initial conditions of 25° C and 1 bar is compressed in 2 stage

according to the law pV1.25 = constant,and with complete intercooling to a pressure
of 36 bar. Estimate the minimum work required and heat rejected in the inter
cooler per kg of air.

Solution : P1 = 1 bar, T1 = 25 +273 = 298 K, p3 = 36 bar

For minimum work:

W = (n/n−1)mRT1[(p2/p1) (n−1/n) −1].

For minimum work, intermediate pressure,

p2 = √(p1 ×p3)
 = √(1 ×36)

p2= 6 bar

W1 = (2n/n−1)mRT1[(p2/p1) (n−1/n) −1].

= (2×1.25/1.25−1) ×1 ×0.29×298[(6/1) (1.25−1/1.25) −1].

= 864.2 × 0.4309

= 372.38kJ

Heat rejected in the inter cooler:

= mCp(T2'−T2)

For finding the value of T2':

T2’/T1 = (p2/p1) (n−1/n)

T2’ = T1 .(p2/p1) (n−1/n)

= 298 (6/1) (1.25−1/1.25)

T2’ = 426.43 K

Heat rejected in inter cooler = mCp(T2'−T2)

= 1 ×1.005 (426.43−298)

= 134.85kJ/kg.

3.A two stage air compressor compresses air from 1 bar, 20° C to 42 bar. If the
law of compression is pV1.35 = constant and intercooling is perfect. Find per kg of
air 1) the work done in compression 2)the mass of cooling water necessary for
abstracting the heat in the inter cooler, if the temperature rise of the cooling water
is 25° C.
Solution : P1 = 1 bar, T1 = 20 +273 = 293 K, p3 = 42 bar ,n = 1.35.

Assume R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.and Cp = 1.05kJ/kgK

For minimum work, intermediate pressure,

p2 = √(p1 ×p3)

= √(1 ×42)

p2= 6 .48bar

Work done in Compressor :

W1 = (2n/n−1)mRT1[(p2/p1) (n−1/n) −1].

= (2×1.35/1.35−1) ×1 ×0.287×293[(6.48/1) (1.35−1/1.35) −1].

= 648.7 × 0.623

= 414.14 kJ/kg

Mass of cooling water :

Heat rejected in inter cooler = heat carried away by water

mCp(T2'−T2) = mCp(TC2'−TC1)

For finding the value of T2':

T2’/T1 = (p2/p1) (n−1/n)

T2’ = T1 .(p2/p1) (n−1/n)

= 293 (6.48/1) (1.35−1/1.35)

T2’ = 475.64 K = 202.64 ° C

Mass of cooling water

 mc = 1×1.05 × ( 202.64 −20) / 4.1875×25

mc = 1.832kg

1.A two -stage single acting reciprocating compressor takes in air at the rate of 0.2
m3/sec.The intake pressure and temperature of air are 0.1MPa and 16°C.The air is
compressed to a final pressure of 0.7 MPa. The intermediate pressure is ideal and
intercooling is perfect. The compression index in both the stages is 1.25 and
compressor runs at 600 r. p. m. Neglecting clearance, determine 1)the intermediate
pressure 2) total volume of each cylinder 3)the power required to drive the
compressor and 4) the rate of heat rejection in the inter cooler. Take C p = 1.005
kJ/kgK and R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K.

Solution :

V1 = 0.2 m3/sec ,P1 = 0.1MPa = 0.1 × 103 kPa = 100kpa,

T1 = 16+273 = 289 K, p3= 0.7Mpa = 700kpa,N = 600 rpm; n =1.25 ,Cp = 1.005
kJ/kgK ,R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.

Intermediate Pressure :

With perfect intercooling,

p2 = √(p1 ×p3)

= √(0.1 ×0.7)

p2= 0.2646MPa.

Volume of each cylinder :

Volume of LP cylinder, Vs1 = Free air delivered / speed

Volume of LP cylinder, Vs1 = (V1/600)×60

 = (0.2/600)×60

= 0.02 m3

For perfect cooling, p2vs2 = p1vs1

Volume of HP cylinder, vS2 = p1vs1/p2

= (0.1 ×0.02)/0.2646

= 0.00756m3

Power required to drive the compressor :

Wnet = (2n/n−1)p1v1[(p3/p1) (n−1/2n) −1].

= (2×1.25)/(1.25−1)×100×0.2[(0.7/0.1) (1.25−1/2×1.25) −1].

= 200×0.2148

= 42.96 kJ/sec.

Power required = 42.96kW

Heat rejected in intercooler :

Heat rejected in inter cooler = mCp(T2'−T2)

For finding m value :

Mass of air, m =p1v1 /mRT1

m =(100×0.2)/(0.287×289)

= 0.241 Kg/sec.

T2’ = T1.(p2/p1) (n−1/n)

= 289 (0.7/0.1)(1.25−1/1.25)
 T2’ =351.08K

Heat rejected in inter cooler = mCp(T2'−T2)

= 0.241×1.005(351.08−289)

= 15.036kJ/sec.

2.A 3-stage air compressor is used to compress air from 101.3kN/m 2 to 3600
kN/m2.The compression follows the law pv1.25 = C.The temperature of air at inlet of
compressor is 300K. Neglecting clearance and assuming complete
intercooling,find the indicated power required to deliver 15 m 3 of air per minute
measured at inlet conditions. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.

Solution :

P1 = 101.3kN/m2, p4=3600 kN/m2.V1 = 15 m3 /min

Indicated power :

Work done in 3-stage compressor

W = (3n/n−1)p1v1[(p4/p1) (n−1/3n) −1].

= (3×1.25)/(1.25−1)×101.3×15[(3600/101.3) (1.25−1/3×1.25) −1].

= 22792.5×0.2687

= 6124.35 kJ/min.

Indicated power = 6124.35/60 = 102.07kW

3.In a single acting, two stage reciprocating compressor air compressor 0.075 kg of
air per second is compressed from 1 bar and 15°C toa pressure of 9 bar according
to the law pV1.3 = constant .Both the stages have the same pressure ratio, and
clearance volumes of both stages are 5% of their respective swept volumes. If the
intercooling is complete, calculate the indicated power and cylinder swept volumes
required. Assume that the compressor runs at 300 rpm.

Solution :

P1= 1 bar = 100 kN/m2

T1 = 15+273 = 288K

P3= 9 bar = 900 kN/m2

N = 300 rpm = 300/60 = 5 rev/sec.

K = 5/100 = 0.05

m = 0.075 kg/sec.

Indicated Power :

IP = (2n/n−1)mRT1[(p2/p1) (n−1/n) −1].

To find intermediate pressure :

p2 = √(p1 ×p3)

= √(1 ×9)

= 3 bar = 300kN/m2

Indicated power

IP = (2n/n−1)mRT1[(p2/p1) (n−1/n) −1].

= (2×1.3/1.3−1)×0.075×0.287×288[(300/100) (1.3−1/1.3) −1].

= 53.726× 0.2885

= 15.5kw
 Swept volume of LP cylinder

Vs = (V1−V4)/ηv

To find Volumetric efficiency :

ηv = 1+k−k (p2/p1)1/n

= 1+0.05−0.05 (3/1)1/1.3

= 0.9336 = 93.36%

To find Volume of air drawn in,

(V1−V4)= mRT1/p1

m= mass of air delivered

m = 0.075/5

= 0.015kg/cycle.

Now ,(V1−V4)= mRT1/p1

= (0.075×0.287×288)/100

= 0.0124m3/cycle

ηv= (V1−V4)/Vs

Swept volume of LP cylinder

Vs = (V1−V4)/ηv

= 0.0124/0.9336

= 0.0133m3

Since the clearance ratio is same, and intercooling is complete, then

 P1Vs1 = p2Vs2

Vs2 = (p1/p2).Vs1

= (1/3)×0.0133

= 0.00443m3

Rotary Compressors,Types of Rotary compressors

Rotary Compressors

Introduction :

Reciprocating compressors are not suitable for high speed operations. Because of
large inertia forces, the reciprocating compressor need to operate at low speeds
which limits the capacity of the machine.

Rotary compressors do not possess ant reciprocating parts.

In rotary compressors, the air is trapped between two surfaces which are in rotation
and squeezed (compressed) to moderate pressures.

Salient Features of rotary compressors

 They supply large quantity of air

 The delivery pressure is relatively low.
 They run at much higher speeds
 They can be directly coupled to the prime movers.

Types of rotary compressors :

The rotary compressors are classified into two types :

1. positive displacement compressors

2. Dynamic or steady flow compressors
Positive displacement compressors :

The air is confined with in a closed space, and then the pressure is increased by
decreasing its volume.

Positive displacement type of rotary compressors include

 Roots blower
 Vane blower
 Lysholm compressor
 Screw Compressors

Dynamic or steady flow compressors :

The air trapped between the blades OT vanes, and is compressed by the dynamic
action rotating blades.

The dynamic type of rotary compressors include

 Centrifugal compressors
 Axial flow compressors.

ROOTS-BLOWER:

It consists of two rotors each having two lobes, and are closed in a casing. The
rotors rotates in opposite direction in a casing.

The energy for the blower taken from external source and is supplied to one of the
rotors while other one is driven from the first.

There is a small clearance between the rotors and then outer casing.This clearance
reduces the wear but forms a leakage path which has an adverse effect on the
performance of the blower.
As the rotor rotate the volume beneath them is increased,and is caused air to flow
into the blower.

In the position shown in figure (a), air is trapped between left hand rotor and
casing.

There is no change in volume (V) during rotation and hence no compression is

produced the rotor.

As soon as this space is opened to the discharge space , there is a back flow of air
into the blower from the receiver and pressure up-to the discharge limit.

The air is then pushed into the receiver from where the compressed air is delivered.

It may be noted that free air delivered per revolution will be 4 times V in case of 2
rotors and 6 times V in case of 3 rotors .

The air flow into receiver is intermittent ,though rotors rotate with uniform speed.

The capacities of roots blower range from 0.158 to 1400 m 3/ min with usual
pressure ratio of 2 to 1.

Roots blower are employed for scavenging and supercharging of I. C engines.

Vane Blower :
It consists of a circular casing in which a drum rotates. The centre of drum is
eccentric to the centre of casing.

The slots are cut in the drum to accommodate the straight blades (vanes). During
the rotation the vanes remain contact with the casing due to centrifugal force.

Working :

As the drum rotates, certain volume of air trapped between vanes drum and casing.
The air is partially compressed due to decrease in volume between the drum and
casing at the delivery side.

Further compression can be obtained irreversibly by back -flow of air from the
receiver as in case of roots blower, and delivery begins when the valves uncover
the delivery passage.

The vane blowers require less energy compared to roots blower and can deliver up
to 150 m3 / min at a pressure ratio up-to 8.5.
They are used for super charging in I. C engines, scavenging in 2 -stroke engines
and to raise the pressure of air in gas turbine.

Lysholm and screw compressors :

Lysholm and screw compressors have helical lobes that intermesh, and air trapped
is progressively compressed as it moves through the narrowing passage ways
formed by lobes.

They are quite efficient, but have a limited capacity as compared to other
compressors.

Analysis of Roots blower, vane blowers and Numerical Problems.

Roots blower:
IfV is the volume between rotor face and casing then free air delivers per
revolution is 4V.

Work required /revolution = (p2 −p1)4V.

If Vs is the volume handled /min at p1 and T1 ,then

Work required /min ,Wact= (p2 −p1)Vs.

If the compression from p1 to p2 is isentropic ,then

Work required / min, Wisen = (γ/ γ−1)p1Vs.[(p2/p1)(γ−1/ γ)−1]

Roots efficiency :

The performance of roots blower may be compared on the basis of roots efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of work required for iscentropic compression to the actual
work required.

Roots efficiency = iscentropic work /actual work

ηroot = Wisen /Wact

={(γ / γ−1)p1Vs.[(p2/p1)(γ−1/ γ)−1]}/[(p2 −p1)Vs.]

= {(γ / γ−1)[(p2/p1)(γ−1/ γ)−1]}/[p2/p1−1]

But γ / γ−1 = Cp /R and p2/p1 = r

ηroot = {Cp /R [(r)(γ−1/ γ)−1]}/[r−1]…..(1)

The equation (1) shows that roots efficiency decreases with increase in pressure
ratio. This is due to back flow from receiver to the rotor space until the pressure is
equalised.

This reversal flow causes loss of energy by dissipation of kinetic energy and the
rise of temperature. Hence more work is needed than theoretical one.

Vane blowers :

The volume, V1is induced at p1 and T1 and compressed up to p1 iscentropically.

Further pressure increases from p1 to p2due to back flow of air from the receiver.

Work required/ min = work required 1-i+work required i-2

= (γ / γ−1)p1N. V1.[(p2/p1)(γ−1/ γ)−1] +(p2 −p1)NV

Numerical Problems
1.A roots blower supplies air at the rate of 1.5 kg/sec.The pressure ratio of blower
is 2.5:1 with an intake pressure and temperature of 1.013 bar and 27 °C
respectively. Find the power required to drive the blower.

Solution :

m= 1.5 kg/sec,p1= 1.013 bar, p2/p1 = 2.5 ,T1 = 27 +273 = 300K

Assume R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.

Power required :

Power required = (p2 −p1)Vs.

For finding volume flow rate (Vs) :

Vs= mRT/p1

= (1.5 ×0.287 ×300)/101.3

= 1.275 m3/sec

For finding pressure p2:

p2/p1= 2.5

= p1×2.5

= 101.3 ×2.5

p2 = 253.25 kN/m2

Power required = (p2 −p1)Vs.

= (253.25 −101.3)×1.275

=193.7kW
2. A roots blower has a free air delivery of 3m3/min when it compressed air from 1
bar to 2.5 bar. Calculate the power required and iscentropic efficiency.

Solution :

Vs = 3m3/min

p1 = 1 bar = 100 KN/m2

p2 = 2.5 bar = 250 KN/m2

Power required :

Wact = (p2 −p1)Vs.

= (250 −100)×3

Wact = 450kJ/min.

Power required = 450/60 = 7.5kW

Isentropic efficiency :

Isentropic efficiency = Wisen /Wact

For finding Wisen:

Wisen = (γ / γ−1)p1Vs.[(p2/p1)(γ−1/ γ)−1]

= (1.4 /1.4−1)×100×3.[(2.5/1)(1.4−1/1.4)−1]

= 314.27kJ/min.

Isentropic efficiency = (314.27 /450)×100

= 69.86%.
3.Determine the efficiency of vane type compressor which has an air delivery of
0.05 m3/ rev when it compresses air from 1 bar to 1.5 bar where there is 40%
pressure rise due to internal compression before back flow occurs.

Solution :

Quantity of air delivered = 0.05 m3/rev

p1= 1 bar, p2= 1.5 bar

Ideal work/rev .= (γ / γ−1)p1V1.[(p2/p1)(γ−1/ γ)−1]

= (1.4/1.4−1)×100×0.05.[(1.5/1)(1.4−1/1.4)−1]

= 2.149 kJ.

Actual work /rev = (γ / γ−1)p1V1.[(pi/p1)(γ−1/ γ)−1]+(p2 −pi)Vi

pi=p1+0.4(p2 −p1)

= 1+0.4(1.5−1)

pi = 1.2 bar

Vi = (pi/p1)(1/ γ).V1

= (1/1.2)(1/1.4)×0.05 = 0.044m3/rev

Actual work done /rev

= (1.4 /1.4−1)×100×0.05.[(1.2/1)(1 4−1/1.4)−1]+(150 −120)0.044

= 0.936+1.32

= 2.256.

Efficiency = ideal work /actual work

 =( 2.149/2.256)×100 = 95.26%

Centrifugal Compressors

Introduction

Rotary compressors employing dynamic action may be of centrifugal type or axial

type depending upon the direction of flow. These centrifugal type or axial
compressors may also be termed as non-positive displacement type steady flow
compressors.

Centrifugal Compressors

Centrifugal compressor is a radial flow machine compressing the fluid due to the
dynamic action of impeller.

Centrifugal compressors have impeller mounted on driving shaft, diffuser and

volute casing as shown in Fig.

Centrifugal compressors have air inlet at the centre of impeller. The portion of
impeller in front of inlet passage is called impeller eye.

Impeller is a type of disc having radial blades mounted upon it. Compressor casing
has a diffuser ring surrounding impeller and the air enters the impeller eye and
leaves from impeller tip to enter diffuser ring.

Volute casing surrounds the diffuser ring. Volute casing has cross section area
increasing gradually up to the exit of compressor.

These impellers of centrifugal compressors may also be of double sided type such
that air can enter from two sides (both) of impeller.
Thus double sided impeller shall have double impeller eye compared to single
impeller eye as shown in

Air enters the impeller eye axially and flows radially outwards after having entered
compressor.
Radial flow of air inside compressor is due to impeller (blades) rotating about its
axis. These impeller blades impart momentum to the air entering, thereby rising its
pressure and temperature.

Subsequently the high pressure fluid leaving impeller enters the diffuser ring where
the velocity of air is lowered with further increase in pressure of air. Thus in
diffuser ring the kinetic energy of air is transformed into pressure head.

High pressure air leaving diffuser is carried by volute casing to the exit of
compressor. Due to increased cross section area of volute casing some velocity is
further reduced causing rise in its pressure, although this is very small.

Total pressure rise in compressor may be due to ‘impeller action’ and ‘diffuser
action’ both. Generally, about half of total pressure rise is available in impeller
and remaining half in diffuser.

Pressure and velocity variation in centrifugal compressor :

  Air enters the compressor at a mean radius with a low-velocity V1, and
atmospheric pressure P1 as shown in Fig.

  It is then accelerated to a high-velocity V2, and pressure P2, depending

upon the centrifugal action of the impeller.

 The air now enters the diffuser where its velocity is reduced to some
value V3, and pressure increases to P3.

 In practice, about half of the total pressure rise per stage is achieved in the
impeller and the remaining half in the diffuser.

Advantages

a.) When compared to other compressors, it is relatively agile and easy to

manufacture.

b.) As this compressor does not require any special foundation it is highly energy-
efficient and reliable.

c.) They consist of a small number of rubbing parts and are absolutely oil-free in
nature.

d.) It generates a higher pressure ratio per stage than the axial flow compressor.

Disadvantages :

a.) They produce a limited amount of pressure and are not suitable for very high
compression.

b.) As they work at relatively high speed an enlightened or worldly mounting is

required.
c.) They are very sensitive towards problems such as stalling and choking.

Applications of Centrifugal Compressor : 

1. In gas turbines and auxiliary power units.

2. In automotive engine and diesel engine turbochargers and superchargers.

3. In pipeline compressors of natural gas to move the gas from the

production site to the consumer.

4. In oil refineries, natural gas processing, petrochemical, and chemical

plants.

5. Air-conditioning and refrigeration and HVAC: Centrifugal compressors

quite often supply the compression in water chillers cycles.

6. In air separation plants to manufacture purified end product gases.

7. In oil field re-injection of high-pressure natural gas to improve oil

recovery.

8. Large buildings with cooling loads in excess of 400 tons of refrigeration

or 1,400 kW typically use water-cooled chillers with either centrifugal
compressors .

Analysis of centrifugal Compressors

The work required by compressors is determined by the conditions of air at inlet

and outlet of the impeller.

No work is done on the air in the diffuser since it converts one form of energy into
another form.
Consider rotor ( impeller) rotating at a uniform speed, and assume that air enters
the impeller radially .

Let β = inlet velocity of the rotor

α= exit angle from the guide vane at entrance

γ= outlet angle of the diffuser

θ = inletangle of the diffuser

u = linear velocity of blade

V = absolute velocity of air

Vw= whirl velocity of air

Vf= velocity of flow

Vr= relative velocity

Suffixes(1) and(2) indicatetheinletand final conditions

Velocity triangle :

Inlet triangle :
Outlet triangle
From Newton’s second law, F = m(Vw2−Vw1)

Where m = mass of air /sec = A1.Vf1/v1 = (πD1b1)Vf1/v2

Where b = width of the impeller Blade

v= specific volume of air

Since air enters racially, Vw1 = 0

F = m Vw2

Work done per second

W= force × displacement /sec

W = m Vw2 .u2

For ideal case, Vw2 = u2

Work done /kg, W =u22

Slip factor :

In practice, due to inertia of the air trapped between the impeller vanes the actual
whirl velocity at exit (Vw2')is always less than the ideal whirl velocity(Vw2).

This phenomenon is known as slip.

The ratio of actual whirl velocity to the ideal whirl velocity is called slip factor.

It is denoted by (σ).

Slip factor, σ = (Vw2')/(Vw2)

In ideal case, Vw2 = u2

Considering the slip factor,

Work done /kg = σu22Nm

Power input factor

Due to friction and other losses, the actual work input is greater than the theoretical
work input.

To take account of this, a factor called work (power) factor φw is introduced to

calculate the actual work or power input.

Actual power input = φw. σ u22

If the work done on air is caused in raising the temperature of air from T1 to
T2,then

Cp (T2−T1) = φw.σu22

(T2− T1) = (φw. σ u22 )/ Cp

Pressure coefficient :

Pressure coefficient is defined as the ratio of isentropic work required by the

compressor to the work done by the impeller.

Pressure coefficient,

φP =(isentropic work) /(impeller work)

φP= Cp (T2− T1)/ u22

Stagnation Condition:

Consider air is flowing with velocity, V at a temperature, T be brought to rest

adiabatically, and T0 is the temperature of air at rest. Then applying energy
equation,

Cp T + V2/2 = Cp T0
T0= T + V2/2 Cp

The temperature (T0) is called stagnation temperature and is defined as the

temperature of moving air when brought to rest adiabatically.

Similarly stagnation pressure(p0) is the pressure attained by air when brought to

rest adiabatically.

The term (V2/2) is called temperature equivalent of velocity, and (T) is called
static temperature and is defined as the temperature registered by a thermometer
moving with the air velocity equal to that of air.

The term (Cp T + V2/2) is called stagnation enthalpy (h0).

Losses and isentropic efficiency :

The actual work required for the same pressure ratio is more than the work
required due to irreversibilties.

Theseirreversibilties are caused due to :

 Friction within the molecules of air and between air stream and passages.
 Turbulence caused in the air
 Entry losses due to stock.

Isentropic Efficiency :
It is defined as the ratio of isentropic workdone to the actual work done .

η isen = isentropic work/ actual work

= h2’−h1 /h2−h1

= (T2‘− T1)/ (T2− T1)

= (T2 ‘/T1)−1/ (T2/T1)−1

= (p2/p1)γ−1/ γ−1/(p2/p1)n−1/n−1

In the above equation n>γ.The dynamic compressors operate at very high speed
and are generally uncooled which cause internal reheating, and the index of
compression (n) is always more than γ.

Effect of impeller blade shape on performance :

The vane shape is determined by the vane angle (γ) at outlet. Based on the value of
γ ,impeller blades are grouped into three types.

 Forward curved blade (γ>90)

 Radial curved blades (γ =90),and
 Backward curved blades (γ<90)
Forward curved vane impeller can produce the highest pressure ratio for a given
blade tip speed, but it is less stable and its efficiency is lower than other two.

Radial vane impeller gives good performance. It can easily made and is exclusively
used in turbo jet engines.

Back ward impeller is stable and has better efficiency than the other two.

Surging and choking:

Let the compressor be run with completely closed delivery valve thus the mass
flow rate is zero and pressure ratio available is shown by point a. This operating
state of compressor shall not have any amount of air entering into it instead the air
trapped inside the impeller and casing shall be subjected to impeller action
(compression) causing its pressure rise upto the state a.

Now upon opening of delivery valve the flow of air into compressor and its
discharge begins. With this gradual opening of delivery valve the pressure ratio
increases, say from state a to b and c along with increase in mass flow rate. The
pressure ratio reaches to some maximum value at point c.

Further opening of delivery valve shows that the mass flow rate increases but the
pressure ratio decreases after point c i.e. beyond the point having maximum
pressure ratio. The decrease in pressure ratio is due to the dominance of pressure
loss due to friction etc. over the pressure rise in diffuser.

After point c pressure losses are more than the pressure rise thereby, showing net
decrease in pressure ratio as evident from points d and e on the delivery pressure
vs mass flow rate characteristic curve.
Theoretically, the characteristic curve may be extrapolated and the maximum
discharge (mass flow rate) is evident from point f at which the pressure ratio
becomes unity and efficiency is zero. Maximum efficiency is available at the point
(c) corresponding to the maximum pressure ratio.

At the state f all work input to compressor is used in overcoming frictional

resistance. In actual case the state ‘e’ shall indicate the maximum mass flow rate
practically possible.

This maximum mass flow state is known as choked mass flow. State of operation
of compressor at point e is called ‘choking’ of compressor. Choking gives the
maximum mass flow from compressor and the pressure ratio corresponding to this
is less than maximum pressure ratio.
Let us open delivery valve for increase in mass flow rate from m b to mb1. With
this opening of valve the delivery pressure increases from p b to pb1. At point b1
the pressure on upstream and down stream do not rise simultaneously instead the
pressure at upstream becomes pb1 while in downstream it remains p b for some
time, due to inertia till pressure is not equalized. Since p b< pb1 so there is no
problem in terms of flow reversal. Similarly as the delivery valve is gradually
opened up to state c there is no problem of flow reversal as upstream pressure is
always more than downstream pressure up to c. Upon partly closing the delivery
valve, say from b to b 2 the mass flow rate decreases from m b to mb2. This is
accompanied by decrease in pressure at both upstream and downstream. Pressure
at upstream gets changed (lowered) from pb to pb2 (pb2< pb) instantaneously
while the downstream pressure remains equal to pb for some time due to inertia.

Pressure gets equalized to pb2 after some time lag. During this time lag the reversal
of flow (stoppage of discharge from compressor) occurs from downstream to
upstream as in transient period downstream pressure p b is more than upstream
pressure pb2. Reversed flow stabilizes to normal flow after the pressure gets
equalized. This reversal of flow occurs during part closing of valve in the operating
range from a to c.

Reversal of flow causes pulsations to the compressor and the noise, vibration and,
jerks are felt during this transition period. This phenomenon is called ‘surging’.
Similar, study of part closing and opening of valve when carried out in between c
and e shows that no such reversed flow is observed. This changed behaviour is
seen as even in case of closing of valve the mass flow rate shall decrease but the
pressure ratio increases and in case of opening of valve the mass flow rate
increases although pressure ratio decreases.
Region lying between c and e gives the safe operating zone where surging
phenomenon is not observed and also it is within the limits of choking of
compressor. Compressor should be therefore run between c and e for its’
smooth running. The excessive surging may even lead to failure (fracture) of
rotating parts in compressor and is therefore completely avoided. For every
compressor the safe zone for its operation is obtained and compressors are run in
that region.

Surging generally occurs in diffuser passages where the flow is slightly obstructed
and gets retarded due to friction near vanes. Surging tends to increase with
increasing number of diffuser vanes as with large no. of vanes it becomes difficult
to divide air equally in all the passages.

To avoid this the number of diffuser vanes is kept less than the impeller blades so
that each of diffuser vane passage is provided with flow from more than one
impeller blade channel. Thus, the condition of flow remain nearly same for all
diffuser passages and surging due to flow reversal does not occur.

Stalling:

Stalling refers to the instability in the flow occurring due to flow separation from
blade surfaces. Stalling may occur due to the non-uniform flow passing through the
channels/passage between consecutive blades/vanes.

In case of centrifugal compressor the flow output from impeller passes into the
diffuser vanes and subsequently to exit end. In case of breakdown of flow in any
one channel in diffuser, which may be due to reduced angle of incidence/increased
angle of incidence, the flow pattern gets disturbed.

For example the Fig. (1)shows the reduced angle of incidence in channel B of
diffuser section in centrifugal compressor. Since the diffuser vanes are supposed to
handle the similar amount of total flow therefore, inspite of reduced flow through
the channel B (due to reduced angle of incidence) the mass flow rate does not
change.

Due to reduced flow through B the remaining channels have to carry additional
flow in order to compensate for flow reduction in one of channels. These different
angles of incidence into different channels result into non-uniform mass of air
being handled by these channels.

Such as in present case channel A has higher angle of incidence and channel C
has reduced angle of incidence due to reduced flow through channel B. It results
into flow separation due to increase and decrease in angle of incidence. Flow
separation disturbs the flow pattern and results into excessivevibrations.

This stall phenomenon passes from one channel to the other gradually. Stall may
rotate in direction opposite to that of impeller rotation and is termed as rotating
stall. This phenomenon of flow separation from blade surface, called as stalling
also occurs in axial flow compressors, in the manner similar to that of centrifugal
compressor.

Stalling results in reduction of delivery pressure at compressor exit which may

eventually lead to reversal of flow or surging. Stalling also leads to reduction in
stage efficiency along with vibrations in compressor which may even rise upto the
level causing failure of compressor parts when frequency matches with natural
frequency.
Centrifugal Compressors Characteristics

Compressor characteristics are the set of curves obtained between delivery

pressure and temperature plotted against mass flow for different values of
rotational speed. Characteristics curves are machine specific i.e. every compressor
shall have its own unique characteristic curves.

These characteristic curves are plotted using non-dimensional parameters. Non-

dimensional parameters used as the performance indicator of compressor. depend
upon entry pressure, temperature, physical properties of fluid being compressed,
mass flow rate and rotational speed etc.

In order to obtain characteristic curve excessively large number of experimental

observations are needed which can not be presented concisely. Use of non-
dimensional parameters helps in combining number of parameters in order to get
dimensionless groups which can be used for getting compressor characteristic
curves.

The non -dimensional groups thus used are p02/p01,T02/T01,(m√RT01)/D2p01,

ND/√RT01where p, T, m, R, D, N are pressure, 01 temperature, mass flow rate,
gas constant, characteristics linear dimension and rotational speed respectively.
Here for a particular compressor running with definite fluid the R and D shall be
fixed and nondimensional groups can be modified as

p02/p01,T02/T01,(m√T01)/p01,N/√T01.

Different non-dimensional groups given here are termed as described below inspite
of the fact that some of these are no more dimensionless due to omission of R and
D terms.

p02/p01= dimensionless pressure

T02/T01 = dimensionless temperature

(m√T01)/p01= dimensionless massflow

N/√T01= dimensionless rotationalspeed.

Characteristic curves for centrifugal compressor are obtained by plotting;

1. dimensionless pressure” p02/p01 with “dimensionless mass

flow(m√T01)/p01relative to design value” for different “dimensionless
rotational speeds N/√T01 relative to design value” and,
2. “isentropic efficiency” with “dimensionless mass flow (m√ T 01)/ p01
relative to design value. For different ”dimensionless rotational speeds
N/√ T01relative to design value” .
Figures(a) and (b) shows the compressor characteristic curves. First curve is plot
between pressure ratio and mass flow rate.

Similar type of plot has been referred while discussing surging and choking. Here
only the portion between surge line and choke line has been shown for different
dimensionless rotational speeds relative to design value of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0.

The locus of points having maximum efficiency is also shown on characteristic

curve. This curve identifies the two extreme operating states between which the
compressor runs.

Similar to the plot between dimensionless pressure and dimensionless mass flow
rate the plot between dimensionless temperature and dimensionless mass flow rate
can be obtained. Using these patterns the plot between isentropic efficiency and
dimensionless mass flow rate for different dimensionless rotational speeds can be
obtained as shown in Fig. b.
These characteristic curves give the operating range of compressor and are also
used for matching of compressors with other devices such as turbine etc. operating
together. Characteristics of compressor and turbine operating together in any plant
should be matching else inefficiencies are observed.

Looking at the centrifugal compressor characteristic curves it can be concluded

that, “for a given pressure ratio the increase in speed shows increase in flow rate
and simultaneous reduction in efficiency,” “for any particular speed of compressor
the decrease in mass flow rate is accompanied by increase in pressure ratio” and
“at all speeds the compressor operation is limited by surging on one end and
choking on other end” etc. Figure C shows a typical characteristic curve for some
centrifugal compressor.

Numerical Problems on centrifugal Compressors

1.A rotary air compressor receives air at a pressure of 1 bar and 17 °C and delivers
at a pressure of 6 bar. Determine work done by compressor per kg of air delivered,
if process is

 Isothermal
 Adiabatic
 Polytropic with the index as 1.3.

Solution :

p1 = 1 bar, T1 = 17+273 = 290K, p2= 6bar

Assume, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK,Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK and γ = 1.4 for air.

Isothermal process

Work done,W = mRT1log (p2/p1)

= 1 ×0.287 ×290 log (6/1)

= 149.13kJ/kg

Adiabatic process

Work done, W = mCp(T2− T1)

For finding T2:

T2 = T1 (p2/p1) (γ−1/ γ)

= 290×(6/1) (1.4−1/ 1.4)

T2= 483.87K

Work done, W = mCp(T2− T1)

= 1×1.005(483.87−290)
 = 194.84 kJ/k

Polytropic process

Work done, W = mCp(T2− T1)

For finding T2:

T2 = T1 (p2/p1) (n−1/ n)

= 290×(6/1) (1.3−1/ 1.3)

T2= 438.5K

Work done, W = mCp(T2− T1)

= 1×1.005(438.5−290)

= 149.24 kJ/k

2.A centrifugal compressor operating at a pressure ratio 4:1 has inlet temperature
of 15 °C.Calculate the outer diameter of impeller given that speed of operation
15000rpm.

Slip factor =0.9,power input factor =1.03,isentropic efficiency =0.85.

Solution :

p2/p1 = 4

T1 = 15 +273 = 288K

For finding T2 :

T2’ = T1 (p2/p1) (γ−1/ γ)

= 288(4/1) (1.4−1/ 1.4)

= 427.96K.
η isen = (T2’− T1)/ (T2− T1)

T2= T1+(T2’− T1)/ η isen

= 288+(427.96−288)/0.85

= 452.95K.

Work done /kg = Cp(T2− T1);

assume Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK.

= 1.005(452.65−288)

= 165.5kJ/kg

= 165.5×103 J/kg

Also, work done /kg = φw σ.u22 = 165.5×103

u2= √(165.5×103)/ (1.03×0.9)

u2 = 422.5m/sec

u2 = πD2N/60

D2 =( 60×422.5)/(π×15000)

= 0.538m

D2 = 53.8cm

Outer diameter of impeller = 53.8cm

3.A centrifugal compressor receives air at the rate of 1400 m3 /min at 100kpa and
35 °C and delivers at 350kpa. It has an isentropic efficiency of 82%.Mechanical
losses amounts to 2.5% of the shaft power. Determine the power required and exit
air temperature.
Solution :

V1 = 1400 m3 /min

p1= 100kpa,p2=350kpa

T1 = 35+273 = 308K.

ηisen = 82%

Mass of air /min = p1V1/RT1

= (100 ×1400)/(0.287 ×308)

= 1583.78kg/min

= 26.396kg/sec.

(T2’ / T1) = (p2/p1) (γ−1/ γ)

T2’ = T1 (p2/p1) (γ−1/ γ)

= 308(350/100) (1.4−1/ 1.4

= 440.5K.

η isen = (T2’− T1)/ (T2− T1)

T2= T1+(T2’− T1)/ η isen

= 308+(440.5−308)/0.82

T2 = 469.65K.

Work done /kg = m. Cp(T2− T1);

assume Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK.

=26.396 ×1.005(469.65−308)
= 4288.25kJ/sec

= 4288.25KW

Power absorbed by compressor

Power absorbed by compressor = power delivered to compressor – losses

Indicated power = shaft power −losses

= 100−2.5 = 97.5 units (say kW)

η mech = IP /shaft power

= 97.5/100

= 0.975 = 97.5%

Actual power required = IP / η mech

= 4288.25’0.975

= 4398.2 kW

Axial Flow compressors

Introduction

The Axial flow compressor is a famous type of dynamic compressor. It has an

axial flow of the gas. In this type of compressor, the air or the gas enters radially
into the rotor or impeller and discharges axially.

Therefore, it is called an axial compressor. So, it is a mechanical device that

continuously pressurizes the working fluid. A compressor based on a rotating air
blade allows gas or other working fluid to flow mainly parallel to the shaft axis.
These compressors are generally lighter and smaller as compare to centrifugal
compressors but run faster. These compressors usually use in applications that
require a high flow of gas and low head. It consists of a drum with blades of a
particular shape. Due to these dynamic compressors‘ high speed, it can generate
electricity in combination with a gas turbine.

Components of Axial Flow Compressor:

1) Casing:

The casing acts as a protector that protects the internal components of the turbine
from any damage. The stator blades fix with casing. It makes of cast iron or steel.

2) Rotor or Impeller Blades:

The blades of the impeller are moveable. They rotate continuously. The blade
provides kinetic energy to the gas and increases the speed of the gas.

3) Stator Blade:

The blades of the are static, and they are fixed. These blades convert the velocity of
the gas into pressure energy.

4) Collector or Outlet:

A collector is an area from where final pressurized gas collects. So, the collector
includes in the most important axial compressor components.

Working Principle

First of all, the gas introduces in the axial compressor through the inlet. The
working fluid flows in a parallel direction to the shaft. When the gas or working
fluid passes through the impeller blades, then the blades provide kinetic energy to
the gas. This kinetic energy increases the velocity of the gas.
After rotor blades, there is a series of stator blades on the shaft of the compressor.
After passing the gas through the rotor blade, it passes through the stator blade
fixed with the casing of the compressor.

When the gas passes through the stator blades, then the kinetic energy of the gas
converts into static pressure energy. After that, this final output gas collects
through the outlet section of the compressor. This final output gas exits the
compressor axially.

In straightforward wording, in an axial flow air compressor, the rotor blades

increase the velocity of the gas, and the stator blades convert this velocity energy
into pressure energy. The design of a diffusing rotor channel increases the pressure
on standard functionality.

This leads to a more significant increase in pressure in each stage that makes up the
rotor and the stator. This is the turbine reaction principle. If a pressure increase of
50% is achieved in the rotor section, one speaks of a reaction force of 50%

Advantages:

1) A high punching performance can achieve with a straight flow.

2) A small area of the anterior lobe for a given flow.

3) High peak efficiency as compared to the centrifugal compressor.

4) The increase in pressure due to the increase in the number of stages increases,
and the loss is negligible.

5) These dynamic compressors have a large mass flow rate.

Disadvantages:

1) Efficient in a narrow speed range.

2) Mostly, these have manufacturing problems due to their complex design.

3) High price as compared to the centrifugal compressor.

4) Axial flow compressor has a heavyweight.

5) High power demands on the starting power.

6) Axial compressor has an intricate design as compared to the centrifugal

compressor.

Applications:

1) These types of compressors use where a high flow rate is required.

2) These dynamic compressor uses in aircraft turbojet engines.

3) They use in ship engines for high speed.

4) They use for various industrial applications such as propane dehydrogenation

and blast furnaces.

Velocity diagram, work done factor, Degree of Reaction

Velocity Diagrams

The schematic representation of one stage of the compressor and velocity diagrams
at inlet and outlet of an axial compressor is shown in figure
Let

V1 = absolute velocity at inlet which strike the rotor at an angle α1 with axial
direction

Vr1= relative velocity at inlet to the rotor

Vw1 = whirl velocity at inlet to the rotor

β1 = inlet angle of the rotor

V2 = absolute velocity at which air enters the stator row at an angle α2 with axial
direction

Vr2 = relative velocity outlet

Vw2 = whirl velocity at outlet

β2 = outlet angle of the rotor

Work input /kg = (Vw2− Vw1).u ……(1)

From the inlet & outlet triangles

tan α1 = Vw1/ Vf1

Vw1= Vf1tan α1

tan α2 = Vw2/ Vf2

Vw2= Vf2tan α2

Now work input /kg = u[Vf2tan α2− Vf1tan α1 ]

Axial velocity is assumed constant throughout

Vf1= Vf2= Vf

Work input /kg = u (Vf2tan α2− Vf1tan α1)

= u Vf (tan α2− tan α1)….(2)

Also from the velocity triangles,

tan α1 = u/ Vf1

tan β1 = u/ Vf1

tan α2 = u/ Vf2

tan β2 = u/ Vf2
tan α1 + tan β1 = u/ Vf1+ u/ Vf1

tan α1 + tan β1 = 2u/ Vf1

tan α2+ tan β2 = 2u/ Vf1

Vf1= Vf2= Vf

u = Vf (tan α1 + tan β1 )= Vf ( tan α2+ tan β2 )…(3)

or (tan α2− tan α1) = (tan β1− tan β2)

Work input per kg = u Vf (tan β1− tan β2)….(4)

The input work is also given by the equation,

W = cp (T02 −T01) = cp Δ T0

If V3 (absolute velocity of air leaving the stage) is equal to V1,then = Δ T0 = Δ T

means stagnation temperature rise is equal to the static temperature rise.

W = cp Δ T0 = cp Δ T

Work done factor :

The actual work input is less than that given by the equation (I) due to the effect of
boundary layer (non -uniformly of the velocity profile) and tip clearance losses.

This is accounted by introducing a factor called work done factor (k) which is
defined as the ratio of actual work input to the ideal work input.

Work done factor = actual work input /ideal work input

K = actual work input /(Vw2− Vw1).u

Actual work input = K. (Vw2− Vw1).u

Degree of Reaction :
The amount of pressure rise in the rotor is indicated by the term degree of reaction.
It is defined as the ratio of enthalpy rise (pressure rise) in the rotor to the total
enthalpy rise (pressure rise) in the stage.

Degree of reaction = enthalpy rise in rotor /total enthalpy rise in a stage

= (h2−h1)/(h3− h1) = cp (T2 – T1)/ cp (T3 – T1)

= (T2 – T1)/ (T3 – T1) = ΔTA/ ΔTA+ ΔTB

(where ΔTA = (T2 – T1), ΔTB = (T3 – T2)

= ΔTA/ ΔTs

Assume V3 = V1

Loss of K. E = gain in temperature in stator

(V22–V12) /2 = cp (T3 – T2)

(V22–V12) /2 = cp ΔTB

ΔTB = (V22–V12) /2 cp

Work input /stage = cp (ΔTA+ ΔTB )

W = cp ΔTA+ cp (V22–V12) /2 cp

W = cp ΔTA+ (V22–V12) /2

cp ΔTA = W –(V22–V12) /2

cp ΔTA = u Vf (tan α2− tan α1) –1/2.(V22–V12)…..(5)

From the velocity diagram

Sec α2= V2/Vf

V2 = Sec α2. Vf
Sec α1= V1/Vf

V1= Sec α1. Vf

cp ΔTA = u Vf (tan α2− tan α1) –1/2. Vf 2( Sec 2 α2– Sec 2 α1)…..(5)

cp ΔTA = u Vf (tan α2− tan α1) –1/2. Vf 2( tan 2 α2– tan 2 α1)

From definition,

Degree of reaction

R = ΔTA/ ΔTA+ ΔTB

= [u Vf (tan α2− tan α1) –1/2. Vf 2( tan 2 α2– tan 2 α1)]/ u Vf (tan α2− tan α1)

= u Vf (tan α2− tan α1)/ u Vf (tan α2− tan α1) –1/2. Vf 2( tan 2 α2– tan 2 α1)]/ u Vf (tan
α2− tan α1)

= 1– (Vf /2u) (tan α2+ tan α1)…(6)

We have 2u/ Vf = (tan α1 + tan β1 )+ ( tan α2+ tan β2 )

(tan α1 + tan α2 ) = 2u/ Vf – (tan β1 + tan β2 )

R = 1– (Vf /2u) [2u/ Vf – tan β1 – tan β2 ]

R = (Vf /2u) (tan β1 + tan β2)…………….(7)

For 50% reaction blading, R = 0.5

½ = (Vf /2u) (tan β1 + tan β2)

u/vf = (tan β1 + tan β2)

From equation 3,

tan α1 = tan β2 and tan α2 = tan β1

 α1 = β2 and α 2 = β1

Blading designed on this basis is referred as symmetrical blading.

Polytropic efficiency, Relation between isentropic and polytropic efficiencies :

Polytropic Efficiency
The small stage or polytropic efficiency is the isentropic efficiency of an elemental
stage of the compressor (or expansion as in case of turbine) which remains
constant throughout the whole process.

Thus, it is the isentropic efficiency of one stage of a multi stage compressor, and is
constant for all the stages of a compressor.

Actual (1-2) and isentropic (1-2’) compression processes are shown below.

Polytropic efficiency = work input with polytropic compression /actual work

required

= (n/n −1)R (T2− T1)/ cp(T2− T1)

= (n/n −1)( γ−1/ γ) (T2− T1)/ cp(T2− T1)

η = (n −1/ n)( γ−1/ γ)

The isentropic efficiency of a compressor varies with pressure ratio. The
compressor with high pressure ratio will always have less isentropic efficiency
than the other having a lower pressure ratio with same internal design because of
increased divergence of pressure lines.

Thus the isentropic efficiency can not be considered as a true measurement of

compressor performance.

Therefore, the concept of polytropic efficiency is used in the design of multistage

compressors to eliminate the effect of pressure ratio.

Relation between isentropic and polytropic efficiencies :

Isentropic efficiency = isentropic work /actual work

= (p2/p1) γ−1/ γ−1/(p2/p1) n−1/ n−1

Polytropic efficiency ηs = (n −1/ n)( γ−1/ γ)

(n −1/ n) = ( γ−1/ γ). ηs

ηs = (p2/p1) γ−1/ γ−1/(p2/p1) ( γ−1/ γ). ηs−1

Numerical Problems

1. An 8 stage axial flow compressor takes in air at 20° C at the rate of 180
kg/min.The pressure ratio is 6 and isentropic efficiency is 0.9.Determine the
power required.

Solution :

T1 = 20 +273= 293 K

ηisen = 0.9

Assume γ = 1.4
 and Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK

Assuming the temperature change in each stage is same, the power may be
obtained by considering pressure ratio.

T2’ = T1(p2/p1) ( γ−1/ γ)

= 293 (6/1) ( 1.4−1/ 1.4)

= 488.87K.

ηisen = T2’ – T1/ T2 – T1

T2 – T1 = T2’ – T1/ ηisen

T2 – T1 = (488.87–293)/0.9

T2 – T1 = 217.63

Work input /min = m. cp (T2 – T1)

= 180 ×1.005 (217.63)

= 39369.87kJ/min.

Power required = 39369.87/60

= 656.16 kJ/sec.

2.An axial flow compressor provides a total head pressure ratio 5:1 with a overall
total head isentropic efficiency of 85% when the inlet total temperature is 17 ° C.
Find the polytropic efficiency.

Solution :

ηisen = 85%,p2/p1= 5

ηisen = (p2/p1) γ−1/ γ−1/(p2/p1) ( γ−1/ γ). ηs−1

Taking log on both sides ,

log ηisen = γ−1/ γ log (p2/p1) −( γ−1/ γ). ηs log (p2/p1)

log 0.85 = 1.4−1/ 1.4 log (5) −(1.4−1)/ 1.4. ηs log (5)

−0.0706 = 0.1997−0.1997/ ηs

0.1997/ ηs = 0.1997 +0.0706 = 0.2703

0.1997/ ηs =0.2703

ηs = 0.1997/0.2703

= 0.7388

Polytropic efficiency = 73.88%

Polytropic efficiency, Relation between isentropic and polytropic efficiencies :

Polytropic Efficiency
The small stage or polytropic efficiency is the isentropic efficiency of an elemental
stage of the compressor (or expansion as in case of turbine) which remains
constant throughout the whole process.

Thus, it is the isentropic efficiency of one stage of a multi stage compressor, and is
constant for all the stages of a compressor.

Actual (1-2) and isentropic (1-2’) compression processes are shown below.
Polytropic efficiency = work input with polytropic compression /actual work
required

= (n/n −1)R (T2− T1)/ cp(T2− T1)

= (n/n −1)( γ−1/ γ) (T2− T1)/ cp(T2− T1)

η = (n −1/ n)( γ−1/ γ)

The isentropic efficiency of a compressor varies with pressure ratio. The

compressor with high pressure ratio will always have less isentropic efficiency
than the other having a lower pressure ratio with same internal design because of
increased divergence of pressure lines.

Thus the isentropic efficiency can not be considered as a true measurement of

compressor performance.

Therefore, the concept of polytropic efficiency is used in the design of multistage

compressors to eliminate the effect of pressure ratio.

Relation between isentropic and polytropic efficiencies :

Isentropic efficiency = isentropic work /actual work

= (p2/p1) γ−1/ γ−1/(p2/p1) n−1/ n−1

Polytropic efficiency ηs = (n −1/ n)( γ−1/ γ)

(n −1/ n) = ( γ−1/ γ). ηs

ηs = (p2/p1) γ−1/ γ−1/(p2/p1) ( γ−1/ γ). ηs−1

Numerical Problems
1. An 8 stage axial flow compressor takes in air at 20° C at the rate of 180
kg/min.The pressure ratio is 6 and isentropic efficiency is 0.9.Determine the
power required.

Solution :

T1 = 20 +273= 293 K

ηisen = 0.9

Assume γ = 1.4

and Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK

Assuming the temperature change in each stage is same, the power may be
obtained by considering pressure ratio.

T2’ = T1(p2/p1) ( γ−1/ γ)

= 293 (6/1) ( 1.4−1/ 1.4)

= 488.87K.

ηisen = T2’ – T1/ T2 – T1

T2 – T1 = T2’ – T1/ ηisen

T2 – T1 = (488.87–293)/0.9

T2 – T1 = 217.63

Work input /min = m. cp (T2 – T1)

= 180 ×1.005 (217.63)

= 39369.87kJ/min.

Power required = 39369.87/60

 = 656.16 kJ/sec.

2.An axial flow compressor provides a total head pressure ratio 5:1 with a overall
total head isentropic efficiency of 85% when the inlet total temperature is 17 ° C.
Find the polytropic efficiency.

Solution :

ηisen = 85%,p2/p1= 5

ηisen = (p2/p1) γ−1/ γ−1/(p2/p1) ( γ−1/ γ). ηs−1

Taking log on both sides ,

log ηisen = γ−1/ γ log (p2/p1) −( γ−1/ γ). ηs log (p2/p1)

log 0.85 = 1.4−1/ 1.4 log (5) −(1.4−1)/ 1.4. ηs log (5)

−0.0706 = 0.1997−0.1997/ ηs

0.1997/ ηs = 0.1997 +0.0706 = 0.2703

0.1997/ ηs =0.2703

ηs = 0.1997/0.2703

= 0.7388

Polytropic efficiency = 73.88%

Unit -5

Axial Flow compressors characteristic curves, Comparative study of

Compressors

Axial Flow compressors characteristic curves

Characteristic curves for axial flow compressors are also plotted on non
dimensional basis showing the variation of “dimension less pressure ratio”and
“isentropic efficiency “ with respect to “dimensionless mass flow rate relative to
design value “for varying dimensional less rotation speeds.

The plot between “loading coefficient “and“ flow coefficient” may also be
required.

The loading coefficient refers to the ratio of actual stagnation enthalpy rise in a
stage to the energy equivalent of peripheral speed of compressor rotor.

“Flow coefficient”also termed as” compressor velocity ratio“ is the ratio of axial
velocity to peripheral speeds of blades.

Flow coefficient is used for regulating the stall phenomenon in compressors.

Here it may be noted that since axial flow compressor comprises of number of
stages so each stage shall also have its’ own characteristic curve, although stage
characteristic curves are similar to over all characteristic curve but with small
pressure ratio.

Characteristic curves show that the flow rate does not change much with increase
in pressure ratio near design conditions. The efficiency is seen to decrease with
decrease in flow rate and pressure ratios.

It is evident from characteristic curves that when compressor is run at less than
design speed then rise in pressure and temperature is less than design value and
also the choking decides the limiting operating point for compressor.

Comparative study of compressors

Comparison of reciprocating compressor with rotary compressors

Reciprocating compressors Rotary compressors

1. These are suitable for low 1. These are suitable for high
discharge rate at higher delivery discharge rate at smaller delivery
pressures. Speed of rotation of pressures. Speed of rotation of
reciprocating compressors is quite rotary compressors is quite high up
small due to higher inertia of to 40,000 rpm.
reciprocating parts.
2.Reciprocating compressor has 2. Rotary compressor has
inter-mittent delivery of high continuous delivery of high
pressure air thereby requiring pressure air therefore no receiver
receiver for maintaining is required.
continuous delivery.
3. Reciprocating compressors have 3. Rotary compressors have
balancing problems. better balancing as compared to
reciprocating compressors.
4. Quality of air delivered from Air delivered is comparatively
reciprocating compressors is poor cleaner.
due to its contamination with
lubricant.
5. Lubrication requirements are 5. Lubricating requirements are
severe in these compressors. less compared to reciprocating
compressors.
6. Reciprocating compressors can 6. Rotary compressors can be
not be directly coupled to high directly coupled to high speed
speed prime movers such as prime movers.
turbines etc.
7. Reciprocating compressors are 7. Rotary compressors have
designed to achieve compression isentropic process ideally but
close to isothermal compression by actually the compression occurs
cooling etc. compression process following polytropic compression
with index more. with index more than adiabatic
index.

Comparison between the centrifugal compressor and axial flow compressor

Centrifugal Compressors Axial flow compressors

(i) Centrifugal compressors generally (i) Axial flow compressors generally

have stage pressure ratio of around 5 have stage pressure around 1.5 and
and have radial flow inside with axial have axial inlet and axial exit with
entry of fluid. Maximum pressure up to flow inside compressor being parallel
400 bar can be achieved by to the compressor axis. Maximum
multistaging, although multistaging is pressure up to 10 bar is possible to be
slightly difficult. achieved through multistaging which is
very convenient in axial compressors.
(ii) Centrifugal compressors have good (ii) Axial flow compressors have poor
part load efficiency and wide part load efficiency and narrow
operating range between surging and operating range between surging and
choking limits. choking limits.
(iii) Centrifugal compressors have (iii) Axial flow compressors have large
small starting torque requirement. starting torque requirement.
(iv) Due to large frontal area these are (iv) Due to small frontal area axial
well suited for land applications. flow compressors are well suited for
aviation applications.
(v) These have simple construction and (v) These have complex construction
are comparatively cheap. and are costly.
(vi) These have poor isentropic (vi) These have better isentropic
efficiency ( 70%). Power required per efficiency ( 85 to 90%). Power
kg of air flow rate is more. required per kg of air flow rate is less
in axial flow compressors.
(vii) Efficiency vs. speed (vii) Efficiency vs. speed
characteristics for centrifugal characteristics is slightly bell shaped. It
compressor is flat. It has higher means higher efficiency in narrow
efficiency in large speed range. range of speed.
(viii) Centrifugal compressor’s (viii) Centrifugal compressor’s
performance does not alter with any performance does not alter with any
kind of deposition on blade surface. kind of deposition on blade surface.