PREFACE

Industrial Training in simple terms refers to work experience that is relevant to

professional development prior to graduation. It is a major part of course. It is a period
in which we are introduced to the industrial environment or in other words we can say
that industrial training is provided for the familiarization with the industrial
environment, with the advancement in computer technologies and increased
automation in the industries for increasing their production.

Industrial Training is said as an essential component in the development of the

practical and professional skills required of an engineer and an aid to prospective
employment. Practical training constitutes an integral part of engineering studies. The
training gives an opportunity to the students to express themselves to the industrial
environment which is quite different from the teaching classroom. The training
enables the student to work in the future. It enables the student to undergo those
experiences which help them later when they join an organization.

During this period, the students get the real, first-hand experience for working in the
actual environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during
the course of their studies is put to test here. It covers all that remains uncovered in
the classroom i.e. without it our studies remain ineffective and incomplete. Apart from
this, the students get an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which immensely
helps them in building their career.

I got the opportunity to get this industrial exposure which has increased my sphere of
knowledge to a great extent. All the credit goes to Ethical Hacking Tuition Centre for
providing me the opportunity and facility for making of this dissertation.
1.NETWORKING BASICS
1.1 COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among interconnected

devices. In the 1960s, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) started funding the
design of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) for the United
States Department of Defense. It was the first computer network in the world. Development
of the network began in 1969, based on designs developed during the 1960s.

Computer networks can be used for a variety of purposes:

 Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can communicate efficiently

and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls,
and video conferencing.

 Sharing hardware. In a networked environment, each computer on a network may

access and use hardware resources on the network, such as printing a document on a
shared network printer.

 Sharing files, data, and information. In a network environment, authorized user may
access data and information stored on other computers on the network. The capability
of providing access to data and information on shared storage devices is an important
feature of many networks.

 Sharing software. Users connected to a network may run application programs on

remote computers.

 Information preservation.

 Security.

 Speed up.

1.2 NETWORKING

Networking is a common synonym for developing and maintaining contacts and personal
connections with a variety of people who might be helpful to you and your career.
Networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose
of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.
It is an especially important aspect of career management in the financial services industry,
since it is helps you keep abreast of:

1.3 TYPES OF NETWORKS

 Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely
positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Current
wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards like
ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial
cables, phone lines and power lines)

 Personal Area Network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer and different information technological devices close to one person. Some
examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines,
telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and
wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters. A wired PAN is usually
constructed with USB and Firewire connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and
infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN.

 Home Area Network

A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN which is used for communication between
digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers
and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the
sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a CATV or Digital Subscriber
Line (DSL) provider. It can also be referred to as an office area network (OAN).
  Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such
as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications channel
that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN
often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.
WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model:
the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

 Campus Network

A campus network is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area

networks (LAN's) within a limited geographical area. The networking equipments (switches,
routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost
entirely owned (by the campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.).

In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the network is likely to link a
variety of campus buildings including; academic departments, the university library and
student residence halls.

 Metropolitan Area Network

A Metropolitan area network is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large
campus.

 Virtual Private Network

A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links between
nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the
Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are
said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application
is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit
security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be
used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with
strong security features.
2.NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links,
nodes, etc.) of a computer network. Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical
topology means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable
installation. Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as
opposed to its physical design.

Various topologies::

 Bus topology

Many devices connect to a single cable "backbone". If the backbone is broken, the entire
segment fails. Bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling
compared to the alternatives.

Fig: 2.1

 Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbours for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction. Like the bus topology, a failure in any
cable or device breaks the loop and will take down the entire segment. A disadvantage of the
ring is that if any device is added to or removed from the ring, the ring is broken and the
segment fails until it is "reforged" (by dwarfish goldsmiths?) It is also considerably more
expensive than other topologies.
 Fig: 2.2

 Star Topology

A star network has a central connection point - like a hub or switch. While it takes more
cable, the benefit is that if a cable fails, only one node will be brought down.

All traffic emanates from the hub of the star. The central site is in control of all the nodes
attached to it. The central hub is usually a fast, self-contained computer and is responsible for
routing all traffic to other nodes. The main advantages of a star network is that one
malfunctioning node does not affect the rest of the network. However this type of network
can be prone to bottleneck and failure problems at the central site.

Fig: 2.3
  Tree Topology

Also known as the 'Hierarchical topology', the tree topology is a combination of bus and star
topologies. They are very common in larger networks. A typical scenario is: a file server is
connected to a backbone cable (e.g. coaxial) that runs through the building, from which
switches are connected, branching out to workstations.

Fig: 2.4

 Mesh topology

In the topologies shown above, there is only one possible path from one node to another
node. If any cable in that path is broken, the nodes cannot communicate.

Mesh topology uses lots of cables to connect every node with every other node. It is very
expensive to wire up, but if any cable fails, there are many other ways for two nodes to
communicate. Some WANs, like the Internet, employ mesh routing. In fact the Internet was
deliberately designed like this to allow sites to communicate even during a nuclear war.
Fig: 2.5

 Hybrid Topology

Hybrid network is the combination of different topologies such as star, Ring, Mesh, Bus etc.
For example, if a department uses a Bus network, second department uses the ring network,
third department uses the Mesh network and fourth department uses the star network. All the
networks of different types (of four departments) can be connected together through a central
hub (in the form of star network) as shown in the figure above.

Fig: 2.6
3.BASIC NETWORKING DEVICES

Computer networking devices are units that mediate data in a computer network. Computer
networking devices are also called network equipment, Intermediate Systems (IS) or
InterWorking Unit (IWU). Units which are the last receiver or generate data are called hosts
or data terminal equipment.

 3.1 Routers

A router is a communication device that is used to connect two logically and physically
different networks, two LANs, two WANs and a LAN with WAN. The main function of the
router is to sorting and the distribution of the data packets to their destinations based on their
IP addresses. Routers provides the connectivity between the enterprise businesses, ISPs and
in the internet infrastructure, router is a main device. Cisco routers are widely used in the
world. Every router has routing software, which is known as IOS. Router operates at the
network layer of the OSI model. Router does not broadcast the data packets.

We have two types of router:

1.Hardware
2. Software. – This router is provided by RRAS SERVICE.

Fig: 3.1

 3.2 Switches

Like the router, a switch is an intelligent device that maps the IP address with the MAC
address of the LAN card. Unlike the hubs, a switch does not broadcast the data to all the
computers, it sends the data packets only to the destined computer. Switches are used in the
LAN, MAN and WAN. In an Ethernet network, computers are directly connected with the
switch via twisted pair cables. In a network, switches use the three methods to transmit the
data i.e. store and forward, cut through and fragment free.

We have two types of switch.

1. Mangeable Switch:It has console port by using this we can manage this switch according
to our need.
2. Non-Mangeable Switch: It has no console port we use this switch as we purchase it.

Fig: 3.2

 3.3 Hubs

The central connecting device in a computer network is known as a hub. There are two types
of a hub i.e. active hub and passive hub. Every computer is directly connected with the hub.
When data packets arrives at hub, it broadcast them to all the LAN cards in a network and the
destined recipient picks them and all other computers discard the data packets. Hub has five,
eight, sixteen and more ports and one port is known as uplink port, which is used to connect
with the next hub.

Fig: 3.3
  3.4 Modems

A modem is a communication device that is used to provide the connectivity with the
internet. Modem works in two ways i.e. Modulation and Demodulation. It converts the
digital data into the analogue and analogue to digital.

Fig: 3.4

 3.5 LAN Cards

LAN cards or network adapters are the building blocks of a computer network. No computer
can communicate without a properly installed and configured LAN card. Every LAN card is
provided with a unique IP address, subnet mask, gateway and DNS (if applicable). An
UTP/STP cable connects a computer with the hub or switch. Both ends of the cable have the
RJ-45 connectors one is inserted into the LAN card and one in the hub/switch. LAN cards
are inserted into the expansion slots inside the computer. Different LAN cards support
different speed from 10/100 to 10/1000.

Ethernet = speed 10mbps

Fast Ethernet = 100mbps
Giga Ethernet = 1000mbps
Fastgiga Ethernet = 10000mbps
 Fig: 3.5

 3.6 Network Repeater

A repeater connects two segments of your network cable. It retimes and regenerates the
signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to the other segments. When talking about,
ethernet topology, you are probably talking about using a hub as a repeater. Repeaters require
a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay which
can affect network communication when there are several repeaters in a row. Many network
architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row. Repeaters work only at
the physical layer of the OSI network model.

Fig: 3.6
  3.7 Bridge

A bridge reads the outermost section of data on the data packet, to tell where the message is
going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments, since it does not send all packets.
Bridges can be programmed to reject packets from particular networks. Bridging occurs at the
data link layer of the OSI model, which means the bridge cannot read IP addresses, but only
the outermost hardware address of the packet. In our case the bridge can read the ethernet
data which gives the hardware address of the destination address, not the IP address. Bridges
forward all broadcast messages.

Fig: 3.7

The hardware address is also called the MAC (media access control) address

 3.8 Gateway

A gateway can translate information between different network data formats or network
architectures. It can translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk so computers supporting TCP/IP can
communicate with Apple brand computers. Most gateways operate at the application layer,
but can operate at the network or session layer of the OSI model. Gateways will start at the
lower level and strip information until it gets to the required level and repackage the
information and work its way back toward the hardware layer of the OSI model. To confuse
issues, when talking about a router that is used to interface to another network, the word
gateway is often used. This does not mean the routing machine is a gateway as defined here,
although it could be.
4.NETWORK MODELS

When dealing with networking, you may hear the terms "network model" and "network
layer" used often. Network models define a set of network layers and how they interact.
There are several different network models depending on what organization or company
started them. The most important two are:

TCP/IP Model: - This model is sometimes called the DOD model since it was designed for
the department of defence. It is also called the internet model because TCP/IP is the protocol
used on the internet.

OSI Network Model: - The International Standards Organization (ISO) has defined a
standard called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. This is a seven
layer architecture listed in the next section.

Fig: 4.1
4.1 Layers in the TCP/IP model

 Application Layer (process-to-process): This is the scope within which applications

create user data and communicate this data to other processes or applications on
another or the same host. The communications partners are often called peers. This is
where the "higher level" protocols such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, etc. operate.
 Transport Layer (host-to-host): The Transport Layer constitutes the networking
regime between two network hosts, either on the local network or on remote networks
separated by routers.
 Internet Layer (internetworking): The Internet Layer has the task of exchanging
datagrams across network boundaries. It is therefore also referred to as the layer that
establishes internetworking, indeed, it defines and establishes the Internet. This layer
defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP protocol suite.
 Link Layer: This layer defines the networking methods with the scope of the local
network link on which hosts communicate without intervening routers. This layer
describes the protocols used to describe the local network topology and the interfaces
needed to affect transmission of Internet Layer datagrams to next-neighbor hosts.

4.2 Layers in OSI Model

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for
implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting
at the application layer in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to
the next station and back up the hierarchy.

 Application (Layer 7): This layer supports application and end-user processes.
Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user
authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are
identified.
 Presentation (Layer 6): This layer provides independence from differences in data
representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format,
and vice versa.
 Session (Layer 5): This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections
between applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates
 conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals
with session and connection coordination.
 Transport (Layer 4): This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end
systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It
ensures complete data transfer.
 Network (Layer 3): This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating
logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node.
 Data Link (Layer 2): At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It
furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the
physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided
into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link
Control (LLC) layer.
 Physical (Layer 1): This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or
radio signal -- through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. .

TCP/IP Model vs OSI Model

Sr.
TCP/IP Reference Model OSI Reference Model
No.

1 Defined after the advent of Internet. Defined before advent of internet.

Service interface and protocols were not Service interface and protocols are
2
clearly distinguished before clearly distinguished

3 TCP/IP supports Internet working Internet working not supported

4 Loosely layered Strict layering

5 Protocol Dependant standard Protocol independent standard

6 More Credible Less Credible

TCP reliably delivers packets, IP does not

7 All packets are reliably delivered
reliably deliver packets
5.BASIC NETWORKING CABLES

Networking Cables are used to connect one network device to other or to connect two or
more computers to share printer, scanner etc. Different types of network cables like Coaxial
cable, Optical fiber cable,Twisted Pair cables are used depending on the
network's topology, protocol and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g.
via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet).

While wireless may be the wave of the future, most computer network today still utilize
cables to transfer signals from one point to another

i. Twisted Pair Cable

ii. Optical Fiber Cable
iii. Coaxial Cable

We use two types of cable in networking:

1) Straight Cable

You usually use straight cable to connect different type of devices. This type of cable will be
used most of the time and can be used to:

1) Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port.

2) Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port. 
3) Connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
4) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally used for
expanding network)
5) Connect 2 switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port and the other
one using normal port.

2) Crossover Cable

A crossover cable connects two devices of the same type, for example DTE-DTE or DCE-
DCE, usually connected asymmetrically (DTE-DCE), by a modified cable called a crosslink.
Such distinction of devices was introduced by IBM
Sometimes you will use crossover cable, it's usually used to connect same type of devices. A
crossover cable can be used to:

1) Connect 2 computers directly.

2) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's normal port(normally used for
expanding network)
3) Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both switches/hubs.

Fig:5.1

Colour coding of cable:

Straight:
1. orange white 1.orange white
2. orange 2.orange
3. green white 3.green white
4. blue 4. blue
5. blue white 5. blue white
6. green 6. green
7. brown white 7. brown white
8. brown 8. Brown
Cross cable:
1. orange white 1.green white
2. orange 2.green
3. green white 3.orange white
4. blue 4. blue
5. blue white 5. blue white
6. green 6. orange
7. brown white 7. brown white
8. brown 8. Brown
T-568B Straight-Through Ethernet Cable

Fig: 5.2

RJ-45 Crossover Ethernet Cable

Fig: 5.3

INSTALLING CABLES
In today networks, UTP CABLES are commonly used to connect computers in a network.
Depending on the color codings, we have different cables like straight cable, cross cable and
roll-over cable.
STRAIGHT CABLE
The cable used between the PC and the hub/switch is called straight cable.
Straight cable can be used between
PC - SWITCH
PC- HUB
HUB(UPLINK PORT) - HUB
CROSS-OVER CABLE
The cable used to connect two PCs is called cross-over cable.
Cross cable can be used between:
PC - PC
HUB - HUB
SWITCH - SWITCH
ROUTER - PC
ROLL-OVER CABLE
The cable used between a hardware router and a PC is called roll-over cable.
In this cable, the color coding used in one end is reversed in the other end.
DATA TRAVEL ONLY GREEN OR ORANGE PAIR OF CABLE.
6.ADDRESSING IN COMPUTER NETWORKING

There are two kinds of addresses used in networks:

1 .Physical address
2. Logical address
PHYSICAL ADDRESS
1. It is also called hardware address or MAC address.MAC stands for media access control.
2. It is present in the chip of a NIC card.
3. It is unique for every NIC card and cannot be changed.
4. It is 48 bits. Out of 48 bits, 24 bits of address is given by the manufacturer of NIC card and
the remaining 24 bits of address is defined as per instructions given by IEEE.
5. IEEE stands for Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers.
LOGICAL ADDRESS
1. It is also called software address.
2. It is given by the user and can be changed anytime.
3. Several schemes or protocols are used to define logical address in a computer.
4. These protocols are:
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequential Packet Exchange)
DLC (Data Link Control)
AppleTalk
PROTOCOL
Protocol is a set of rules which in communication between computers.
TCP/IP
1. It has become industry-standard
2. It was developed by DOD (Department of Defence) of USA.
3. It is used both in Internet (public network) and Intranet (private network).
4. It is of 32 bits.
5. Currently used version is IP v4.
6. IP v6 is also available.
7. It has four fields or octets.
8. Each octet is of 8 bits.
9.It can be represented by w.x.y.z
10.Minimum value of octet is 0 and maximum is 255
11. Each octet or field can have decimal values ranging from 0 to 255.
12.According to the value of w or first field, we have five classes of TCP/IP Addresses.
The first three classes are only used for computer addressing in a network.
IP ADDRESSING
IP (INTERNET PROTOCOL) is 32 bit. It is divided in 4 octet each octet contain 8 bit. It is
numerical identification of computer on network. It is divided in to two parts one is network
and second is host. We use private ip address in LAN which is provided by
IANA(INTERNET ASSIGNING NUMBRING AUTHOURTIY). The minimum value (per
octet) is 0 and the maximum value is 255.IP address are divided in five classes.
1. Network ID: it represent the no. of on bit that is (1).
2. Host ID: it represent the no. of off bit that is (0).
Class Range Network Host ID Subnet Mask Total IP Valid IP
ID
A 1-127 8 24 255.0.0.0 16777216 16777214
B 128-191 16 16 255.255.0.0 65536 65534
C 192-223 24 8 255.255.255.0 256 254
D 224-239 It is reserved for multicast.
E 240-255 It is reserved for research/scientific use.

NOTE:We use only first three class which is provide by IANA in LAN.
IP Addresses are divided into two parts:
1. Private IP address
2. Public (live) IP address.
Range of Private IP Address:

Class A 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

Class B 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255

Class C 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Range of Public IP Address:
1.0.0.0 to 9.255.255.255
11.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255
128.0.0.0 to 172.15.255.255
172.32.0.0 to 192.167.255.255
192.169.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
And another range is called APIPA (Automatic private internet protocol Addressing) range is
169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255.
We can assign the IP address by using two methods:
(1) Statically or manually
(2) Dynamically (by using DHCP server- dynamic host configuration protocol)

But in case of your computer has no IP address then IP address is assigned to the
computer from APIPA Range, but communication is not possible when computer has IP
address from APIPA. 127.0.0.1 is the loop back address it is used for self-communication
and for troubleshooting purpose.
Subnet Mask: Subnet Mask is also 32 bit address, which tell us how many bits are used for
network and how many bits are used for host address.
In subnet mask network bits are always 1 and host bits are always 0.
IP Address invalid or reserve IP Address:
When we are going to assign IP Address to our computer interface then we have to follow
some rules:
Rules: -
1. All Host bits cannot be 0 (10.0.0.0), because it represent network address which is reserved
for router.
2. All Host bit cannot be 1 (10.255.255.255.), because it is broadcast address of that network
(10th)network.
3. All bits cannot be 0 (0.0.0.0), because this address is reserved for default routing.
Default routing is used in case of stub n/w (means our network has no exit point).
4. All bits cannot be 1 (255.255.255.255), because it reserved for Broadcasting

C:\> IPCONFIG (this command is use for IP check).

C:\> IPCONFIG /ALL (This cmd is show all detail of your interface.).
Ping – Packet Internet Groper
This command is used to check the connectivity with other computer. Ping is performed with
in network or outside the network. In this process four packets are send to destination address
and four packets received from the destination address. ICMP (Internet control massage
protocol) is used for this process.
ICMP
Internet Control Messaging Protocol is used by ping and traceroute utilities.
Ping (Packet Internet Groper) enables you to validate that an IP address exists and can accept
requests. The following transmissions are used by the Ping utility:
 Ping sends an echo request packet to receive the echo response.
 Routers send Destination Unreachable messages when they can’t reach the destination
network and they are forced to drop the packet. The router that drops the packet sends
the ICMP DU message.
C:\> ping (IP of destination) for e.g 10.0.0.1
C:\> ping (IP of destination ) –t (for continue).
Press ctrl+c to stop ping.
1. Reply from Destination :
Reply from 10.1.1.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=255
Reply from 10.1.1.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=255
Reply from 10.1.1.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=255
Reply from 10.1.1.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=255
Ping statistics for 10.0.0.1:
Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds:
1. Minimum = 0ms, Maximum = 0ms, Average = 0ms
This message appear when destination computer properly configured and connected with
same network ip address.
2.Request time out (R.T.O):- This message appear when Destination computer has some
problem .For e g: IP address does not exit, network cable unplugged, computer shutdown,
interconnection firewall enable.
3.Destination host unreachable:- This massage appear when our computer desire to
communicate with another n/w but our computer has no gateway IP address.
4.Reply from gateway but Destination host unreachable:-This massage appear when
computer desire to communicate with another network computer but our router has no route
information in its routing table for Destination n/w.
5.Hardware error:- This massage appears when during communication our network goes
unplugged.
6.Negotiating IP Security:- This massage appears when our computer has IP-Sec service
enabled with secure communication rule negotiation.
7.SOFTWARE

7.1 SIMULATOR

A network simulator is a piece of software or hardware that predicts the behavior of a

network, without an actual network being present.

Network simulators serve a variety of needs. Compared to the cost and time involved in
setting up an entire test bed containing multiple networked computers, routers and data links,
network simulators are relatively fast and inexpensive. They allow engineers to test scenarios
that might be particularly difficult or expensive to emulate using real hardware- for instance,
simulating the effects of a sudden burst in traffic or a DoS attack on a network service.

The simulator that we have used to create a simulation of the network design of the Project is
CISCO PACKET TRACER.

SS: 7.1
8.PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Layout of the proposed Network

We have designed a network Scenario in which we have used the concepts of routers,
switches, servers,Routing, Redistribution,we have given detail study of above topics....

 8.1 Routing
Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network
traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone
network (Circuit switching) , electronic data networks (such as the Internet),
and transportation networks. This article is concerned primarily with routing in
electronic data networks using packet switching technology.

In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically

addressed packets from their source toward their ultimate destination through
intermediate nodes, typically hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls,
or switches. General-purpose computers can also forward packets and perform routing,
though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The
routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a
record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which
are held in the router's memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing
algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the
use of multiple alternative paths.

Dynamic Routing

Dynamic routing performs the same function as static routing except it is more robust. Static
routing allows routing tables in specific routers to be set up in a static manner so network
routes for packets are set. If a router on the route goes down the destination may become
unreachable. Dynamic routing allows routing tables in routers to change as the possible
routes change. There are several protocols used to support dynamic routing including RIP and
OSPF.
DYNAMIC ROUTING

Routed and Routing

Protocols

Routed
Routing

Interior Gateway Exterior Gateway

IP IPX Apple Protocols Protocols

Hybrid
Dist-V Link-S

RIPv1,2
OSPF
Novell RIP IGRP NLSP EIGRP BGPv4

RTMP IS-IS

Fig: 8.1.1

Routed protocols:

TCP/IP, IPX-SPX are protocols which are used in a Local Area Network (LAN) so
computers can communicate between with each other and with other computers on the
Internet.Chances are that in your LAN you are most probably running TCP/IP. This protocol
is what we call a "routed" protocol. The term "routed" refers to something which can be
passed on from one place (network) to another. In the example of TCP/IP, this is when you
construct a data packet and send it across to another computer on the Internet

Routing protocols:
Routing protocols were created for routers. These protocols have been designed to allow the
exchange of routing tables, or known networks, between routers. There are a lot of different
routing protocols, each one designed for specific network sizes, so I am not going to be able
to mention and analyse them all, but I will focus on the most popular.

Dynamic Routing Protocols

There are 3 types of Dynamic routing protocols, these differ mainly in the way that they
discover and make calculations about routes (click to select):

1) Distance Vector

2) Link State

3) Hybrid

 Distance Vector routers compute the best path from information passed to them from
neighbors

 Link State routers each have a copy of the entire network map

 Link State routers compute best routes from this local map

Fig: 8.1.2
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Distance Vector routing protocols use frequent broadcasts (255.255.255.255 or FF:FF:FF:FF)

of their entire routing table every 30 sec. on all their interfaces in order to communicate with
their neighbours. The bigger the routing tables, the more broadcasts. This methodology limits
significantly the size of network on which Distance Vector can be used.

RIPV1:

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a true Distance-Vector routing protocol. It sends the

complete routing table out to all active interfaces every 30 seconds. RIP only uses hop count
to determine the best way to a remote network, but it has a maximum allowable hop count of
15, meaning that 16 is deemed unreachable. RIP works well in small networks, but it is
inefficient on large networks with slow WAN links or on networks with large number of
routers installed.

RIP comes in two different versions. RIP version 1 uses only classful routing, which means
that all devices in the network must use the same subnet mask. This is because RIP version
1 does not include the subnet mask when it sends updates. RIP v1 uses broadcasts
(255.255.255.255).

RIP version 2 does, however, and this is what we call classless routing (check the Subnetting
section for more details). RIP v2 uses multicasts (224.0.0.9) to update its routing tables.

COMMANDS:-

Configure RIP:
Use the following command to enable RIP on RouterA: 
RouterA(config)#router rip

Configure the router to receive and send only RIP Version 2 packets using the following
command:
RouterA(config-router)#version 2

Use the following commands to specify the networks directly connected to the router:
RouterA(config-router)#network 192.168.11.0
RouterA(config-router)#network 192.168.22.0 

Interior Gateway Protocol - IGRP

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a Cisco proprietary Distance-Vector routing

protocol. This means that all your routers must be Cisco routers in order to use IGRP in your
network, keep in mind that Windows 2000 now supports it as well because they have bought
a licence from Cisco to use the protocol

Cisco created this routing protocol to overcome the problems associated with RIP.

IGRP has a maximum hop count of 255 with a default of 100. This is helpful in larger
networks and solves the problem of there being only 15 hops maximum possible in
a RIP network. IGRPalso uses a different metric from RIP. IGRP uses bandwidth and delay
of the line by default as a metric for determining the best route to an internetwork. This is
called a composite metric. Reliability, load and Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) can also
be used, although they are not used by default.

COMMANDS:-

RouterA#configure terminal

Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with Cntl/z

RouterA#(config)#router igrp AS no.

RouterA#(config-router)#network ip address

RouterA#(config-router)#exit

Link State Routing Protocols:

Link State protocols, unlike Distance Vector broadcasts, use multicast.Link State routing

protocols do not view networks in terms of adjacent routers and hop counts, but they build a
comprehensive view of the overall network which fully describes the all possible routes along
with their costs. Using the SPF (Shortest Path First) algorithm, the router creates a
"topological database" which is a hierarchy reflecting the network routers it knows about.
Itthen puts it's self on the top of this hierarchy, and has a complete picture from it's own
perspective.

Link State protocols in comparison to Distance Vector protocols have:

 Big memory requirements

  Shortest path computations require many CPU circles

 If network is stable little bandwidth is used; react quickly to topology changes

 Announcements cannot be “filtered”. All items in the database must be sent to

neighbors

 All neighbors must be trusted

 Authentication mechanisms can be used to avoid undesired adjacencies

 No split horizon techniques are possible

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Routing Protocol:-

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol developed for Internet Protocol (IP)
networks by the interior gateway protocol (IGP) working group of the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). The working group was formed in 1988 to design an IGP based on the
shortest path first (SPF) algorithm for use in the Internet. Similar to the Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol (IGRP), OSPF was created because in the mid-1980s, the Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) was increasingly unable to serve large, heterogeneous
internetworks.

OSPF is a classless routing protocol, which means that in its updates, it includes the subnet of
each route it knows about, thus, enabling variable-length subnet masks. With variable-length
subnet masks, an IP network can be broken into many subnets of various sizes. This provides
network administrators with extra network-configuration flexibility.These updates are
multicasts at specific addresses (224.0.0.5 and 224.0.0.6).

OSPF has two primary characteristics:

 1) The protocol is open (non-proprietary), which means that its specification is in the

public domain. The OSPF specification is published as Request For Comments (RFC)
1247.
 2) The second principal characteristic is that OSPF is based on the SPF algorithm,
which sometimes is referred to as the Dijkstra algorithm, named for the person
credited with its creation.
COMMANDS:-

Router#config terminal
Router(config)#router ospf process-id

Router(config-router)#network network-number mask area area-id

Example:

Router(config-router)#network 10.1.23.0 0.0.0.255 area 0

Various Routing Protocol

EIGRP:-

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is another Cisco proprietary, hybrid

(has feature of Distance Vector and Link State protocols), interior gateway protocol (IGP)
used by routers to exchange routing information. EIGRP uses a composite metric composed
of Bandwidth, Delay, Reliability, and Loading to determine the best path between two
locations.
EIGRP can route IP, IPX and Appletalk. Along with IS-IS, it is one of the few multi-protocol
routing protocols.

The Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) is the heart of EIGRP. In essence, DUAL always

keeps a backup route in mind, in case the primary route goes down. DUAL also limits how
many routers are affected when a change occurs to the network.

There is no maximum allowable number of hops. In a EIGRP network, each router multi-

casts "hello" packs to discover its adjacent neighbor. This adjacency database is shared with
other router to build a topology database. From the topology database the best route
(Successor) and the second best route (Feasible Successor) is found.

EIGRP is classless, meaning it does include the subnet mask in routing updates. However, by
default 'auto-summary' is enable. You must disable if you want subnet information from other
major networks.

The EIGRP metric is a can be a complex calculation, but by default it only uses bandwidth

and delay to determine the best path.

COMMANDS:-

Router#config terminal

Router (config)# router eigrp AS

Router (config-router)# network X.X.X.X

 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

It calculates the best path to route the packet using hops as its metric.

Characteristics of rip:

 Distance vector protocol

 Uses hop count as metric
  Support max. 15 hop counts
 Support 6 equal cast path

RIP Timer:-

I. Route update timer:- It is a time interval for a router to sent its routing table
info to the connected router the default value is 30s.
II. Route invalid timer:- Determine the period after which the router declares
the rout as invalid. The default value is 180s.
III. Hold down timer:- Determine the time interval for which the routing info is
not passed to the neighbouring routers. The default value is 180s.
IV. Route flush timer:- calculates the time taken by route to the flushed from the
routing table after being invalid. The default values is 240s.

Configuration:-

Router(config)#router rip

Router(config)#version 2

Router(config)#network X.X.X.X
  Servers

 A server is primarily a program that runs on a machine, providing a particular and specific
service to other machines connected to the machine on which it is found.

Nowadays, server functionality has become so rich, complex and varied in nature that there
are whole very powerful computers dedicated to being exclusively servers. This has led many
non-technical people to denote servers as being machines that run services.

A network server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other
(client) computers over a local network or the Internet. Network servers typically are
configured with additional processing, memory and storage capacity to handle the load of
servicing clients.

DHCP SERVER

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a protocol that allows a central computer to
automatically assign the TCP/IP network configuration to individual work-stations on a
private network. With DHCP enabled it suffices to enable the "Obtain an IP address
automatically" in the TCP/IP configuration on the private network. The DHCP Server then
takes over the responsibility of assigning the TCP/IP parameters, significantly lowering the
task of network maintenance
Fig: 8.5.1

How Does DHCP Work?

At boot time the computer has no network parameters assigned to it. The following list
provides an overview of the typical network parameters:

 IP address and network mask

 Default route/gateway ñ an IP address which will be used for forwarding packets whose
destinations are beyond local network

 DNS servers for resolving Internet names (e.g. internet.com) to IP addresses

 Workstation parameters, e.g., domain name or workgroup/workstationname

 Static routes

 IP forwarding setting

 MTU size

 Other settings (a complete list can be found in the DHCP RFCs)

 Static configuration.
With static configuration, the client computer uses pre-configured network parameters. The
disadvantages of this approach include the possibility of IP address conflicts and the
administrative issues possible when manually configuring many internal clients.

 DHCP configuration (automatic).

With automatic configuration, the computer obtains its network parameters from the DHCP
Server. This way the IP addresses are automatically managed and accordingly address
conflicts are avoided. If manual and automatic network configurations are used together, the
administrator must ensure that the DHCP Server won’t assign IP addresses used by manually-
configured computers.
How to configure the DHCP server

Once you have considered the implications of DHCP in your network, you are ready to get
started with the simple configuration.

Fig: 8.5.2

For a small network, the configuration of the DHCP Server is not very challenging and the
InJoy DHCP Server Plugin is deliberately designed to be extremely simple. In fact, in the
InJoy Firewallô, you can immediately enable the DHCP Server and have it operational in less
than a minute. Here is how.
DNS SERVER

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a standard technology for managing the names of Web
sites and other Internet domains. DNS technology allows you to type names into your Web
browser like compnetworking.about.com and your computer to automatically find that
address on the Internet. A key element of the DNS is a worldwide collection of DNS servers.
What, then, is a DNS server?

Answer: A DNS server is any computer registered to join the Domain Name System. A DNS
server runs special-purpose networking software, features a public IP address, and contains a
database of network names and addresses for other Internet hosts.

DNS Root Servers

DNS servers communicate with each other using private network protocols. All DNS servers
are organized in a hierarchy. At the top level of the hierarchy, so-called root servers store the
complete database of Internet domain names and their corresponding IP addresses. The
Internet employs 13 root servers that have become somewhat famous for their special role.
Maintained by various independent agencies, the servers are aptly named A, B, C and so on
up to M. Ten of these servers reside in the United States, one in Japan, one in London, UK
and one in Stockholm, Sweden.

DNS Server Hierarchy

The DNS is a distributed system, meaning that only the 13 root servers contain the complete
database of domain names and IP addresses. All other DNS servers are installed at lower
levels of the hierarchy and maintain only certain pieces of the overall database.

Most lower level DNS servers are owned by businesses or Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
For example, Google maintains various DNS servers around the world that manage the
google.com, google.co.uk, and other domains. Your ISP also maintains DNS servers as part
of your Internet connection setup.
Fig: 8.5.3
 8.6User Configuration
In this project, we use DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) for configure
the IP Addresses to its PC’s. DHCP is a protocol that allows a central computer to
automatically assign the TCP/IP network configuration to individual work-stations on
a private network. With DHCP enabled it suffices to enable the "Obtain an IP address
automatically" in the TCP/IP configuration on the private network.
  INTERNET CONNECTION SHARING
ICS provides networked computers with the ability to share a single connection to the
Internet.
If you have multiple computers, you can use ICS to allow you and others on your local area
network (LAN) to perform different tasks simultaneously. For example, one person can send
and receive e-mail messages, while another person downloads a file, and another person
browses the Internet. You can also gain access to your corporate e-mail accounts from a
client computer while others on your LAN cannot. You can use Web-enabled programs (such
as downloading updates) as well as Microsoft NetMeeting and other video conferencing
programs.

Internet Connection Sharing Components

 DHCP Allocator - A simplified DHCP service that assigns the IP address, gateway,
and name server on the local network.
 DNS Proxy - Resolves names on behalf of local network clients and forwards queries.
 Network Address Translation (NAT) - Maps a set of private addresses to a set of
public addresses. NAT tracks private-source IP addresses and public-destination IP
addresses for outbound flows. It changes the IP address information and edits the
required IP header information dynamically.
  Auto-dial - Automatically dials connections.
 Application programming interfaces (APIs) - For configuration, status, and dial
control for programs.

How to use Internet Connection Sharing

To use Internet Connection Sharing to share your Internet connection, the host computer must
have one network adapter that is configured to connect to the internal network, and one
network adapter or modem that is configured to connect to the Internet.

On the host computer

On the host computer, follow these steps to share the Internet connection:

1. Log on to the host computer as Administrator or as Owner.

2. Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
3. Click Network and Internet Connections.
4. Click Network Connections.
5. Right-click the connection that you use to connect to the Internet. For example, if you
connect to the Internet by using a modem, right-click the connection that you want
under Dial-up.
6. Click Properties.
7. Click the Advanced tab.
8. Under Internet Connection Sharing, select the Allow other network users to
connect through this computer's Internet connection check box.
9. If you are sharing a dial-up Internet connection, select the Establish a dial-up
connection whenever a computer on my network attempts to access the
Internet check box if you want to permit your computer to automatically connect to
the Internet.
10. Click OK. You receive the following message:

When Internet Connection Sharing is enabled, your LAN adapter will be set to use IP
address 192.168.0.1. Your computer may lose connectivity with other computers on
your network. If these other computers have static IP addresses, it is a good idea to set
them to obtain their IP addresses automatically. Are you sure you want to enable
Internet Connection Sharing?
 11. Click Yes.

On the client computer

To connect to the Internet by using the shared connection, you must confirm the LAN adapter
IP configuration, and then configure the client computer. To confirm the LAN adapter IP
configuration, follow these steps:

1. Log on to the client computer as Administrator or as Owner.

2. Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
3. Click Network and Internet Connections.
4. Click Network Connections.
5. Right-click Local Area Connection, and then click Properties.
6. Click the General tab, click Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) in the This connection uses
the following items list, and then click Properties.
7. In the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box, click Obtain an IP
address automatically (if it is not already selected), and then click OK.
NOTE: You can also assign a unique static IP address in the range of 192.168.0.2 to
192.168.0.254. For example, you can assign the following static IP address, subnet
mask, and default gateway.
8. IP Address 192.168.0.2
9. Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
10. Default gateway 192.168.0.1

Fig: 8.3.1

11. In the Local Area Connection Properties dialog box, click OK.

12. Quit Control Panel.
ACCESS CONTROL LIST
PING AND TRACEROUTE

9.1 PING
Ping can test the speed of your connection, "distance" to target, and whether or not your
connection is even up and running. It tells you how long a packet of data takes to travel from
your computer to a specified host, and back again(in this case, the packet is 32 bytes in size).

Ping Tests

Once you have your command prompt (or WhatRoute) open, enter ping 172.16.5.2 and press
Enter. You should receive 4 responses similar to the lines below. This ping test verifies the
operation of the base TCP/IP stack. If TCP/IP is working correctly, there will be no problems
with the ping. If you receive a timeout or error message, there is a problem with TCP/IP in
which case you may have to uninstall and reinstall TCP/IP.
9.2 TRACEROUTE

Traceroute tracks the path that a packet takes from your computer to a destination address. A
traceroute also shows how many times your packets are being rebroadcast by other servers
until it gets to the final destination. For windows users, the command is tracert. For
Macintosh OS X users, its traceroute.

In this example we will trace the hops from a computer to Gmail.com

SEND ICMP MESSAGE FOR CONFIGURATION