CLASS IX NCERT CH: THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

Cytology: is the study of structure and function of cell.

Father of cytology- Robert Hooke
Father of modern Cytology - Swanson
Famous Indian Cytologist: Prof. A.K. Sharma
Discovery of Cell: The Cell was discovered by Robert Hook and it was a
dead cell in 1665.
Antony von Leuwenhoek discovered the first free living cell from pond
water 1674.
The word cell is derived from the Lt: word cellula which means small
compartment or room or chamber or honey comb like porous
structure.
First of all Robert Hooke cut a very thin section or slice of bottle cork
i.e. piece of wood of Quercus plant (oak plant). He placed this thin
section in his self-made primitive microscope, he observed many tiny
honey comb like porous structure and he called these units as cell.
In this way the discovery of cell was made.
Cell theory:
Original or initial Cell Theory was proposed by German botanist
Schleiden and German zoologist Schwann, Modern cell Theory Given by
schleiden, Schwann and German biologist R. Virchow.
R. Virchow gave the statement that Omnis Cellula e Cellua
It means all the cells arise from its pre-existing cells
Postulates or statements of cell theory -
1 Cell is the structural and functional unit of life
2 All the Organisms made up of one or more than one cells and cell
products
3 All the Organisms start their life from a single cell (sexually
reproducing Organisms)
4 All the cells arise from its pre-existing cells
Viruses do not follow the cell theory.
Shapes of the cells: various -
Spherical, cuboidal, oval, disc like, slipper like, comma like, spring like,
hexagonal, polygonal etc.
Cells size - Various
Prokaryotic cell 1 to 10 micrometre and eukaryotic cells 5 to 100
micrometres.
  Smallest cell - mycoplasma also known as PPLO( Pleuroneumonia
like organism)
 Longest animal cell- Nerve cell or neuron about 1 metre
 Longest plant cell- Ramie fibre about 50 to 55 cms.
 Largest animal cell- ostrich egg – 17 to 18 cms.
 Largest plant cell- acetabularia about 10 cms
 Longest human cell- nerve cell or neuron about 1 metre
 Largest human cell- egg or ovum 0.1 mm diameter.
 Smallest human cell- RBC- 9 µ
Types of Organisms on the Basis of Number of Cells

(i) Unicellular Organisms: The organisms that are made up of single cell
and may constitute a whole organism, are named as unicellular organisms.
For example: Amoeba, Paramecium, bacteria, etc.

(ii) Multicellular Organisms: The organisms which are composed of a

collection of cells that assume function in a coordinated manner, with
different cells specialized to perform particular tasks in the body, are named
as multicellular organisms.
For example: Plants, human beings, animals, etc.

Protoplasm: All the contents of a cell present below the cell

membrane, i.e. cytoplasm and nucleus.
Cytoplasm: include cell Organelles and cytosol.
Cytosol: include storage substance, secretary substance, and excretory
substance.
Plasmodesmata: Thin cytoplasmic connection between two adjacent
plant cells through pits.
Middle Lamella: Cementing material which attach the cell walls of
neighbouring plant cells, made up of calcium, magnesium and pectate,
jelly like layer. Protoplast: plant cell without cell wall.
 Types of cells: two types – Prokaryotic cell, Eukaryotic cell
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

CHARACTERS EUKARYOTIC CELL PROKARYOTIC CELL

EXAMPLES Protista cells, fungi cells , plant Monera cells- bacteria ,

cells , animal cells Cyanobacteria , mycoplasma
NUCLEUS Present Absent
NUCLEAR nucleoid
REGION
ORGANIZATION Complex Simple

SIZE 5µ to 100 µ 1µ to 10 µ

CELL All cell organelles present Membrane bound cell

ORGANELLES organelles absent
RIBOSOMES 70-S , 80 –S Only 70 –S

NO. OF More than one – diploid and Only one.

CHROMOSOMES haploid

TYPE OF Mitosis and meiosis Amitosis

DIVISION

TYPES OF Sexual and asexual both Asexual

REPRODUCTON
PLASMID Absent Present
PROKARYOTIC CELL
Examples bacteria, archaebacteria, cyanobacteria, mycoplasma.
Microscopic, omnipresent,
Simple organization
Motile or non-motile,
Heterotrophic-parasitic, chemoautotrophic, photoautotrophic
Cell wall made of peptidoglycan or murein.
Show anaerobic respiration.
All the cell organelles are absent like Mitochondria, chloroplast, Golgi
body, lysosomes, Ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuole,
centrosome etc.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT CELLS AND ANIMAL CELLS
CHARACTERS PLNAT CELLS ANIMAL CELLS
SIZE Larger Smaller
CELL WALL Present Absent
PLASTIDS Present Absent
CENTROSOME Absent Present
CENTRIOLES
PLASMODESMATA Present Absent
MIDDLE LAMELLA
POSITION OF peripheral Central
NUCLEUS
GOLGIBODY Simpler known as Single large prominent.
dictyosome
NUTRITION Autotrophic Heterotrophic
STORED Starch Glycogen
CARBOHYDRATE
VACUOLE Single large prominent Many small temporary
permanant centrally scattered in cytoplasm
located
CELL ENVELOPES

1 Glycocalyx: May be present as outer most covering in prokaryotic

cells or absent.
Made Up of polysaccharide and protein. Exist in Two forms
Slime layer - loose sheath jelly like structure
Capsule- hard thick tough rigid form.

2 Cell wall- outer most covering of prokaryotic cells, Protista cells,

fungal cells and plant cells.
Prokaryotic cell wall - peptidoglycan or murine.
Protists cell wall – cellulosic
Fungal cell wall – chitin
Plant cell wall – cellulose.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL WALL-

Provide Protection.
Frame work to cell i.e. Provide proper shape.
Helps in exchange of materials.
Provide mechanical support, strength, rigidity to cells.
Cell membrane or Plasma membrane or plasmalemma : Made
up of phospholipid mainly, few amount of carbohydrates protein and
lipid,
Semipermeable membrane...example parchment paper
Selectively permeable membrane or differentially permeable.
Example Cell membrane, tonoplast
Impermeable membrane
Example Cell wall
Functions of cell membrane
Provide protection to cell
Provide mechanical support strength rigidity
Provide shape to the cells
Helps in exchange of material through - Diffusion, osmosis, mediated
transport and bulk transport endocytosis exocytosis
DIFFUSION – The movement of molecules of solid, liquid or gas from
its higher concentration region to its lower concentration region till
equilibrium.
OSMOSIS- The movement of molecules of only liquid from its higher
concentration region to its lower concentration region till equilibrium
through selectively or semipermeable membrane.
Osmosis is of two types –
Exosmosis – movement of liquid molecules from inside to outside.
Endosmosis- – movement of liquid molecules from outside to inside.
Water molecules move from its higher concentration region to its
lower concentration region.
Hypotonic solution:
When external solution or medium surrounding the cell having High
concentration of water than the cell cytoplasm known as hypotonic
solution or medium.
When we keep the cell in hypotonic medium endosmosis takes place as
a result cell swell.
Hypertonic solution:
When external solution or medium surrounding the cell having low
concentration of water than the cell cytoplasm known as hypertonic
solution.
PLASMOLYSIS-
When we keep the plant cell in hypertonic medium exosmosis takes
place as a result cell shrink i.e. all the components of a cell along with
cell membrane concentrate in the centre of cell, there is the gap
between cell wall and cell membrane, this phenomenon is known as
plasmolysis, and the plant cell known as plasmolysed cell.
Animal cell known as crenated cell in above solution/condition.

Isotonic solution:
When external solution or medium surrounding the cell having same
concentration of water as the cell cytoplasm known isotonic solution.
When we keep the cell in isotonic medium, there is no net movement
of water so cell neither shrink nor swell.
MODELS OF CELL MEMBRANES
1. Sandwich model of Plasma Membrane:
Proposed by Danielle and Davson
According to them plasma membrane is made Up of
Alpha globular Protein and bilayers of phospholipid.
Alpha globular Protein present on either side of bilayers of
phospholipid.
Bilayers of phospholipid show amphipathic property. i.e.
It has two distinct face or region i.e. one polar end or head which is
hydrophilic i.e. water loving.
Second non polar end or tail which is hydrophobic i.e. water hating.
Bilayers of phospholipid are arranged in this manner that their tail face
to each other.
There is a weak attraction force between tail regions.

Draw backs of sandwich model:

Could not explain the transportation of water and water soluble
molecules.
Could not explain the dynamic property of Plasma membrane.
Could not explain Active transport.
2. Unit membrane model of plasma membrane
Proposed by Robertson
According to them plasma membrane is made Up of
Beta fibrous Protein and bilayers of phospholipid.
Beta fibrous Protein present on either side of bilayers of phospholipid.
Bilayers of phospholipid show amphipathic property. i.e.
It has two distinct face or region i.e. one polar end or head which is
hydrophilic i.e. water loving.
Second non polar end or tail which is hydrophobic i.e. water hating.
Bilayers of phospholipid are arranged in this manner that their tail face
to each other.
There is a weak attraction force between tail regions.
The average thickness of plasma membrane is 75A° to 100A°
Thickness of beta fibrous Protein layer is 20A° to 30A°
Thickness of bilayers of phospholipid is 35A° to 40A°

Draw backs of Unit membrane model:

Could not explain the transportation of water and water soluble
molecules.
Could not explain the dynamic property of Plasma membrane.
Could not explain Active transport.
Both sandwich model of PM and unit membrane model of PM known
as Lamillar model or trilamillar model because it has three layers i.e.
protein+ Phospholipid+ Protein. I.e. PLP Model.
 3. Fluid mosaic model of Plasma Membrane Protein iceberg in the
sea of lipid.
Given by singer and Nicholson.
According to them plasma membrane is made Up of
Alpha globular Protein and bilayers of phospholipid.
Alpha globular Protein present on either side of bilayers of
phospholipid.
Bilayers of phospholipid show amphipathic property. i.e.
It has two distinct face or region i.e. one- polar end or head which is
hydrophilic i.e. water loving.
Second- non polar end or tail which is hydrophobic i.e. water hating.
Bilayers of phospholipid are arranged in this manner that their tail face
to each other.
There is a weak attraction force between tail regions which holds tail
part of phospholipid.
Protein molecules are two types
Extrinsic protein and intrinsic protein or integral protein.
Extrinsic protein present on both the head sides of phospholipid layers.
On the outer surface of Plasma membrane Glycocalyx present made up
of protein and oligosaccharides.
Intrinsic protein molecules are partially or fully imbedded in the
bilayers of phospholipid .some large size protein molecules are there in
the lipoid region which allows the entry and exit of water molecules
known as channel protein or tunnel protein.
Molecules of phospholipids show movement in the same layer known
as transition movement and molecules of phospholipids move from
one layer to other layer known as flip flop movement.
Fluid mosaic model explain the transportation of water and water
soluble molecules.

Explain the dynamic property of Plasma membrane.

Explain Active transport.
So it is the most accepted model of PM.
The thickness of Plasma membrane is 75 A° to 100 A°
Plasma membrane is pours and the size of pores is about 7 A° to 10 A°
Cell Organelles
Nucleus: Brain of cell it is the master cell organelle. It regulate all the
activities of the cell.
Discovery – Robert Brown and named as Nucleus, nucleus also known
as karyon.
Origin- pre-existing nucleus.
Occurrence- all eukaryotic cells except mature mammalian RBC, Mature
sieve tube of phloem, prokaryotic cells.
Shape- variable, generally spherical, oval.
Size- variable.
Number per cell- one to many
Nature – director and governor of cells.
Position- peripheral in plant cells and centrally in animal cells.
Structure- nuclear membrane – outer and inner.
Nuclear pores. Nucleoplasm Chromatin reticulum Nucleolus.
Functions- control and regulate all the activity of cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum -first observed by Garnier, Discovered by
Claude, and termed by Porter.
Ultra structure given by Claude, Porter and Fullam.
Nature: cytoskeleton/ endoskeleton
Number: metabolically active cells have more no. of endoplasmic
Reticulum
Origin: from pre-existing endoplasmic Reticulum, cell membrane,
nuclear membrane,
Occurrence: in all eukaryotic cells except- mature Mammalian RBC ,
embryonic cells, oocyte, germinal cells , prokaryotic cells,
Types: two types
1 Rough endoplasmic Reticulum
2 Smooth endoplasmic Reticulum
Ribosomes attached on endoplasmic Reticulum with the help of a
glycoprotein known as Ribophorin. And make Rough endoplasmic
Reticulum
Structure:
I Cisternae: These are narrow, tubular flattened membranous
structure having diameter 40 to 50 micrometres
Attached with Ribosomes evaginated from Nuclear membrane present
close to nuclear membrane may have Ribosomes or not
2 Vehicles: small spherical sac like structure with diameter 25 to 500
micrometres filled up with enzymes, may have Ribosomes or not
present near Cisternae.
Tubules: branched tubular flattened membranous structure present
near cell membrane.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Functions...

* RER involve in proteins synthesis and its transportation.
* SER involve in Glycolipid, phospholipid and cholesterol synthesis.
* Helps in formation of cell Membrane, nuclear membrane, primary
lysosomes, cell plate.
* SER convert the cholesterol in to vitamin D in skin cells by absorbing
solar radiation.
* SER convert the cholesterol in to sex hormones like oestrogen and
testosterone in testis and ovary.
* SER involve in Detoxification process of certain exogenous and
endogenous substance in liver cells.
* Endoplasmic Reticulum provide mechanical support and rigidity to
cells so considered as cytoskeleton or endoskeleton of cells.
* SER perform the function of Glycogenolysis i.e. convert glycogen into
glucose in liver cells
* Endoplasmic Reticulum involve in intracellular transportation of
material i.e. considered as Highway in the cell.
* Endoplasmic Reticulum involve in endomembrane system i.e. GERL
system (Golgi body Endoplasmic Reticulum Lysosomes system)
* Enzymes of Endoplasmic Reticulum involve in Biosynthesis process.

Golgi body/Golgi complex/ Golgi apparatus/

Dictyosome/lipochondria/ Bakers Body/ Idiosome/ Dalton Complex:
Discovery/ Historical background:
First observed by George.
Morphological structure given by Camilo Golgi from nerve cells of cat
and Barn owl.
Ultra structure given by Dalton so Golgi body known as Dalton
Complex.
Occurrence: present in all eukaryotic cells except mature Mammalian
RBCs, sieve tube of phloem, spermatozoa of Bryophytes and
pteridophytes, prokaryotic cells.
Size: 2 Micrometres, diameter 0.5 micrometre.
Bigger in secretory cells like mucous cells, goblet cells, pancreatic cells,
liver cells, mammary gland cells,
Smaller in non-secretory cells like muscle cells.
Number: one per animal cell.
6 to 12 per plant cell generally. Lower algae one per Cell.
Rhizoidal cells of chara have 25000 approx. per cell.
Position: perinuclear i.e. near nucleus in Vertebrates.
In invertebrates and plants Golgi complex are diffused or scattered
throughout the cytoplasm.

Shape: Pleomorphic i.e. change according to Functions of cell.

Nature. Traffic police of cell, Director of transportation of materials in

cells
Zone of Exclusion: There is a clear clean area around the Golgi body in
the cytoplasm of cell, no cell Organelle present in this area known as
zone of Exclusion.
Ultra structure: On the basis of electron microscope study
There are three components or elements of Golgi body.
Cisternae: These are unbranded tubular, sac like stacked one upon
another having the diameter of 600 Å
Number: one Cisternae per animal cell.
3 to 12 in per plant cell and euglena 10 to 20.
Liver cell have 50 Cisternae per cell.
Fungi have one Cisternae per cell.
Vacuole: Large spherical structure having diameter of 600 Å
. Mainly towards Trans face.
Vesicles: Small spherical structure having diameter 40 Å
Towards cisface
Golgi body have two types of secretion. Continuous secretion-
Antibodies.
Discontinuous secretion- enzymes, digestive juices.
Golgi body show polarity i.e. two distinct face.
Maturation face or Trans face - concave always towards cell
membrane.
Formative face or Cis face - convex always towards nuclear membrane.

Functions of Golgi body/Dalton Complex

Secretion and packaging of materials. Ex.
Goblet cells secret polysaccharide.
Connective tissue cells secret Collagen.
Pancreatic cells secret various enzymes. Liver cells secret bile

 Golgi body also secret hormone like Thyroxin in thyroid gland

 Vitellogenesis - process of formation of yolk which provides
nutrients to developing embryo.

 Golgi body also involve in cell plate (precursor of cell wall)

formation with the help of phragmoplast (small pieces of Golgi
body and endoplasmic Reticulum)

 Pectin material of middle Lamella/ Cell wall also secreted by Golgi

body.

 Golgi body also involve in the process of Glycosylation i.e.

Biosynthesis of Glycoprotein (carbohydrates+ protein)
(Biosynthesis of Glycolipid (carbohydrates+ lipid)
 Golgi body in Plasma B cells also secrets antibodies i.e.
Immunoglobulin.
 Golgi body also involve in synthesis of primary lysosomes
 Golgi body helps in formation of Acrosome of sperm which
contain sperm lysine enzyme which dissolve or digest the outer
covering of egg cell during fertilization process.
 Golgi body Direct and regulate the process of transportation in
the cytoplasm of cell so considered as Director of transportation
in cells or Traffic police of cell, specially the macromolecules.
 Golgi body involve in membrane biosynthesis
 Helps in absorption of fats and lipids in Intestinal cells
  Golgi body involve in GERL (Golgi body Endoplasmic Reticulum
lysosome) system formation

Lysosomes/ Suicidal Bag/Garbage disposal system/Cellular house

keeper/Scavenger/Digestive Bag
Discovery: Lysosomes Discovery by de Duve from rat liver cells.
Term lysosomes also given by de Duve
Initially lysosomes were known as Pericanalicular dense bodies.
Ultra structure of lysosomes given by Navikoff.
Occurrence: present in all eukaryotic cells except mature Mammalian
RBC, euglena, Meristametic cells, yeast, Neurospora, Prokaryotic cells.
Number/cell: maximum in those cells which are involve in intra Cellular
digestion i.e. phagocytic in nature like macrophages, WBC like
monocytes, neutrophils, histiocytes in connective tissue, osteoclast in
bone tissue.
Size: 0.2 to 0.8 micrometre
Shape. Spherical/ rounded.
Origin: from SER, Golgi body.
Structure: surrounded by single layer of membrane made up of
lipoprotein, lysosomes contain acidic hydrolytic Enzymes. Known as
matrix.
There are about 50 different hydrolytic Enzymes which are classified
into following six categories.....
Protease
Glycosidase
Nuclease
Phosphatase
Sulphatase
Esterase
Hydrolases are those which breaks down the complex substance in to
simpler by addition of water .i.e. by the process of hydrolysis.
Types of Lysosomes: on the basis of chemical nature of matrix
Lysosomes are polymorphic cell Organelle.so
Lysosomes are divided into four different types.
Primary lysosomes:
Have inactive acidic hydrolytic Enzymes.
Secondary lysosomes:
Have active hydrolytic Enzymes along with undigested food material.
Tertiary lysosomes:
These are the secondary lysosomes along with undigested remain of
food.
Autophagosome / Autolysosome
Secondary lysosomes along with any infected cell Organelle to digest.
When any cell become non-functional, old , damaged, infected, then
lysosomes rupture and the hydrolytic Enzymes dissolve or digest the
whole cell then known as Suicidal Bag.
Functions of Lysosomes:
Heterophagy:
Intracellular digestion of extra cellular substance/external material any
food particles, microbes,
Autophagy:
Intracellular digestion of intracellular substance/ digestion of reserve
food material. Or any old non-functional infected cell Organelle.
Autolysis:
Digestion of whole cell by hydrolytic Enzymes of Lysosomes.
Lysosomes also involve in defence i.e. kill the pathogens antigens by
their hydrolytic Enzymes.
It is also believed that lysosomes destroy carcinogens i.e. cancer
causing agent.

Mitochondria
Power house of Cell or power plant of cell or cellular furnaces.
Discovery – by Benda
R. Altman called it Bioplast.
Fleming called it Fila.
Shape- spherical, rod like, cylindrical, oval, circular, filament like.
Number – 50 – 50000 per cell about.
Nature- seat of respiration.
Occurrence- present in all eukaryotic cells except mature mammalian
RBC, sieve tube of phloem, prokaryotic cells.
Structure-
Mitochondria are surrounded by double layer of unit members, i.e.
outer membrane and inner membrane .Inner membrane folds inward
in the matrix as finger like projections known as cristae.
Space present inside cristae known as intracristal space.
inner membrane divides the lumen of mitochondria into two chambers
outer chamber or perimitochondrial space and inner chamber filled up
with proteinous fluid known as matrix contain 70 - S ribosomes,
circular DNA, RNA, cristae, FI particles, lipids, etc.
Outer membrane of mitochondria is freely permeable while inner
membrane is selectively permeable.
 The major steps of aerobic respiration takes place in mitochondria
resultant energy produce in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate-
energy currency of cell)
 Mitochondria are known as semiautonomous body because it
contains DNA and Ribosomes, with the help of these, make some
of their own Protein molecules which participate in its formation.
 Mitochondria is the cell Organelle which contain another cell
Organelle i.e.70 S ribosomes.
Functions- produce energy.

Plastids- are present in plants cells, euglena,

Plastids are two types
1 Leucoplast- three types –
Amyloplast - carbohydrates (starch) storing plastids ex. maize potato,
rice, wheat.
Aleuroplast - protein storing plastids ex. Pulses, maize
Elaioplast: fat or lipid storing plastids ex. seeds of mustard, sunflower,
ground nut and castor.
2. Chromoplast:
Rhodoplast: red colour pigments containing plastids ex. Petals of
flowers, red algae have phycoerythrin lycopene etc.
Phaeoplast: brown colour pigments containing plastids fucoxanthins
Ex. brown algae, petals of flowers
All the plastids are produced from proplastids according to need of cells
and physiological demand of cells .Etioplsts are without pigments,
grana and store food substance.

Chloroplast is known as kitchen Of Cells because here process of

photosynthesis takes place resultant food i.e. glucose and oxygen
produce.
Chloroplast covered by double layer of unit membranes i.e. outer
membrane and inner membrane.
Inner membrane hold the portentous fluid known as stroma which
contain grana, circular DNA, RNA, stroma lamellae etc.
20 to 40 plate like structure present in stroma known as grana which is
the site of light reaction. stroma is the site of dark reaction.
Each grana have 10 to 100 sac like, rounded, flattened membranous
structure known as thylakoid .In the members of thylakoid
quantasomes are present. Each quantasome contain 230 chlorophyll
molecules which trap sunlight.

Vacuole: Store House of Cell:

Single membrane bound structure.
Membrane of vacuole is known as Tonoplast which is similar to cell
membrane or plasma membrane chemically and structurally, Tonoplast
is selectively permeable membrane which allows the entry and exit of
certain inorganic and organic molecules.
Cell sap or vacuole sap: Fluid inside the vacuole contain sugar, amino
acids, organic acids, mineral water salts pigments, enzymes etc.
Occurrence:
Present in all eukaryotic cells except mature Mammalian RBC,
meristmatic cells of plans, prokaryotic cells.
Shapes: spherical sac like rounded, oval, elongated.
Position: in the cytoplasm of the cells.
In mature plant cells mostly single large prominent, permanent
centrally located vacuole present. And occupy approx. 90% volume of
cell cytoplasm.
Primordial utricle: in mature plant cells vacuole is centrally located
hence all other components of Cell pushed towards the boundary of
Cell and appear as thin layer of cytoplasm known as primordial utricle.
In animal cells there are many small temporary vacuoles which are
scattered throughout the cell.
Types of vacuole
1 Food vacuole:
* Phagosome: undigested solid food containing vacuole.
* Pinosome: undigested liquid food containing vacuole
2 Gas vacuole/ pseudo vacuole
Air or gas like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen gas containing vacuole,
found in aquatic plants and animals and provide buoyancy/ floating
ability to them.
3 contractile vacuole:
Present in some fresh water protozoan like amoeba and paramecium.
Helps in osmoregulation and excretion.

Functions of Vacuoles:
* Storage of substances
* Osmoregulation
* Excretion
* Elongation of plant cells
* Provide Buoyancy
* provide turgidity and turgor pressure to cells.
* helps in opening and closing of stomata pores.
* Storage of waste toxic metabolic by-products of plants.
Cell division/ cell cycle / cell formation
The process of formation of new daughter cells from pre-existing
mother cell, known as cell division or Cell formation.
There are four different types of cell division.
 Mitosis
 Meiosis
 Amitosis
 Free nuclear division
Why cells divide??????
Each and every cell has a fixed ratio of cytoplasm and nucleoplasm, this
particular ratio of cytoplasm and nucleoplasm of each cell known as KI
karyoplasmic index i.e. cytoplasm nucleoplasm index or ratio. When
this KI index change due to metabolism, cells start to divide again to
maintain fixed ratio of cytoplasm and nucleoplasm ratio.

Mitosis or Mitotic cell division or somatic cell division or

equational division or Qualitative cell division or clone
formation
The process of formation of two daughter cells from a mother cell
known as mitosis. Both the daughter cells have same number of
Chromosome as compared to their mother cell.
Mitosis discovered by W. Flemming.
Term mitosis was given by W. Flemming.
Mitosis occurs in somatic cells of body like liver, lungs, kidney, bone
cells etc.
Cell division occurs in two main steps-
1 INTERPHASE OR PREPARATORY PHASE – Cell prepare itself i.e.
double all its components, before division, known as inter phase.
2 Actual division phase.- karyokinesis , cytokinesis
Karyokinesis i.e. division of nucleus followed by cytokinesis i.e.
division of cytoplasm
Karyokinesis occurs in following sub phase –
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Meiosis or Meiotic division or Reductional division
The process of formation of four haploid daughter cells from a Diploid
mother cell known as meiosis. Each daughter cell have half number of
Chromosome as compared to their mother cell.
Meiosis only occur in Diploid cell
It never occurs in Haploid cells.
Process of meiosis discovered by Von Benden & wini warter.
Term meiosis given by farmer & Moore.
Meiosis occurs in gamete mother cells or meiocytes—primary
spermatocyte and primary oocytes.
CHROMATIN RETICULUM OR CHROMOSOMES
Structure of Chromosome:
The term Chromosome given by Waldeyer
The term chromatin reticulum given by Flemming.
First of all Chromosome were observed or discovered by Hofmeister
Pellicle: It is a thin proteinous membrane which surrounds the
Chromosome externally, it holds proteinous nature of matrix and two
sister chromatids.
Matrix: or chromoplasm
It is proteinous fluid hold by pellicle in which two sister chromatids
present.
Both pellicle & matrix are non-genetic parts of Chromosome.
Sister chromatids: also known as chromonemata (singular
chromonema) . Each Chromosome contain two sister chromatids.
The arrangement of sister chromatids in Chromosome is of two types
A .Paranemic arrangement
Both the sister chromatids of a Chromosome arrange parallel to each
other in matrix.
Such type of arrangement seen in those cells which divide by meiosis
only.
B....Plectonemic arrangement.
Both the sister chromatids are twisted to each other in matrix
Such type of arrangement seen in those cells which divide mitotically.
Actually chromatids are DNA threads made up of long chain of
nucleotides.
Chromomeres:
These are the bead like structure arrange on chromatids, in old times
these are considered as genes. But present time we know these are
actually nucleosomes
I.e. special type of coiling of DNA around histone protein.
About 33 million nucleosomes are present in 46 human Chromosomes.
Telomere: Terminal ends of Chromosome known as telomere.
Centromere or primary constriction: pellicle is not continuous layer, at
some sites in Chromosome it is internally constricted, these sites known
as primary constriction or centromere... secondary contrition.
Kinetochore: it is disc like structure which unit or fuse both the sister
chromatids at centromere or primary constriction.
Arm of Chromosome:
The segment or portion or part of a Chromosome present on either side
of centromere, known as arm of Chromosome.
In Telocentric Chromosome only one arm present.
In metacentric, sub metacentric, acrocentric Chromosome two arms
present.
Satellite or NOR: Nucleolar organizer region
In some Chromosome, after second constriction there is a short
segment, known as satellite, which is associated with nucleolus and
known as Nucleolar organizer region.
Those Chromosomes which have NOR, known as SAT Chromosome.
In human Chromosomes number 13, 14,15,21,22, are SAT
Chromosome.