1

Fluvial landforms: AQA past questions

Landforms of erosion:
Rapids and waterfalls
Label Figure 1 (shows a waterfall) to describe the characteristics
of the landforms shown. (4 marks)
The obvious landforms are the waterfall, plunge pool and the
associated gorge in the foreground. Allow 1 mark for each of these –
maximum 2 for identification. The command word is ‘describe’ so
there needs to be more than just recognition of the landforms for
further marks. Labels may include reference to the two stages of the
descent / the deeper part of the bed just after the descent / thepresence
of a plunge pool marked by the white water (if not awarded as an
identification mark for recognising landform) / the channel occupying
the width of the bed in the gorge or narrow channel / the stepped
profile of the gorge or narrow channel / the eddying of the water in
the gorge / or turbulent flow. Features must be correctly arrowed to be
worthy of a mark – arrow must connectwith landform / characteristic.
4x1
1 (a) (ii) Explain the formation of the landforms shown in Figure
1.(7 marks)
The landforms to be explained are the waterfall and the gorge. There
is likely to be reference to bands of hard and soft rock that are
horizontally arranged, with the hard rock forming a cap rock,
underlain by the soft rock. Differential erosion results and the softer
rock is eroded faster than the hard rock, creating a steep gradient.
There may be reference to specific processes of erosion, such as
abrasion and hydraulic action. This causes the undercutting of the soft
rock and an overhang develops above the plunge pool and its swirling
waters. This ultimately collapses, causing the waterfall to retreat and
to leave a narrow, steep-sided valley – the gorge – in its wake. This is
the most likely explanation, but there may also be reference to rivers
 2

plunging over the edges of plateaus in southern Africa and South

America and also to knick point waterfalls.
Level 1 (Basic) 1-4 marksBegins to explain the formation of the
waterfall/one landform. There is a partial sequence and general
reference to process, such as erosion. Some use of appropriate
terminology present at the higher end.
Level 2 (Clear) 5-7 marksSeeks to explain the sequence of the
formation of the landforms – waterfall and gorge. There is some
reference to both landforms, although one may be dealt with in greater
detail. There will be greater reference to gorge through the level.
Sequence is clear and there is reference to specific processes, such as
abrasion. Appropriate geographical terminology is used.
Potholes
(c) Figure 2 shows potholes; landforms resulting from fluvial
erosion.

Describe these potholes and explain their formation. (7 marks)

Potholes are circular shaped; cylindrical; vary in depth; some merge

with each other; some are exposed above the river level. The water
can be seen to be swirling/eddying. This creates a shallow hollow that
is deepened by the same process. The water contains some of the load
being carried by the river and this hits the base and sides of the hole to
both widen and especially deepen it, smoothing the edges (1). This is
a particular application of the abrasion process, known as pothole
 3

drilling. It is most effective at times of high velocity and discharge.

As vertical erosion is the dominant process, potholes tend to form
well above base level where potential energy is relatively high.
Level 1 (1-4 marks) Describes the landform generally. Begins to
explain. Answer may be imbalanced - and clearly emphasise one
element. Some use of appropriate terminology present at the higher
end.
Level 2 (5-7 marks) Description refers partly to the photograph.
Response is more balanced. Explanation is clear. Appropriate
geographical terminology is used.
Explain the formation of channel landforms typically found in the
upper course of a river. (15)
This question requires both description and explanation of relevant
features. Do not penalise those who include the ‘V’ shaped valley, but
credit in particular waterfalls, rapids and potholes. Credit diagrams,
up to Level 3, if the annotation is detailed.
Waterfalls and rapids occur when there is a sudden change in the
gradient of the river as it flows downstream. Waterfalls are more
dramatic features than rapids and each may be the result of a resistant
band of rock occurring across the course of the river or the
rejuvenation of the area, giving the river renewed energy for vertical
erosion due to a lower sea level.In the case of the waterfall the river
falls over an edge into a deep plunge pool. At the foot of the fall the
layers of weak rock are excavated more quickly, by corrasion and
hydraulic power, than the overlaying resistant rock. The force of the
water underneath the waterfall swirls around rocks and boulders and
enlarges and deepens the plunge pool by the same processes. This
undercuts the resistant (cap) rock above. Eventually the overhanging
cap rock collapses andthe waterfall retreats upstream, leaving a gorge
ahead of it. This is an example of headward erosion.
Potholes are cylindrical holes drilled into the rocky bed of a river by
turbulent high velocity water loaded with pebbles. Pebbles can
 4

become trapped in slight hollows and vertical eddies in the water will
be strong enough to allow the sediment to grind a hole into the rock
by corrasion / abrasion. Potholes can vary in size from a few
centimetres to several metres in width. They are generally found in
the upper course of the river, where the valley lies well above
baselevel, giving more potential for down cutting, and where the
riverbed is more likely to be rocky in nature.
Level 1 (Basic) The answer is predominantly description of a typical
upper course river, perhaps with some simple explanation of how
waterfalls form. It is likely that non-channel features, such as
interlocking spurs, gorges and V shaped valleys will be
described.Level 2 (Clear) The answer will concentrate on the channel
and there will be a clear explanation of at least one channel feature.
Although there will be a sound understanding of the way in which
channel features form, the specific terminology, such as vertical and
headward erosion, are likely to be absent.Level 3 (Detailed) At this
level the response will use more sophisticated geographical terms
such as vertical erosion, headward, hydraulic power and corrasion
accurately and in context. The formation of at least two channel
features must be covered. There may be use of supporting case
studies, such as High Force Waterfall on the River Tees.
 5

Landforms of erosion and deposition:

Meanders
1 (b) Study Figure 2 which shows part of the Cuckmere River in
East Sussex.

1 (b) (i) Describe the landforms shown in Figure 2. (4 marks)

Meanders are the most obvious feature – these are quite sinuous.
There is evidence of the build-up of material on the inside bend (to
right of photo) forming a gentle slip-off slope. There are levées
present following the river’s course. The meanders are surrounded by
anextensive flat gently sloping area – the flood plain. The meander
belt extends across this. The valley sides (bluffs/river cliffs) rise
beyond the extent of the meander belt.Allow 2 marks for
 6

identification. There must be reference to at least two landforms. 4x1.

Next question is from a Specimen paper
(c)Describe and explain the development of meanders. (15 marks)
Description should relate to the development of riffles and pools at
equal intervals along a stretch of river (pools occur 5-6 times the
width of the bed). There should be information relating to what these
are – alternating areas of shallow and deep water where energy
increases within a pool area due to less friction/greater efficiency and
is then lost as the water flows over the shallower riffle where friction
is greater. Flow over these becomes uneven and results in the
maximum flow being toward one side downstream. The pools become
placed on the main curve of the meanders. The insideand outside
bends of the meander are very different with shallow water, slow
flow, deposition, and the build up of a slip off slope characterising the
inner bend whilst deep water, fast flow, lateral erosion (especially
abrasion and hydraulic action) and a river cliff characterise the outside
bend. Thus, the meanders have a distinct asymmetrical profile. The
spacing between the pools and the contrasts between the two bends
relate to a corkscrew like movement of the water as it spirals
downstream from bank to bank – helicoidal flow. Thus, the material
that is eroded from an outside meander bend is subsequently
deposited on the inside bend of the next meander downstream.
Level 1 Describes the formation of meanders. Will refer to basic
processes such as erosion anddeposition.Likely to focus on contrasts
between inside and outside bend. Partial description and sequence not
identified.Level 2 Clear description of the formation of meanders.
Will refer to specific processes e.g. abrasion, helicoidal flow. Begins
to identify sequence of formation e.g. begins withriffles and pools.
Explanation will be present.Level 3 Clear description of the formation
of meanders. Will refer to specific processes e.g. abrasion, helicoidal
flow with clear evidence of understanding. Identifies sequence of
 7

formation e.g. begins with riffles and pools. Explanation will be clear
in a more balanced answer.
Next question is from Specimen paper 2
(b) When a river is flowing round a bend it is more likely to
deposit on the inside of the bend rather than on the outside.
Explain why. (4 marks)
Water flowing in a river tends to adopt a spiral flow as it moves
downstream. This means that it flows slower on the inside than on the
outside of a bend (1), and also it tends to spiral upwards on the inside
of the bend, using energy (1). As it has less energy available to carry
its load of sediment it may deposit some of this material (1). On the
outside of a bend it moves faster and spirals downwards, increasing
its energy (1) and the increased energy allows it to pick up and carry
material from the bed and bank (1) in contrast with theinside bend..
OLD AS
(b) (ii) Draw a labelled diagram(s) to show how and why
meanders migrate. (5 marks)
 8

Level 1 (Basic)The answer shows a simple diagram of a meander with

deposition on the inside bend and erosion on the outside, so providing
a limited explanation of why meanders change position. There may be
reference to how meanders change position, e.g. using an arrow.Level
2 (Clear) A clear understanding is shown of how meanders migrate,
i.e. downstream and laterally. The why element of the question is also
covered, through use of a well-annotated diagram.
Oxbow lakes: no question found

Landforms of deposition:
Braided channels
Levees
Floodplain
OLD AS
(c) How and why do flood plains develop in the lower course of
rivers? (7 marks)
Floodplains develop due to changing energy conditions either related
to one flood episode or over a longer period of time.
• Become wider ………. Lateral erosion and meander migration. •
Sediments become deeper ……….Flooding leads to
deposition/meander accretion/channel bed aggregation• Become
incised over time ……….Due to changes in the base level of the river
(fall in sea level)
Level 1 A basic response, which concentrates on the way a floodplain
develops as aresult of deposition following a flood, e.g. ‘when a river
floods it slows down and deposits material on the valley floor, so it
deepens the floodplain. The answer will cover how or why a
floodplain changes after a flood.Level 2 A clear answer, which
describes how floodplains become deeper and/or wider and starts to
explain why they develop over time.Level 3 A more sophisticated and
 9

detailed response. Two of the three bullet points will be covered and
there will be a balance in that both how and why the floodplain
changes/develops will be addressed. Changing energy conditions
taking place during a flood episode may be explained.
1 (b) (ii) Flooding is important in the formation of some river
landforms. With the help of Figure 2, describe the role of flooding
in the formation of river landforms. (6 marks)
There is likely to be reference to flood plains (shown in Figure 2), ox-
bow lakes (the subsequent stage from the meander development
present); levées are also permissible as are bluffs and braided streams.
Reference should be made to the specific role of flooding in
formation, e.g. the development of levées when the river bursts its
banks, the subsequent loss of energy and the deposition of material,
beginning with the largest first. Subsequent flood events lead to the
further buildup of the banks. The finer material is carried further to be
deposited on the flood plain, leading to its aggradation. This process
may be especially marked in deltas and channels may split, following
flooding. There could be recognition that the meander is often cut off
during times of flooding resulting in a straight course and the
formation of an ox-bow lake.
Level 1 (1-4 marks)Identifies landforms at lower end. Describes the
formation of landform(s) such as flood plains, ox-bow lakes. May be
detail on one or a variety of landforms mentioned. Some reference to
flooding will be present at the higher end. Some use of appropriate
terminology present at the higher end. Level 2 (5-6 marks)There is
mention of two landforms. Description is purposeful – related to
flooding specifically.
(c) Explain how flooding can contribute to the formation of
depositional landforms. (15 marks)The river is at risk from flooding
during times of high discharge. If the river floods, the velocity of the
water falls as it overflows the banks. This results in deposition as the
competence of the river is suddenly reduced. It is usual for the
coarsest material to be dropped first, forming a small raised bank
 10

along the sides of the channel. Subsequent floods will increase the
size of the bank leading to the formation of Levees.Floodplains are
the most common depositional feature of a river. They are the
relatively flat areas of land either side of the river, which form the
valley floor in the middle and lowercourses of the river. They are
composed of alluvium (river deposited silts and clays). When
flooding occurs the water spreads out over the floodplain and as it
does so it slows, thus reducing its capacity for transportation. Ox-bow
lakes are features of both erosion and deposition, so their formation is
not just as a result of flooding. An oxbow lake is formed by the
increasing sinuosity of a river meander. Erosion is greatest on the
outer bank, and with deposition on the inner bank, the neck of the
meander becomes progressively narrower. During times of higher
discharge, such as a flood, the river cuts through this neck, and the
new cut eventually becomes the main channel. The former channel is
sealed off by deposition. Credit may be available to other factors so
long as they are linked to contribution of flooding. Allow references
to eyotsand braiding.
Level 1 (Basic) A simple description of one or more landforms of
deposition, perhaps ox-bow lakes, formed as a result of flooding, with
no useful explanation as to why flooding leads to this landform.Level
2 (Clear) Either a description of two landforms created by flooding
but with limited explanation why the flood event actually leads to the
development of these or one landform of deposition will be well
explained in relation to flooding.Level 3 (Detailed) Two or more
landforms of deposition, probably levees and floodplains will be
explained and the answer will demonstrate a sound understanding of
why flooding leads to theirformation. More precise use of
geographical terminology will be evident.
 11

Deltas

1 (b) (i) Draw a labelled sketch plan to show the characteristics of

the Mississippi delta. (4 marks)
Sketch plan should show recognisable outline of river channels and
build – up of land along them, with infilling between those on the
right-hand side of plan. Labels likely to include – distributaries, bird‟s
foot shape of delta, land extending along distributaries, levees,
evidence of deposition/shallower water on edges of land, large
amounts of sediment present in waters off the developed part of the
delta. Allow 1 for sketch and 3 for appropriate labels. (4 marks)
1 (b) (ii) Explain the formation of deltas. (7 marks)
There are certain conditions that are present which encourage the
formation of deltas. The presence of a large amount of sediment is
essential – brought down by large rivers. Mississippi transports 450m
tonnes per year. The limited removal of this by small range of tides is
also significant – thus deltas form in areas such as the Mediterranean,
Gulf of Mexico. The presence of relatively calm seas encourages the
deposition of material, as does the process of flocculation where the
salt present in the water in the sea generates an electrical charge that
 12

causes particles to stick together, increasing cohesion and weight and

encouraging deposition. There may be reference to the land extending
out especially along distributaries and the fact that the largest material
is deposited first. This links in with reference to topset,
foreset&bottomset beds. (7 marks)
Level 1 (Basic) 1-4 marksBegins to explain – ideas separate initially.
There is a partial sequence and begins to link ideas at top end. Some
use of appropriate terminology present at the higher end. Level 2
(Clear) 5-7 markExplanation is clear/sequence given. Links between
different aspects and interrelated nature is recognised. Appropriate
geographical terminology is used.

OLD AS
Explain the formation of a delta. (5 marks)
Deltas generally form when the rate of deposition exceeds the rate of
sediment removed as a river reaches the sea / a lake. In order for a
delta to form the following is usually true.• The river carries a
significant load of sediment.• The coastal area into which it empties
has a small tidal range and weak currents, so there is limited wave
action. The larger and heavier particles are deposited first as the
riverenters the sea, losing its competence. These form the top-set
beds. Medium sized particles, carried a little further out and deposited
as steep angled wedges of sediment next form the fore-set beds. The
finest material is deposited furthest away from the mouth and
becomes the bottom set beds. Deposition within the channel in the
final stages of the river’s journey occurs during times of low flow, or
immediately following a flood event. Islands of deposition called
eyots (chars in Bangladesh) can split the channel and cause it to braid.
When salt water meets fresh water the process of flocculation occurs.
Fine-grained clays transported in river water are attracted together to
form larger particles in saltwater and are deposited on the river banks
and bed. Some candidates might refer to the formation of a bird’s foot
 13

delta, where fingers of deposition build out into the sea along
distributary channels.
Level 1A simple description of a delta with a basic attempt to explain
its formation, most likely along the lines ‘deltas form when the river
carries lots of sediment and when the sea is not powerful enough to
carry this away.’Level 2 A clear explanation, rather than description,
which might account for graded sediments or the process of braiding
leading to the formation of distributaries.
Landforms of rejuvenation
June 2012 1 (b) (i) Outline the cause(s) of rejuvenation. (2 marks)
Rejuvenation occurs when the river has renewed/increased energy, as
a result of a change in the river height relative to base level, caused by
fall in sea level or land uplift.
(d) Describe and explain the formation of landforms resulting from
rejuvenation. (15 marks)
A definition of rejuvenation is likely to form part of the answer – a
renewal of the river’s energy as a result of a relative fall in base level.
This will lead to a return to vertical erosion. It may be a result of a fall
in sea level-eustatic change or an increase in the relative height of the
land in relation to the sea - due to isostatic uplift (the ‘rebound’
following the end of glaciation) or due to tectonic activity.Landforms
- knick point relates to the extent to which the river has created a
newly graded profile to adjust to the new base level. It is identified by
a break in slope and is usually marked by a waterfall and reflects the
process of headward erosion as well as vertical erosion due to the
renewed ability to erode vertically. River terraces - are the remains of
the former flood plain – now abandoned as the river has eroded too
deeply to access it; these may be paired - i.e. at the same level on
either side of the channel. This is indicative of rapid down cutting. If
it is slower as a result of more gradual uplift, the terraces will be
present on different sides of the channel at different levels - unpaired
terraces as the river has time to erode laterally. Incised meanders -
there are two types - entrenched when the cross section is symmetrical
 14

and ingrown where the cross profile isasymmetrical. Both result from
an increase in the rates of vertical erosion - this is more rapid with
entrenched meanders or can be the result of the presence of more
resistant rock. With ingrown meanders, vertical erosion is less rapid,
allowing some lateral erosion also. Reference to specific examples is
not a requirement, but would be one way of enhancing the answer.
Level 1 (1-6 marks) Describes at least one landform, two at the top
end in general terms -may be definition - like. Begins to explain - will
refer to basic processes - vertical erosion. Answer may be imbalanced
- may clearly emphasise one element. Some use of appropriate
terminology present at the higher end. Generic waterfalls (hard and
soft layers of rock).Level 2 (7-12 marks) Description of at least two
landforms is more specific and precise.Response is more balanced.
Explanation is more focussed and there is a link between erosion and
rejuvenation. Appropriate geographical terminology is used.Level 3
(13-15 marks) Clear, purposeful description that links to the process -
a recognition of the different types of terraces, meanders. Explanation
is clearly linked to the impact of rejuvenation on base level and
vertical erosion.
Old AS
(b) Why do features of deposition exist throughout the long
profile of most rivers? (7 marks)
• Features of deposition can occur anywhere because a river deposits
its load when it does not have the competence to transport material.
• In the upper course, boulders are evident on the riverbed. These will
only be transported when the river is in flood, after prolonged or
heavy rainfall, or after snow melt. Braiding occurs, particularly when
the source of the river is a glacier. In summer, when the ice retreats
the river has a high competence and carries a heavy load. As
temperatures cool, river levels drop and deposition occurs in the
channel, forming eyots.
• In the middle course of a river, as it starts to meander, the fastest
 15

flow of theriver occurs on the outside of the bend. On the inside of

bends, where velocity is slack, banks of deposition, called slip-off
slopes develop. Also when the river floods it will deposit alluvium on
the banks and the floodplain. Levees may be evident.
• Most features of deposition are found in the lower course.
Deposition occurs after flooding, on the inside bends of meanders and
also when affected by tides. If tidal waters invade the lower course,
river levels alter on a daily basis. At low tide, the smaller discharge
results in a lower carrying capacity and mud flats and islands of
deposition might be a feature. Deltas also occur at the mouth and can
be classed as features of deposition, as can levees and eyots.
Level 1:( 1-3 marks) A poorly focused answer, which does little more
than describe a feature ofdeposition.Level 2: (4-5 marks) Understands
why deposition takes place and can relate this to the middle and/or
lower course.Level 3: (6-7 marks) Clearly understands the
circumstances under which deposition takes place, through the long
profile i.e. upper, middle and lower course.