Quality Control and

Statistical Quality Control

Management
 What is Quality Control?
 Quality Control
 A process that evaluates output relative to a
standard and takes corrective action when
output doesn’t meet standards
 If results are acceptable no further action is
required
 Unacceptable results call for correction action
 Inspection alone is not is generally not
sufficient to achieve a reasonable level of
quality
 Most organization rely upon some inspection and a
great deal of process control to achieve an
acceptable level of quality.
10-2
 Quality

 “Quality does not happen by accident; it

has to be planned”.
Joseph Juran

 “Quality is conforming to specifications”

Crosby
 Quality Management
 Product and service quality can be defined as
 The total composite product & service
characteristics of marketing, engineering,
manufacturing and maintenance
 Through which the product and service in use

 Will meet the expectations of the customer

 Quality to industry means best for

satisfying customer conditions
 Important among these conditions are
 The actual end use
 The selling price of product/service
 Quality Control

Inputs Conversion
Inputs Outputs
Inputs

Raw Materials, Production Goods and

Parts & supplies process services

Acceptance tests Control charts Acceptance tests

Quality of inputs Monitoring quality Quality of outputs

of partially
completed products
 Quality features of a Product

 Product features
 Performance
 Reliability
 Durability
 Ease of use
 Serviceability
 Esthetics
 Availability of options and expandability
 Reputation
Quality features of a Product

 Freedom from deficiencies

 Free of defects and errors at delivery,
during use and during servicing
 Sales, billing and other business processes
free of errors
 Quality features of Service
 Quality of a service judged by
 Reliability
 Availability
 Credibility
 Security
 Competence of staff
 Understanding of customer needs
 Responsiveness to customers
 Quality features of Service
 Courtesy of staff
 Comfort of surroundings
 Communication between participants
 Associated goods provided with the service
 Freedom from deficiencies
 Service free of errors during original and
future service transactions
 Sales, billing and other business processes
free of errors
 Statistical Quality Control (SQC)

 Application of the statistical techniques

to accept or reject products already
produced or to control the process, and
therefore product quality while the part
is being made.
 The later process called process control
 Former is named as acceptance sampling
 Quality Control Techniques
1. Just in time : It has goal of total Elimination of
inventories, (min work in progress) it is monitored
by a constant working capital. It brings result of a
fundamental change in the management and
industrial culture values.
Eliminating Time
Eliminating Wastages
Moving every phase closer to the customer in time
in distance
Moving closer to their taste and reacting more
quickly to changes in taste
 Steps in JIT
Locating waste in operation
Reducing set up time
2 Kaizen
 Standardized production
 Reduced inventories
 Quality at the source
 Worker’s job
3 Statistical Quality Control:
1. SQC for process control
2. Acceptance sampling
Advantages of SQC
 Avoiding defective parts
 Improve product quality by QC
Bell Shaped Curve

SIZE
Control Chart

UCL

CL AVERAGE QUALITY

LCL

TIME
Phases of Quality Assurance

10-15
 Inspection

 Inspection
 An appraisal activity that compares goods or
services to a standard
 Inspection issues:
1. How much to inspect and how often
2. At what points in the process to inspect
3. Whether to inspect in a centralized or on-site
location
4. Whether to inspect attributes or variables
How Much to Inspect
 Where to Inspect in the
Process
 Typical Inspection Points:
 Raw materials and purchased parts
 Finished products
 Before a costly operation
 Before an irreversible process
 Before a covering process

10-18
 Statistical Process Control
(SPC)
 Quality control seeks
 Quality of Conformance
 A product or service conforms to specifications

 A tool used to help in this process:

 SPC
 Statistical evaluation of the output of a process
 Helps us to decide if a process is “in control” or if
corrective action is needed
 Process Variability

 Two basic questions: concerning

variability:
1. Issue of Process Control
 Are the variations random? If nonrandom
variation is present, the process is said to be
unstable.
2. Issue of Process Capability
 Given a stable process, is the inherent variability
of the process within a range that conforms to
performance criteria?
 Variation

 Variation
 Random (common cause) variation:
 Naturalvariation in the output of a process,
created by countless minor factors
 Assignable (special cause) variation:
A variation whose cause can be identified.
 A nonrandom variation

10-21
Control Charts:
The Voice of the Process

 Control Chart
 A time ordered plot of representative sample
statistics obtained from an ongoing process
(e.g. sample means), used to distinguish
between random and nonrandom variability
 Control limits
 The dividing lines between random and nonrandom
deviations from the mean of the distribution
 Upper and lower control limits define the range of
acceptable variation
Control Chart

Each point on the control chart represents a sample of n

observations

10-23
 Errors
 Type I error
 Concluding a process is not in control when it
actually is.
 The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when
the null hypothesis is true.
 Manufacturer’s Risk
 Type II error
 Concluding a process is in control when it is not.
 The probability of failing to reject the null hypothesis
when the null hypothesis is false.
 Consumer’s Risk
Type I Error
Observations from Sample Distribution
 Control Charts for Variables
 Variables generate data that are
measured
 Mean control charts
 Used to monitor the central tendency of a process.
 “x- bar” charts

 Range control charts

 Used to monitor the process dispersion
 R charts

10-28
 Establishing Control Limits k

R
k

 xi i

x i 1 R i 1

k k
where where
x  Average of sample means R  Average of sample ranges
x i  mean of sample i Ri  Range of sample i
k  number of samples
 X-Bar Chart: Control Limits
 Used to monitor the central tendency of
a process

x  chart Control Limits

UCLx  x  A2 R

LCLx  x  A2 R
where
A2  a control chart factor based on sample size, n
 Range Chart: Control Limits
 Used to monitor process dispersion

R Chart Control Limits

UCLR  D4 R
LCLR  D3 R
where
D3  a control chart factor based on sample size, n
D4  a control chart factor based on sample size, n
Mean and Range Charts
Using Mean and Range Charts
 To determine initial control limits:
 Obtain 20 to 25 samples
 Compute appropriate sample statistics
 Establish preliminary control limits
 Determine if any points fall outside of the control limits
 If you find no out-of-control signals, assume the process is in
control
 If you find an out-of-control signal, search for and correct the
assignable cause of variation
 Resume the process and collect another set of observations
on which to base control limits
 Plot the data on the control chart and check for out-of-
control signals
Control Charts for Attributes
 Attributes generate data that are
counted.
 p-Chart
 Control chart used to monitor the proportion of
defectives in a process

 c-Chart
 Control chart used to monitor the number of
defects per unit
Use a p-chart:
 When observations can be placed into
two categories.
 Good or bad
 Pass or fail
 Operate or don’t operate
 When the data consists of multiple
samples of several observations each
Nonrandom Patterns
 Acceptance Sampling Techniques
 Best alternative of estimating quality of
incoming/out going lots when 100% inspection
not practical
 Sampling inspection necessary because of high
cost of 100% inspection or destructive nature of
inspection or testing
 Based on the premise that a sample represents
the whole lot from which the sample is drawn
 Random sampling provides each element an
equal chance of being selected and permit
logical inferences to be made about the lot
quality based on sample evidence
Acceptance Sampling
 Lot accepted or rejected based on the
number of defects found in the sample
 No need to inspect the entire lot
 Risks of accepting bad lots or rejecting good
lots always associated while making decisions
based on sample evidence
 Examples of Inspection Points
Type of Inspection Characteristics
business points
Fast Food Cashier Accuracy
Counter area Appearance, productivity
Eating area Cleanliness
Building Appearance
Kitchen Health regulations
Hotel/motel Parking lot Safe, well lighted
Accounting Accuracy, timeliness
Building Appearance, safety
Main desk Waiting times
Supermarket Cashiers Accuracy, courtesy
Deliveries Quality, quantity
 Variability
 No production process is good enough to
produce all items of products exactly alike.
 There are two kinds of variations:
1. Variation due to chance (random) causes: These
causes are inevitable, they are difficult to trace and
control even under best conditions of production.
2. Variation due to assignable causes.
1. Differences among machines
2. Differences among workers
3. Differences among materials
4. Differences in each of these factors overtime.
5. Difference in their relationship to one another.
It may also be caused due to change in working
conditions, mistake on the part of operator, lack of
quality mindfulness etc.
 Control Chart

 Control Chart
 Purpose: to monitor process output to see
if it is random
 A time ordered plot representative sample
statistics obtained from an on going
process (e.g. sample means)
 Upper and lower control limits define the
range of acceptable variation
 Control Chart

Abnormal variation Out of

due to assignable sources control
UCL

Mean
Normal variation
due to chance
LCL
Abnormal variation
due to assignable sources

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample number
 Control Charts for Variables
Variables generate data that are measured.

 Mean control charts

 Used to monitor the central tendency of a
process.
 X bar charts

 Range control charts

 Used to monitor the process dispersion
 R charts
 Mean and Range Charts

(process mean is
shifting upward)
Sampling
Distribution

UCL

x-Chart Detects shift

LCL

UCL

Does not
R-chart
detect shift
LCL
 Mean and Range Charts

Sampling
Distribution (process variability is increasing)

UCL

x-Chart Does not

LCL
reveal increase

UCL

R-chart Reveals increase

LCL
 Determining Control Limits for
Means
 A quality inspector took five samples, each with four
observations (n = 4), of the length of time for glue to dry. The
analyst computed the mean of each sample and then computed
the grand mean. All values are in minutes. Use this information
to obtain three-sigma (i.e., z = 3) control limits for means of
future times. It is known from previous experience that the
standard deviation of the process is .02 minute.
Alternate method
 Range Charts. Range control charts
 (R-charts) are used to monitor process dispersion; they
are sensitive to changes in process dispersion. Although
the underlying sampling distribution is not normal, the
concepts for the use of range charts are much the same
as those for the use of mean charts. Control limits for
range charts are found using the average sample range
in conjunction with these formulas
Practice problems