CH 2, Traffic Loading
CH 2, Traffic Loading
1
Outline of chapter
Methods (Procedures) of analysing traffic loading
Fixed traffic
Fixed vehicle
Traffic Analysis
Design period
Traffic forecast
Cumulative ESA’s
2
Traffic
Climate
Pavement
Structure
Material
Properties
3
3.
Introduction
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Traffic Volume and Loading
Traffic Volume and loading are the major factors which
influence the standard of a road.
Traffic volume
Is the basic criterion used in the geometric design
It is bases for functional classification of roads
Traffic loading
Is the most important factor in pavement analysis and design,
culvert and bridge structures.
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Traffic Volume and Loading
The most important traffic loading
factors to be included in the structural
design of pavement are:
Loading magnitude
Loading configuration
Number of repetitions
Speed of loading
Contact pressure
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Traffic Volume and Loading
Loading
Load Distribution
Traffic Volume and Loading
In pavement design two different procedures of traffic loading are widely
used:
I. Fixed traffic
Design thickness of pavements is determined by the magnitude
of single wheel load independent of load repetitions.
Any wheel configurations are converted to equivalent single wheel load
(ESWL).
Design is performed based on the largest equivalent single wheel load
within all configurations.
Commonly used for airport and heavy-wheel load, but light traffic volume
highways.
Not commonly used today.
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II. Fixed Vehicle
Design thickness of pavement is determined by the number
of repetitions of a standard single axle load (80 kN).
Any axle configuration is converted to equivalent single axle load (80
kN) by multiplying the number of repetitions of each configuration by
its equivalent axle load factor (EALF).
The design traffic load is the number of repetitions of all types of axle
loads in the design life of the road in terms of equivalent single axle
loads (ESAL).
Because of the great variety of axle loads and traffic, it is the most
commonly used method for design today.
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1.Fixed traffic
Involves converting multiple wheel loads to an equivalent
single-wheel load (ESWL).
An ESWL is defined as the load on a single tyre that will cause
an equal magnitude of stress, strain, deflection or distress at
a given location within a specific pavement system to that
resulting from a multiple-wheel load.
This method has been used most frequently for airport
pavements or for highway pavements with heavy wheel loads but
light traffic volume. Usually the heaviest wheel load anticipated is
used for design purposes.
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Fixed traffic
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Fixed traffic
Equal vertical stress
• The method of equal vertical subgrade stress is based upon approximations
of stress distribution concepts in an elastic half-space devised by Boyd and
Foster.
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Fixed traffic
0.301og (2z/d)
log(ESWL) log Pd
log(4S d/d)
Example
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1-Jun-15 15
16
Fixed traffic
Equal Vertical Stress ESWL
• The vertical stress factor z /q (Boussinesqs theory) can be used to
determine the theoretical ESWL. For the same vertical subgrade stress, z,
z
qs qd z
qs qd
• For the same contact radius, the contact pressure is
proportional to wheel load, or
Ps
z / qd
Pd z / qs
• In which Ps is the single-wheel load, which is the ESWL to be
determined, Pd is the load on each of the duals, and qs and qd are
the contact pressures under a single wheel and dual wheels,
respectively.
Example 17
2.Fixed Vehicle Procedure
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Load Equivalency
Fig.
13.6 Tons
Failure = 10,000 Repetitions
11.3 Tons
Failure = 100,000 Repetitions
4.5 Tons
Failure = 1,000,000 Repetitions
2.3 Tons
Failure = 10,000,000 Repetitions
4.5 Tons
13.6 Tons
Failure = Repetitions ?
11.3 Tons 2.3 Tons
RELATIVE DAMAGE CONCEPT
Theoretical Analysis
Equivalent
18000 - Ibs Damage per
Standard ESAL
(8.2 tons) Pass = 1
Axle Load
=
16.4 Tons 8.2 Tons
Axle Axle
Consider two single axles A and B where:
B-Axle = 4.1 tons
Damage caused per pass by B-Axle = (4.1/8.2)4 = 0.0625
This means that B-Axle causes only 0.0625 times damage per pass
as caused by 1 pass of standard 8.2 tons axle.
In other works, 16 passes (1/0.625) of B-Axle cause same amount
of damage as caused by 1 pass of standard 8.2 tons axle i.e.,
=
4.1 Tons Axle 8.2 Tons Axle
AXLE LOAD & RELATIVE DAMAGE
75.2
80
63.4
70
53.1
60
44.1
50
36.3
29.5
40
23.8
18.9
30
14.9
11.5
20
8.7
6.5
4.7
3.3
2.3
10
1.1
1.0
0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
SINGLE AXLE LOAD (Tons)
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Traffic Analysis
Fixed Vehicle Procedure (Cont’d)
The summation of the ESAL of all axle loads during the design period
results in a traffic loading parameter for pavement design.
Due to the intractable effects of the great varieties of axle loads and traffic
volumes, highway pavements in most cases fail by fatigue cracking and thus
the design methods are based on fixed vehicle concept.
EALF depends on the type of pavements, thickness or structural
capacity, and the terminal conditions at which the pavement is
considered failed.
EALFs use today are either based on experiences developed from the
AASHTO Road Test or theoretical analysis
Fixed Vehicle Procedure - AASHTO Equivalent Factors:
Wt18
EALF
Wtx
Since EALF is not very sensitive to pavement thickness, a SN equal
to 5 may be used for most cases and a pt value of 2 and 2.5 are
assumed
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Fixed Vehicle Procedure - Theoretical Analysis:
• Fatigue characteristics and permanent deformation parameters are important factors
in pavement design.
• To limit the failure due to fatigue cracking, the allowable number of load repetition
is expressed as:
N f f1 t E1
f2 f3
N f k
t
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Traffic Analysis
Fixed Vehicle Procedure - Theoretical Analysis, (Cont’d):
For the allowable number of x-kN and 80 kN axle load repetitions, the
corresponding Nfx and Nf18 are expressed as:
1
f2
1
f2
N fx k N f 18 k
tx t 80
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Theoretical Analysis, (Cont’d):
The constant f2 was determined by Asphalt institute and Shell and the values
are 3.291 and 5.671 respectively.
A theoretical analysis of EALF was also conducted by Deacon based on an
assumed f2 of 4 which is in the range determined by Asphalt institute and Shell.
Further, for single axles, it is reasonable to assume that tensile strains due
to the axles in question and the standard single-axle are directly
proportional to axle loads.
Using 4 as the value of f2, EALF can be approximated by what is known as the
fourth power rule as:
Lx
4
EALF
L80
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Traffic Analysis
Example 1
• Let number of load repetition expected by 80 KN standard axle is 1000, 160 KN is
100 and 40 KN is 10000. Find the equivalent axle load. Use n= 4
Solution:
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Traffic Analysis
The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from both
the magnitude of the individual wheel loads and their repetitions.
It is necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles that will use
the road but also the wheel loads (or, for convenience, the axle loads).
The mechanism of deterioration of gravel roads differs from that of paved
roads and is directly related to the number of vehicles using the road rather than
the number of equivalent standard axles.
The traffic volume is therefore used in the design of unpaved roads, as opposed to
the paved roads which require the conversion of axle loads into the appropriate
cumulative number of equivalent standard axles.
Design life is the period the pavement will need to be strengthened so that it can
continue to carry traffic satisfactorily for a further period.
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Traffic Analysis (Design Period)
• Many factors may influence this decision, but some of the points to
consider include:
Functional importance of the road
For important roads and for roads with high traffic volume, rehabilitation would cause
major inconvenience to road users and thus, it generally appears economical to construct
roads with longer design periods.
Traffic volume
Location and terrain of the project
For roads in difficult locations and terrain where regular maintenance proves to be
costly and time consuming because of poor access and non-availability of nearby
construction material sources, a longer design period is also appropriate.
Financial constraints
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Traffic Analysis
Traffic Analysis (Design Period) (Cont’d)
Difficulty in forecasting traffic
When accurate traffic estimates cannot be made or from a purely economic point
of view, it may be advisable to reduce the design period or pavement structures may be
planned to be constructed in stages or upgraded.
Table: Design Period (ERA, 2001)
Road Classification Design Period (years)
Trunk Road 20
Link Road 20
Main Access Road 15
Other Roads 10
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FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCE CURVE
Perfect Rehabilitation
Unacceptable
limit
Ride Quality
Traffic/ Age
3 Medium Truck Small and medium sized trucks including tankers up to 7 tons load
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Traffic Analysis (Traffic forecasting )
Traffic forecasting is an uncertain process!!!
The following factors should be considered in the determination of the
annual growth rate, r:
Attracted or diverted traffic due to the improvement of existing road
Normal traffic growth due to increased No and usage of motor vehicles
Generated traffic – traffic due to upgrading or constructing the new road
Development traffic due to changes in land use
• The traffic growth rates used to project the traffic should be checked whether
they are appropriate for the different sections of the project.
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Traffic Analysis (Axle Load Survey )
• To determine the axle loading, it is important to conduct axle load surveys at
the road side by weighing samples of vehicles
• Axle load equivalency factors are then determined using:
RN 31 of TRL (adopted by ERA):
Lx
4.5
EALF
80
AASHTO empirical equation:
W t18
EALF
Wtx
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Traffic Analysis (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA))
Calculate the EALF for each type of vehicle or axle load using the RN 31
of TRL or AASHTO method.
Either lane of a two-lane highway can be considered as the design lane,
whereas for multilane highways, the outside lane is the design lane.
The identification of the design lane is important because in some cases
more trucks will travel in one direction than in the other, or trucks
may travel heavily loaded in one direction and empty in the other
direction.
The directional distribution of traffic is important as ADT normally
is the daily traffic in both directions.
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Traffic Analysis (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA))
Procedure to determine the cumulative equivalent standard axles over the
design life:
Determine the daily traffic flow (ADT0i) for each class of vehicle
weighed using the results of the traffic survey and any other recent traffic
count information that is available.
Estimate the annual growth rate “r” expressed as a decimal fraction, and the
anticipated number of years “x” between the traffic survey and the
opening of the road.
Determine AADT1i the traffic volume in both directions on the year the road
is opening in each class of vehicle by:
AADT1 = ADT0i (1+r)x
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Traffic Volume and Loading
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Traffic Volume and Loading
Traffic Analysis (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA) )
n
ESAL L D TRi APV i EALFi
i1
OR n
ESAL L D TRi TFi TFi
AW i EALFi
i1 TSi
where,
• TFi is the average ESAL per vehicle in category i;
• TRi= No. of vehicle repetitions of category i, during the design life
• Tsi = No. of vehicles of category i, during an axle load survey
• APV = Axles per vehicle for vehicle category i
• EALFi = the axle load equivalency factor for each axle in vehicle category i
• AWi= No. of axles weighed in vehicle category i
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Traffic Volume and Loading
Note: The higher of the two directional Cum. ESA values used for
design:
Example
Initial traffic volumes in terms of AADTs have been established for 2001 for a section of a trunk road under study, as follows:
The anticipated traffic growth is a constant 5%, and the opening of the road is scheduled for 2005. In addition, an axle load
survey has been conducted, giving representative axle loads for the various classes of heavy vehicles, such as given below for
truck-trailers (it is assumed that the loads are equally representative for each direction of traffic):
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Traffic Volume and Loading
Example
Traffic Volume and Loading
Example Continued
Select Design
Period
Estimate Traffic
Growth
Determine Cumulative
Traffic Volumes over the
Design Period