CHAPTER 2

Traffic Loading And

Volume

1
Outline of chapter
Methods (Procedures) of analysing traffic loading
Fixed traffic
Fixed vehicle
Traffic Analysis
Design period
Traffic forecast
Cumulative ESA’s

2
 Traffic
Climate

Pavement
Structure
Material
Properties

3
3.
 Introduction

 Traffic load is the most important factor in pavement design

Impact of overloading on pavements
 Traffic Loads Characterization

Pavement Thickness Design Are Developed

To Account For The Entire
Spectrum Of Traffic Loads

Cars Pickups Buses Trucks Trailers

4
Traffic Volume and Loading
Traffic Volume and loading are the major factors which
influence the standard of a road.
Traffic volume
 Is the basic criterion used in the geometric design
 It is bases for functional classification of roads
Traffic loading
 Is the most important factor in pavement analysis and design,
culvert and bridge structures.

6
 Traffic Volume and Loading
The most important traffic loading
factors to be included in the structural
design of pavement are:
 Loading magnitude
 Loading configuration
 Number of repetitions
 Speed of loading
 Contact pressure

7
 Traffic Volume and Loading
Loading

Load Distribution
 Traffic Volume and Loading
In pavement design two different procedures of traffic loading are widely
used:
I. Fixed traffic
 Design thickness of pavements is determined by the magnitude
of single wheel load independent of load repetitions.
 Any wheel configurations are converted to equivalent single wheel load
(ESWL).
 Design is performed based on the largest equivalent single wheel load
within all configurations.
 Commonly used for airport and heavy-wheel load, but light traffic volume
highways.
 Not commonly used today.
9
II. Fixed Vehicle
 Design thickness of pavement is determined by the number
of repetitions of a standard single axle load (80 kN).
 Any axle configuration is converted to equivalent single axle load (80
kN) by multiplying the number of repetitions of each configuration by
its equivalent axle load factor (EALF).
 The design traffic load is the number of repetitions of all types of axle
loads in the design life of the road in terms of equivalent single axle
loads (ESAL).
 Because of the great variety of axle loads and traffic, it is the most
commonly used method for design today.

1-Jun-15 8
 1.Fixed traffic
 Involves converting multiple wheel loads to an equivalent
single-wheel load (ESWL).
 An ESWL is defined as the load on a single tyre that will cause
an equal magnitude of stress, strain, deflection or distress at
a given location within a specific pavement system to that
resulting from a multiple-wheel load.
 This method has been used most frequently for airport
pavements or for highway pavements with heavy wheel loads but
light traffic volume. Usually the heaviest wheel load anticipated is
used for design purposes.
11
 Fixed traffic

• The different criteria used for converting Wheel Load Distribution

multiple-wheel loads to a single-wheel load
include:
 Equal vertical stress
 Equal vertical deflection
 Equal contact pressure, and
 Equal tensile strain
• Out of which the first one is explained
here.

12
 Fixed traffic
Equal vertical stress
• The method of equal vertical subgrade stress is based upon approximations
of stress distribution concepts in an elastic half-space devised by Boyd and
Foster.

No stress overlap if pavement

thickness is less than d/2

Complete stress overlap if pavement

thickness is greater than 2Sd

1-Jun-15 11
 Fixed traffic

0.301og (2z/d)
log(ESWL)  log Pd 
log(4S d/d)

Example
12
1-Jun-15 15
16
 Fixed traffic
Equal Vertical Stress ESWL
• The vertical stress factor z /q (Boussinesqs theory) can be used to
determine the theoretical ESWL. For the same vertical subgrade stress, z,
z   
qs    qd  z 
 qs   qd 
• For the same contact radius, the contact pressure is
proportional to wheel load, or
Ps

 z / qd

Pd  z / qs
• In which Ps is the single-wheel load, which is the ESWL to be
determined, Pd is the load on each of the duals, and qs and qd are
the contact pressures under a single wheel and dual wheels,
respectively.
Example 17
 2.Fixed Vehicle Procedure

 The number of repetitions of a standard vehicle or number of standard

single-axle load governs the thickness of a pavement.
 Axle loads which are not equal to the standard single-axle load or consist of
tandem or tridem axles are converted to the standard single-axle load by
multiplying them with the corresponding EALF to obtain the
equivalent effect of a standard single-axle load.
 An equivalent axle load factor (EALF) defines the damage per pass to a
pavement by the axle in question relative to the damage per pass of a
standard single-axle load, usually the 80 kN (18 kip) single-axle load.

18
 Load Equivalency
Fig.
13.6 Tons
Failure = 10,000 Repetitions

11.3 Tons
Failure = 100,000 Repetitions

4.5 Tons
Failure = 1,000,000 Repetitions

2.3 Tons
Failure = 10,000,000 Repetitions
4.5 Tons
13.6 Tons
Failure = Repetitions ?
11.3 Tons 2.3 Tons
 RELATIVE DAMAGE CONCEPT
Theoretical Analysis

Equivalent
18000 - Ibs Damage per
Standard ESAL
(8.2 tons) Pass = 1
Axle Load

Axle loads bigger than 8.2 tons cause damage

greater than one per pass Axle loads smaller
than 8.2 tons cause damage less than one per
pass Load Equivalency Factor (L.E.F) = (?
Tons/8.2 tons)4
 Consider two single axles A and B where
A-Axle = 16.4 tons
Damage caused per pass by A -Axle = (16.4/8.2)4 = 16
This means that A-Axle causes same amount of damage per pass as
caused by 16 passes of standard 8.2 tons axle i.e,

=
16.4 Tons 8.2 Tons
Axle Axle
 Consider two single axles A and B where:
B-Axle = 4.1 tons
Damage caused per pass by B-Axle = (4.1/8.2)4 = 0.0625
This means that B-Axle causes only 0.0625 times damage per pass
as caused by 1 pass of standard 8.2 tons axle.
In other works, 16 passes (1/0.625) of B-Axle cause same amount
of damage as caused by 1 pass of standard 8.2 tons axle i.e.,

=
4.1 Tons Axle 8.2 Tons Axle
 AXLE LOAD & RELATIVE DAMAGE

75.2
80

63.4
70

DAMAGE PER PASS

53.1
60

44.1
50

36.3
29.5
40

23.8
18.9
30

14.9
11.5
20

8.7
6.5
4.7
3.3
2.3
10
1.1
1.0

0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
SINGLE AXLE LOAD (Tons)
25
 Traffic Analysis
Fixed Vehicle Procedure (Cont’d)
 The summation of the ESAL of all axle loads during the design period
results in a traffic loading parameter for pavement design.
 Due to the intractable effects of the great varieties of axle loads and traffic
volumes, highway pavements in most cases fail by fatigue cracking and thus
the design methods are based on fixed vehicle concept.
 EALF depends on the type of pavements, thickness or structural
capacity, and the terminal conditions at which the pavement is
considered failed.
 EALFs use today are either based on experiences developed from the
AASHTO Road Test or theoretical analysis
 Fixed Vehicle Procedure - AASHTO Equivalent Factors:

AASHO Road test ~ 1958

Objective - to determine any relationship between no. of repetitions of specified axle loads of different
magnitude and the performance of different thickness of flexible and rigid pavements using 6 different
loops
Fixed Vehicle Procedure - AASHTO Equivalent Factors:
• The following regression equation is one of the most widely used methods
for determining EALF obtained from the AASHTO Road Test:

log Wtx   4.79 log(18  1)  4.79 log( L x  L2 )  4.33 log L2  Gt  Gt
 Wt18   x  18
 4.2  p t  0.081(Lx L 2 )3.23
Gt  log   x  0.40 
 4.2  1.5  (SN 1)5.19 L23.23
Wtx = the number of x-axle load applications at the end of time t,
Wt18 = the number of 18 kip (80 kN) single-axle load application to time t,
Lx = the load in kip on one single axle, one set of tandem axles, or one set of tridem
axles, L2 = axle code, 1 for single axles, 2 for tandem axles, and 3 for tridem axles,
SN = structural number , a function of thickness, modulus of each layer, and drainage
condition of base and sub base.
pt = terminal serviceability  indicates the pavement conditions to be considered as failures,
18= the value of x when Lx = 18 and L2 =1 27
 Traffic Analysis

 Fixed Vehicle Procedure - AASHTO Equivalent Factors:

Wt18
EALF 
Wtx
Since EALF is not very sensitive to pavement thickness, a SN equal
to 5 may be used for most cases and a pt value of 2 and 2.5 are
assumed

29
Fixed Vehicle Procedure - Theoretical Analysis:
• Fatigue characteristics and permanent deformation parameters are important factors
in pavement design.
• To limit the failure due to fatigue cracking, the allowable number of load repetition
is expressed as:
N f  f1 t E1 
 f2  f3

Where, Nf = Allowable number of load repetitions for fatigue cracking,

t = The tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer,
E1 = Modulus of the asphalt layer, and
f1, f2, and f3 are constants to be determined
If k represents the constants, then, the equation can be rewritten as
1
f2

N f  k 
 t 
30
 Traffic Analysis
Fixed Vehicle Procedure - Theoretical Analysis, (Cont’d):
 For the allowable number of x-kN and 80 kN axle load repetitions, the
corresponding Nfx and Nf18 are expressed as:
 1 
f2
 1 
f2

N fx  k  N f 18  k 
  tx    t 80 

The EALF is then,

  tx 
f2
N f 80
EALF   
N fx   t80 
• In which, tx and t18 are the tensile strains at the bottom of asphalt layer
due to x kN and 80 kN axle load repetitions, respectively.

31
Theoretical Analysis, (Cont’d):
 The constant f2 was determined by Asphalt institute and Shell and the values
are 3.291 and 5.671 respectively.
 A theoretical analysis of EALF was also conducted by Deacon based on an
assumed f2 of 4 which is in the range determined by Asphalt institute and Shell.
 Further, for single axles, it is reasonable to assume that tensile strains due
to the axles in question and the standard single-axle are directly
proportional to axle loads.
 Using 4 as the value of f2, EALF can be approximated by what is known as the
fourth power rule as:
 Lx 
4

EALF   
 L80 
32
Traffic Analysis
Example 1
• Let number of load repetition expected by 80 KN standard axle is 1000, 160 KN is
100 and 40 KN is 10000. Find the equivalent axle load. Use n= 4
Solution:

33
Traffic Analysis
 The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from both
the magnitude of the individual wheel loads and their repetitions.
 It is necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles that will use
the road but also the wheel loads (or, for convenience, the axle loads).
 The mechanism of deterioration of gravel roads differs from that of paved
roads and is directly related to the number of vehicles using the road rather than
the number of equivalent standard axles.
 The traffic volume is therefore used in the design of unpaved roads, as opposed to
the paved roads which require the conversion of axle loads into the appropriate
cumulative number of equivalent standard axles.
 Design life is the period the pavement will need to be strengthened so that it can
continue to carry traffic satisfactorily for a further period.

34
Traffic Analysis (Design Period)
• Many factors may influence this decision, but some of the points to
consider include:
 Functional importance of the road
For important roads and for roads with high traffic volume, rehabilitation would cause
major inconvenience to road users and thus, it generally appears economical to construct
roads with longer design periods.
 Traffic volume
 Location and terrain of the project
For roads in difficult locations and terrain where regular maintenance proves to be
costly and time consuming because of poor access and non-availability of nearby
construction material sources, a longer design period is also appropriate.
 Financial constraints

35
 Traffic Analysis
Traffic Analysis (Design Period) (Cont’d)
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic
When accurate traffic estimates cannot be made or from a purely economic point
of view, it may be advisable to reduce the design period or pavement structures may be
planned to be constructed in stages or upgraded.
Table: Design Period (ERA, 2001)
Road Classification Design Period (years)
Trunk Road 20
Link Road 20
Main Access Road 15
Other Roads 10
36
 FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCE CURVE
Perfect Rehabilitation
Unacceptable
limit

Ride Quality

Traffic/ Age

STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE CURVE

Rehabilitation Structural
Failure
Structural
Capacity

Perfect Traffic/ Age

Traffic Analysis (Traffic Volume )
To determine the total traffic over the design life of the road:
 Estimate the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) currently using the route with vehicle
categories
 ADT is usually obtained from actual traffic counts over a shorter period on
existing road or estimated from the traffic on nearby roads with similar travel
pattern for new roads.
 Traffic counts carried out over a short period as a basis for estimating the traffic
flow is likely to be subjected to large errors because of possible daily, weekly,
monthly and seasonal variations.
 Such traffic counts are adjusted for daily and seasonal variations to obtain the
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT).
 The AADT is defined as the total annual traffic usually summed for both directions
and divided by 365.
38
• Traffic Analysis (Traffic Volume )
Vehicle Classification categories (ERA, 2001)
Vehicle Type of Vehicle Description
Code
1 Small car Passenger cars, minibuses (up to 24-passenger seats), taxis, pick-ups,
and Land Cruisers, Land Rovers, etc.

2 Bus Medium and large size buses above 24 passenger seats

3 Medium Truck Small and medium sized trucks including tankers up to 7 tons load

Trucks above 7 tons load

4 Heavy Truck
Trucks with trailer or semi-trailer and Tanker Trailers
5 Articulated Truck

39
Traffic Analysis (Traffic forecasting )
 Traffic forecasting is an uncertain process!!!
 The following factors should be considered in the determination of the
annual growth rate, r:
 Attracted or diverted traffic due to the improvement of existing road
 Normal traffic growth due to increased No and usage of motor vehicles
 Generated traffic – traffic due to upgrading or constructing the new road
 Development traffic due to changes in land use
• The traffic growth rates used to project the traffic should be checked whether
they are appropriate for the different sections of the project.

40
Traffic Analysis (Axle Load Survey )
• To determine the axle loading, it is important to conduct axle load surveys at
the road side by weighing samples of vehicles
• Axle load equivalency factors are then determined using:
RN 31 of TRL (adopted by ERA):
 Lx 
4.5

EALF   
 80 
AASHTO empirical equation:

W t18
EALF 
Wtx
41
Traffic Analysis (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA))
 Calculate the EALF for each type of vehicle or axle load using the RN 31
of TRL or AASHTO method.
 Either lane of a two-lane highway can be considered as the design lane,
whereas for multilane highways, the outside lane is the design lane.
 The identification of the design lane is important because in some cases
more trucks will travel in one direction than in the other, or trucks
may travel heavily loaded in one direction and empty in the other
direction.
 The directional distribution of traffic is important as ADT normally
is the daily traffic in both directions.

42
Traffic Analysis (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA))
 Procedure to determine the cumulative equivalent standard axles over the
design life:
 Determine the daily traffic flow (ADT0i) for each class of vehicle
weighed using the results of the traffic survey and any other recent traffic
count information that is available.
 Estimate the annual growth rate “r” expressed as a decimal fraction, and the
anticipated number of years “x” between the traffic survey and the
opening of the road.
 Determine AADT1i the traffic volume in both directions on the year the road
is opening in each class of vehicle by:
AADT1 = ADT0i (1+r)x

43
 Traffic Volume and Loading

Traffic Analysis (Cumulative cont…

 The number of vehicles in each category in both directions on the last year
of the design period is:
AADTN = AADT1 (1+r)N
 The cumulative number of vehicles in each category, T, that will travel over
the design lane over the chosen design period N (in years) in one direction is :
T = 365 *AADT1 *L*D*[ (1+r)N – 1] / ( r )
Where L is lane distribution factor & D is directional distribution factor.

44
 Traffic Volume and Loading
Traffic Analysis (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA) )
n
ESAL  L  D   TRi  APV i  EALFi 
i1
OR n
ESAL  L  D   TRi  TFi  TFi 
 AW i  EALFi 
i1 TSi
where,
• TFi is the average ESAL per vehicle in category i;
• TRi= No. of vehicle repetitions of category i, during the design life
• Tsi = No. of vehicles of category i, during an axle load survey
• APV = Axles per vehicle for vehicle category i
• EALFi = the axle load equivalency factor for each axle in vehicle category i
• AWi= No. of axles weighed in vehicle category i

45
Traffic Volume and Loading
Note: The higher of the two directional Cum. ESA values used for
design:
Example
Initial traffic volumes in terms of AADTs have been established for 2001 for a section of a trunk road under study, as follows:

The anticipated traffic growth is a constant 5%, and the opening of the road is scheduled for 2005. In addition, an axle load
survey has been conducted, giving representative axle loads for the various classes of heavy vehicles, such as given below for
truck-trailers (it is assumed that the loads are equally representative for each direction of traffic):
46
 Traffic Volume and Loading
Example
Traffic Volume and Loading
Example Continued
 Select Design
Period

Estimate Initial Traffic

Volume (Initial AADT) per
Class of Vehicle

Estimate Traffic
Growth

Determine Cumulative
Traffic Volumes over the
Design Period

For Paved Road For Gravel road

Estimate Mean Equivalent

Axle Load (EALF) factors per
Class of Vehicle Select Appropriate
AADT for Design of
Estimate Cumulative ESALs Gravel Wearing
Over the Design Period Course 46
Thank you!