16

solving new problems by analyzing the situation and formulating a plan (Gagné et al.

2005). According to Gagne et al, instructional material can be used to develop higher

learning abilities to the learners through self-teaching or guided learning. This

implies that the instructional materials mainly comprise “eliciting performance” and

“providing feedback on performance correctness,” in addition to “providing learning

guidance” for guided discovery learning. Many of Gagné’s 9 ideas have broad

implications for secondary teachers in community secondary schools in Rombo

district. Many of these ideas have capacity building undertones with themes of

students’ acquisition of critical thinking and problem-solving skills. However, the

theory does not relate to whether or not students can think critically in what aspects

or how they can solve a particular problem by themselves. However, I have the

opinion that the purpose of instructional materials or technology in education is to

stretch students’ imagination and to encourage them to solve problems in their lives.

Similar ideas are held by Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist who held a view that

tools and signs, which are in a form of instructional materials, have the capacity to

develop in students higher level of thinking, which is important in problem-solving

activities. However, since they are considered to be domain-specific, the ways

instructional materials can start cognitive development is yet to be studied with

respect to classroom teaching. Thus, this study stretches these views.

2.2.2 Sociocultural Theory of Teaching, Learning, and Development

Sociocultural theory of teaching, learning and development is the second theory that

framed this study. Largely inspired by the seminal works of Lev Vygotsky, this

theory assumes that human minds do not develop by virtue of some predetermined
 17

cognitive structures that unfold as one matures. Rather, this theory posits that

human’s minds develop as a result of constant interactions with the social material

world.

According to Vygotsky, human mind develop through interaction with materials in

the learning process where people learn from each other and use their experiences to

successfully make sense of the materials they interact with. These experiences are

crystallized in 'cultural tools', and the learners have to master such tools in order to

develop specific knowledge and skills in solving specific problems and, in the

process, become competent in specific profession. In the classroom, these tools can

be a picture, a model, or pattern of solving a problem. Most often however, such

tools are combinations of elements of different orders, and human language is the

multi-level tool par excellence, combining culturally evolved arrangements of

meanings, sounds, melody, rules of communication, and so forth.

Learning by using such tools is not something that simply helps the mind to develop.

Rather, this kind of learning leads to new, more elaborated forms of mental

functioning. For example, when children master such a complex cultural tool as

human language, this results not only in their ability to talk but leads to completely

new levels of thinking, self-regulation and mentality in general. It is the specific

organization of this tool (e.g., the semantic, pragmatic and syntactic structures of

language) that calls into being and in effect shapes and forms new facets of the

child's mind. Importantly, cultural tools are not merely static 'things' but

embodiments of certain ways of acting in human communities. In other words, they

represent the functions and meanings of things, as discovered in cultural practices:

 18

they are "objects-that-can-be used- for-certain-purposes" in human societies. As

such, they can be appropriated by a child only through acting upon and with them,

that is, only in the course of actively reconstructing their meaning and function. And

such reconstruction of cultural tools is initially possible only in the process of

cooperating and interacting with other people who already possess the knowledge

(i.e. the meaning) of a given cultural tool.

This short account is presented here to illustrate the fact that the sociocultural

approach, unlike that of instructional materials by Gagne discussed above, not only

allows for a synthesis of teaching, learning, and cognitive development; it actively

calls for it. This theory implies that instructional materials lead to cognitive

development because they mediate learners’ thinking through the tools, and such

mediation constitutes the very cornerstone of mental development.

2.3 Empirical Literature

2.3.1 The Extent to which Instructional Materials Affect Student Performance

In his study Adeogun (2001) revealed a strong positive link between instructional

resources and academic performance. According to Adeogun, schools that possess

more instructional resources performed better than schools that have less

instructional resources. This finding supported the study by Babayomi (1999) that

private schools performed better than public schools because of the availability and

adequacy of teaching and learning resources. Adeogun (2001) noted that there was a

low level of instructional resources available in public schools and hence commented

that public schools had acute shortages of both teaching and learning resources. He
 19

further commented that effective teaching and learning cannot occur in the classroom

environment if essential instructional resources are not available.

Fuller and Clark (1994) suggested that the quality of instructional processes

experienced by a learner determines quality of education. In their view they suggest

that quality instructional materials creat into the learners quality learning experience.

Mwiria (1995) also supports that students performance is affected by the quality and

quantity of teaching and learning resources. This implies that the schools that possess

adequate teaching and learning materials such as textbooks, charts, pictures, real

objects for students to see, hear and experiment with, stand a better chance of

performing well in examination than poorly equipped ones.

A study by Chonjo (1994) on the physical facilities and teaching learning materials

in Primary schools in Tanzania supports the above views. Chonjo interviewed

teachers and students on the role of instructional materials on effective learning.

From is his study he learned that performance could be attributed to adequate

teaching and learning materials and equipments that are in a school. He

recommended that in order to provide quality education the availability of sufficient

quality facilities is very important. Chonjo’s study was one of its kinds in Tanzania

which directly linked the role of physical facilities with students’ academic

performance in primary schools.

However, Chonjo focused only on physical facilities, leaving out instructional

materials. To me, physical facilities such as buildings including classrooms, chairs

and desks are not enough to provide quality teaching and learning. Instructional
 20

materials are also necessary. The study done by Maundu (1987) agrees with my ideas

that, in order for a school to have a good performance it must be well equipped with

relevant and adequate text books and other teaching and learning resources.

2.3.2 Challenges that Teachers Face in Accessing Instructional Materials

Teachers in community secondary schools most especially in rural community

schools face some challenges in accessing instructional materials. One of the big

challenges that teachers in community secondary schools face in accessing

instructional materials is meagre funds provided by the government to community

secondary schools for purchasing instructional materials. Community secondary

schools depend to the large extent on the government for funding. Very little support

is received from local government and communities around the schools most

especially in rural areas due to poverty. The funds are provided in form of capitation

grants. The capitation grant is aimed at improving the quality of education by making

sure that sufficient leaching and learning material are found at school level. In

particular, the capitation grant is meant to finance the purchase of textbooks and

other teaching and learning materials as well as to fund repairs, administration

materials, and examination expenses (Uwazi, 2010).

However, while the number of students who are enrolled in schools has been

increasing each year, education capitation grant has been dropping. Even without

adjusting for inflation, the actual amount of money reaching schools for capitation

grants is clearly much less today compared to what it was between 2002 and 2003.

According to the Education Public Expenditure Tracking Survey of 2004, in the

period 2002-2003 schools received an average of 5,400 shillings per pupil. In

 21

2007/08 however, the money actually reaching the schools had declined to 4,189

shillings per pupil (URT, 2010). This amount of money is grossly insufficient to

purchase a minimum set of textbooks apart from other instructional materials which

are highly needed by the teachers. According to Onche (2014), government’s Policy

towards efficient provision of these aspects of educational resources has not been

encouraging and has always not been well planned, monitored, supervised and

evaluated with rural schools as the back bench of implication of these policies.

Another challenge that teachers face is the lack of exposure and limited accessibility

to modern instructional facilities. Most community secondary schools especially in

rural areas do not have access to information communication technology (ICT)

which could alleviate shortage of instructional materials. As we are in a new

millennium, there is an increased awareness of the need to use modern scientific

approach in teaching and learning processes in our schools.

At present, there is a universal recognition of information and communication

technology as a major force in the dissemination of knowledge (Aina, 2013).

Majority of teachers who were trained early 1990’s and backward do not have skills

in the field of Information and Communication Technology. Where there are skilled

teachers, other problems naturally include problem of installation, maintenance,

operation, network administration and local technicians to service or repair these

equipment’s and the other facilities. In most of the rural secondary schools, most of

the facilities are non-existent, hence the traditional chalk and duster approach still

dominates in secondary school pedagogy (Obasi, 2008).

 22

Poor salary is also another challenge that teachers face. Teachers like most civil

servants in Tanzania are poorly paid. This becomes a hindrance for them to purchase

their own teaching materials or acquisition of new ideas, skills and knowledge by

failure in enrolling for further educational programmes including Information and

Communication Technology (ICT). With this, the academic and intellectual

capacities of teachers and learners are bound to be affected substantially during

classroom interaction (Onche, 2014). Lack of sufficient skills and creativity may

hinder teachers to improvise their own instructional materials.

Local governments and communities around community secondary schools are

supposed to provide resources most especially funds to these schools so that teachers

can use them to access instructional materials. But very often this is not the case due

to number of reasons. Some local communities have very narrow tax base. Also the

performance of local councils in the collection of their own revenue have been

recorded very poor.

According to Galabawa (1993), there are few types of councils in Tanzania, which

can manage to collect government grants. Many local authorities however have

found themselves unable to deal with such a rapid increase in expenditure and their

budget deficit increase. Education is one of the sectors, which are mostly affected by

this situation. Poverty is another reason, which may hinder members of the

community in supporting teachers and schools financially so that they can access

instructional materials. According to Kimego (2011), Parents and communities

participation differ from rural to urban communities and from one mode of economy

to another. Parents who are involved in cash crops economy have economic ability to
 23

finance education compared to parents who are not involved in cash crop economy.

For example pastoral communities such as Masai have displayed poor financing

strand for their children. Teachers who work in such areas have more challenges in

accessing instructional materials.

Another challenge that teachers face in accessing instructional materials is lack of

clear policy and monitoring mechanisms to ensure that enough funds are provided to

community secondary schools for purchasing instructional materials and also these

funds are used for the intended purpose. As Onche (2014) comments, government’s

Policy towards efficient provision of these aspects of educational resources has not

been encouraging and has always not been well planned, monitored, supervised and

evaluated with rural schools as the back bench of implication of these policies.

2.3.3 Strategies to Minimize the Challenges of Attaining and using Quality

Instructional Materials

There are a number of strategies, which can be used in order to minimize the

challenges of attaining and using quality instructional materials. According to studies

done in different parts of the world including Africa, one of the strategies is

improvisation of instructional materials. Eshiet (1996) states that improvisation

involves sourcing, selection and deployment of relevant instructional materials into

the teaching-learning focus in the absence or shortage of standard materials for a

meaningful realization of specified educational goals and objectives.

According to studies done by Abodelraheem & Al-Rabane (2005), Udosen (2011)

and Ibe-Bassey (2012) some creation of improvised media of low technological

 24

materials and resource-centred learning can enlarge the limited knowledge base of

any course of study and enrich instruction to a guaranteed quality. It can also

promote strategies that ensure the integration of technology in the teaching and

learning process of basic science education. their findings are in agreement with the

findings of Dodge (1997) who observed that using technologies like simulation

devices open new horizons for individual learning tools, the environment resources

and services.

The use of ICT can also minimize some of the challenges in accessing instructional

materials. According to UNESCO (2004), the use and rapid spread of electronic

communications has the capacity to affect the quality and efficiency of basic

education throughout the world. The ease with which teachers and students can

gather information over the Internet on virtually any topic has the potential to

transform instructional content and pedagogical practice.

Moreover, courses developed by the best teachers in one country can be made

available to students across many countries. Newer technology-based instructional

strategies, incorporating the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW), can

therefore be used more to expand communication and increase access to resources.

Tinio (2002), points out that ICT has potentials in increasing access and improving

relevance and quality of education in developing countries. Tinio further states the

potentials of ICT as follows: ICTs greatly facilitate the acquisition and absorption of

knowledge, offering developing countries unprecedented opportunities to enhance

educational systems.
 25

2.3.4 Knowledge Gap

Most studies that look into the students performance, do not attach it with

inadequacy or lack of instructional materials. Although studies in Tanzania (see for

example those of Sumra and Rajani, 2006; Hakielimu, 2007; Makombe et al, 2010)

have lamented on poor performance in secondary schools, they did not link this

situation with inadequate quality instructional resources. These studies are clear that

there is a problem in secondary schools and this is directly linked to inadequate

quality instructional materials and thus, it will contribute to the literature on quality

education in Tanzania.

2.3.5 Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework in this study is based on Bloom’s (1982) model of evaluation

because of its suitability in utilization and usage of instructional materials in the

process of teaching and learning. It was useful in examining the interdependence of

variables, teaching materials, teaching and learning process to students’ performance

as an outcome. The model consists of three items: Predictor variables, Mediating

variables and Performance.

Predictor Mediatin Performan

Variable g ce
s Variables
High
Availabil Effective academic
ity of usage of Performan
Adequat the ce
e and available
Quality2.1: A Model
Figure for Explaining Role of Instructional Materials in Students’
instructio
Instructi nal
Academic Performance
onal materials
Material
s