IT2016

Differential and Operational Amplifiers

Differential Amplifier
The main feature of this amplifier is the very
large gain when opposite signals are applied to
the inputs.
o In single-ended operation, a single input
signal applies and operates both
transistors, resulting in output from both
collectors.
o In double-ended operation, two input
signals are applied, resulting in the
difference of the signals applied to both
inputs.
o In common-mode operation, the common
input signal results in opposite signals at
each collector, these signals canceling, so
that the resulting output signal is zero.
DC Biasing
Consider the DC bias operation of the circuit with ac inputs obtained from voltage sources, the dc voltage at each
input is essentially connected to 0𝑣.
• With each base voltage at 0𝑣, the common-
emitter dc bias voltage is
𝑉𝐸 = 0𝑣 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = −0.7𝑣
• The emitter dc bias current is then
𝑉𝐸 − (−𝑉𝐸𝐸 ) 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 0.7𝑣
𝐼𝐸 = ≈
𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸
• Assuming that the transistors are well-matched
(as would occur in an IC unit), we obtain
𝐼𝐸
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝐼𝐶2 =
2
resulting in a collector voltage of
𝐼𝐸
𝑉𝐶1 = 𝑉𝐶2 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑅𝐶
2

Example: Calculate the DC voltages and currents in the Solution:

circuit. Find 𝐼𝐸 , 𝐼𝐶 , and 𝑉𝐶 . 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 0.7𝑣 9𝑣 − 0.7𝑣
𝐼𝐸 = = ≈ 2.5 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐸 3.3 𝑘Ω

The collector current is then

𝐼𝐸 2.5 𝑚𝐴
𝐼𝐶 = = = 1.25 𝑚𝐴
2 2

resulting in a collector voltage of

𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 = 9𝑣 − (1.25 𝑚𝐴)(3.9 𝑘Ω) ≈ 4.1𝑣

Note: The common-emitter voltage is thus −0.7𝑣,

whereas the collector bias voltage is near 4.1𝑣 for both
outputs.

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Operational Amplifiers
• Op-Amp is a very high gain differential amplifier
with high input impedance and low output
impedance.
• It is a low-cost integrating circuit consisting of
transistors, resistors, and capacitors.
• Typical uses of these are to provide voltage
amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity),
oscillators, filter circuits, and many types of
instrumentation circuits.

Op-Amp Characteristics
Terminals
• The positive power supply terminal.
• The negative power supply terminal.
• The inverting input is labeled−on the schematic symbol.
• The non-inverting input is labeled + on the schematic symbol.
• The fifth terminal, of course, is the output.

Properties
• Infinite open-loop gain. It is the gain without feedback, and this is equal to differential gain, which is also
called zero common-mode gain.
• Infinite Input impedance. Op-amp has input current, which is approximately equal to zero, 𝑖𝑖 ≈ 0𝐴, thus, the
input impedance is very high in high-grade op-amp and small 𝑚𝐴 input current in low-grade op-amp.
• Zero Output Impedance. Op-amps act as a perfect internal voltage source, which means that there is no
internal resistance. The output impedance is in series with the load thus reducing its output voltage.

Voltage Transfer Characteristics

• The graph that relates the output voltage to the input voltage
is called the voltage transfer curve and is fundamental in
designing and understanding amplifier circuits.
• Note the two distinct regions of operation: one around 𝑉𝑖 =
0𝑣, the linear region where the output changes linearly with
respect to input, and the other at which changes in 𝑉𝑖 has little
effect on 𝑉𝑂 , the saturation region (non-linear behavior).
• Circuits with operational amplifiers can be designed to operate
in both regions. In the linear region, the slope of the line
relating 𝑉𝑂 to 𝑉𝑖 is very large; indeed, it is equal to the open-
loop gain 𝐴.

Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics

• Negative Feedback
o Feedback is when you connect the output of a circuit back to its input so that the output “feeds back”
into the circuit. When an increase in the output is fed back, it causes a decrease in the output.
Negative feedback is like self-correction.
• Infinite Gain and Zero Input Current.
o When an op-amp is used in negative feedback, the consequence of infinite gain is that the two inputs
will be forced to be equal. That is, the op-amp will output whatever voltage is necessary to make the
two inputs equal.

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• Output Saturation
o Naturally, an op-amp can only output voltages contained within the range of its power supply.
o When the output voltage implied by the circuit would exceed the possible range, the op-amp is said
to saturate, and it just outputs its maximum or minimum possible voltage instead.
o When op-amp output saturation causes the signal to be cut off close to the rails, we say that the
signal is clipped.
• Zero output voltage if the input voltage is zero.
o It must follow Ohm’s Law.

Basic Input/Output Stages

An op-amp contains several differential amplifier stages to achieve a very high voltage gain.
• Single-Ended Input - This operation results when the input signal is connected to one input with the other
input connected to the ground.

The input is applied to the plus input (with minus It shows an input signal applied to the minus input,
input at ground), which results in an output having the output then being opposite in phase to the
the same polarity as the applied input signal. applied signal.

• Double-Ended (Differential) Input - In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply signals at each
input—this being a double-ended operation.

It shows an input, 𝑉𝑑 , applied between the two input

terminals (recall that neither input is at ground). Thus,
the amplified output in-phase is applied between the It shows the same action resulting when two
plus and minus inputs. separate signals are applied to the inputs, the
difference signal being 𝑉𝑖1 − 𝑉𝑖2 .

• Double-Ended Output - An input applied to either input will result in outputs from both output terminals;
these outputs always being opposite in polarity.

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Op-Amp Common-Mode Operation

• When the same input signals are applied to both
inputs, common-mode operation is performed.
• Ideally, the two inputs are equally amplified, and
since they result in opposite-polarity signals at the
output, these signals cancel, resulting in 0𝑣 output.
• Since there are noise (any unwanted input signal)
common to both inputs, the differential connection
tends to provide attenuation of this unwanted
input, while providing an amplified output of the
difference signal.
• This operating feature is called common-mode
rejection.

References:
Boylestad, R. & Nashelsky, R. (2013). Electronic devices and circuit theory (11th ed.). Pearson.
Fernandez-Canque, H. (2017). Analog electronics applications: Fundamentals of design and analysis. CRC Press.
Schuler, C. (2019). Electronics: Principles and Applications (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Stephan, K. (2015). Analog and mixed-signal electronics. Wiley.
Storey, N. (2017). Electronics. A systems approach (6th ed.). Pearson.

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