Surveying

Chapter 4

Leveling
Dr. Sari Abusharar
Associate Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Faculty of Applied Engineering and Urban Planning 1
 Outline of Presentation
 Introduction
 Basic Definitions
 Basic Principles of A Level
 Bubble Tube
 Equipment Used in Differential Leveling
Measuring Elevation Difference
 Procedure in Differential Leveling
 General Notes
Common Mistakes
Errors
 Reciprocal Leveling
 Closure Error
 Classes and Accuracy of Leveling
Applications of Leveling
 Introduction

The elevation of a point is defined as the vertical distance

between the point and a reference level surface called datum.
The most commonly used datum is the mean sea level (MSL).

The elevation of a point

can be positive if the
point is above the datum
(e.g. Jerusalem), and
negative if the point
below the datum (e.g.
Jericho)
 Introduction

Leveling may be simply defined as the process by which the

elevation of a point above a reference elevation datum (MSL),
or the elevation difference between two or more points on the
earth’s surface is determined.

Its purpose my be to provide spot heights or contour lines on

a plan, to provide data for making longitudinal and cross-
sections, or to provide a level or inclined surface in the
setting out of construction works
 Introduction

cross-sections

contour lines

longitudinal sections
 Introduction

Leveling can be done in several ways, which include:

Chain surveying

Barometric leveling

Trigonometric Leveling

Photogrammetric Leveling

Hydrostatic leveling

GPS Leveling

Differential Leveling
 Introduction

Chain surveying ‫التسوية باستخدام الشريط‬

By measuring the slope distance and angle of inclination for a
uniformly sloping ground.

D  S. cos α
h  S . sin α
Clinometer
 Introduction
Barometric leveling ‫التسوية البارومترية‬
By measuring the atmospheric pressure using barometer or an
altimeter, and is based on the principle that atmospheric pressure
decreases with increase in elevation. This method is not highly
accurate and is therefore restricted to situations where high accuracy
is not required.

Barometer/altimeter
‫مقياس الضغط الجوي‬
 Introduction

Trigonometric Leveling ‫التسوية المثلثية‬

The elevation difference is measured by measuring the horizontal or
slope distance between two points, in addition to the vertical or
zenith angle to the line of sight.

Zenith angle

Vertical angle

Zenith Angles
Zenith angles are referenced to a 0° value straight up.

Vertical Angles
Vertical angles are referenced to a 0° value on the horizontal plain.
 Introduction

Photogrammetric Leveling ‫التسوية التصويرية‬

The elevation difference is measured from photographs taken for the
area by a camera mounted in an airplane.
 Introduction

Hydrostatic leveling ‫التسوية الهيدروستاتيكية‬

The hydrostatic leveling works on the principle of communicating
vessels: are associated with water-filled container at the lowest point
through tubes to each other, it turns into an all containers of the
same water level.
 Introduction

GPS Leveling ‫التسوية بنظام تحديد المواقع العالمية‬

The elevation is measured from special signals received from orbiting
satellites using equipment known as GPS receivers.
GPS : Global Positioning System
 Introduction

Differential Leveling ‫التسوية المتباينة‬

This is the most commonly used method in leveling. It is performed
by using an instrument called a level and a leveling staff.
Basic Definitions
 Basic Definitions

Vertical Line
The vertical line at a point is the line formed by the string of
a plumb bob when the tip is located directly over the point.

Horizontal Line
The horizontal line at a point is the straight line perpendicular
to the vertical line at that point.

Horizontal Plane
The plane passes through all the horizontal lines at a
particular point. It is perpendicular to the vertical line at this
point.

Level Surface
The continuously curved surface that is perpendicular to the
direction of gravity at all points.

Level Line
A line that lies on the level surface.
 Basic Definitions

Actual line of Sight or Collimation ‫الخط الحقيقي للنظر أو التسديد‬

Neither horizontal nor level. Affected by atmospheric
refraction.

Bench Mark
A marked point whose elevation has been accurately
measured.

Height of Instrument
The line of Collimation (‫ )خط التسديد‬above the datum after setting
up the level above a certain point.

Difference in elevation between two points

The vertical distance between the two level surfaces passing
through these two points.
 Basic Principle of A Level

Level
The basic instrument used in differential leveling to measure
elevation or height differences.

Level consists mainly of:

a) Telescope for Sighting.
b) A leveling device for maintaining the line of sight in a
horizontal position.

A level is set up so that the line of sight of the telescope is

perpendicular to its vertical axis.
 Bubble Tube

A bubble tube is used in most levels to establish a horizontal

line.

By centering the bubble within the circular mark, the surface

is approximately leveled.
 Bubble Tube

In some levels (Tilting Dumpy Level), the horizontality of the

plane is accurately controlled by bubble consists of two
separate halves.

When the bubble is correctly centered, the two images

coincide to form a continuous U-shaped curve.
Equipment Used in Differential Leveling

The Level

Tripod

Level Rods (Staves)

Rod Level
Equipment Used in Differential Leveling

(1) A Level

‫عدسة شيئية‬
Equipment Used in Differential Leveling

Dumpy Level Tilting Level

Automatic Level Electronic Digital Level

 Bubble Tube

(2) Tripod
This is a three-legged stand used to support a level. It consists
of a head and three legs that are fitted with pointed metal
shoes. The legs could be made of aluminum or hard wood, and
are either with fixed length or adjustable length depending on
the height of the user. A survey instrument is usually secured to
the tripod head by a threaded.

Fixed leg tripod Extension leg tripod

 Bubble Tube

(3) Level Rods (Staves)

The level rod (staff) is used to measure the vertical distance
between the point on which it is held and the line of collimation
of the instrument, and is usually 3-5 m long. There are many
different types of level staves.

1) The telescopic staff

Composed of several sections that
slide inside each other in a way similar
to the radio antennae. It is made of
either wood or metal. Currently, this is
the most popular and widely used type
of staves.

Telescopic staff
 Bubble Tube

(3) Level Rods (Staves)

(2) The folding staff

The most widely used
type of this kind is the
one composed of four
folding sections into 1-m
long piece designed to fit
easily into a car boot.

Folding staff
 Bubble Tube

(3) Level Rods (Staves)

(3) The one-piece staff

This usually 1-3 m long
and is difficult to transport
in a car, and therefore it is
suitable to used in open
rural areas.

One-piece staff
 Bubble Tube

(3) Level Rods (Staves)

 Bubble Tube

(4) Rod Level

This is a small device with a circular bubble tube mounted on a

metal angle and attached to the edge of the level staff to ensure
vertical standing over a point.

Circular bubble tube (rod level)

 Measuring Elevation Difference

The basic operation in differential leveling is the determination of

elevation difference between two points. Consider points A & B.
Set up the level so that readings may be made on a staff held
vertically at A, and then at B. Let point A be a benchmark whose
reduced level (RL) or elevation = 520.43 m AMSL.
 Measuring Elevation Difference

Rise: second reading smaller than first reading

2.56 0.93
C
B

A AC = 2.56 – 0.93 = 1.63 m

The positive value represents a rise of point B relative to A.
 Measuring Elevation Difference

Fall: second reading greater than first reading

0.64 2.97

C
A

BC = 0.64 – 2.97 = -2.33 m B

The negative value represents a fall of point B relative to A.

 Measuring Elevation Difference

Calculation of Elevation
(A) The height of instrument method
Assume that elevation of Point A
= 520.43 m AMSL

a. Height of Instrument HI =
Elevation Of A + Staff
Reading = 520.43 + 2.56
= 522.99 m AMSL

b. Elevation of B = HI –
Staff Reading at B = 522.99
– 0.93 = 522.06 m AMSL

AMSL: Above Mean Sea Level

 Measuring Elevation Difference

Calculation of Elevation
(A) The height of instrument method
Assume that elevation of Point A
= 520.43 m AMSL

a. Height of Instrument HI =
Elevation Of A + Staff
Reading = 520.43 + 0.64
= 521.07 m AMSL

b. Elevation of B = HI –
Staff Reading at B = 521.07
– 2.97= 518.10 m AMSL
 Measuring Elevation Difference

Calculation of Elevation
(B) The rise and fall method
Assume that elevation of Point A
= 520.43 m AMSL

a. Elevation Difference =
Elevation of A - Elevation
of B = 2.56 – 0.93 = 1.63 m
(rise)

b. Elevation of B = Elevation
at A + rise = 520.43 + 1.63
= 522.06 m AMSL
 Measuring Elevation Difference

Calculation of Elevation
(B) The rise and fall method
Assume that elevation of Point A
= 520.43 m AMSL

a. Elevation Difference =
Elevation of A - Elevation
of B = 0.64 – 2.97 = - 2.33
m (fall)

b. Elevation of B =
Elevation at A + fall =
520.43 - 2.33 = 518.10 m
AMSL
 Measuring Elevation Difference

Calculation of Elevation
Let ΔH AB represents the elevation difference between point
A and B, HA and HB represents the elevations or reduced
levels of point A and B respectively, and rA and rB represent
the staff readings at A and B respectively, then:

ΔH AB  H B  H A  rA  rB
 Procedures in Differential Leveling

Definitions
Backsight (BS)
This is the first reading taken by the observer at every
instrument station after setting up the level

Foresight (FS)
This is the last reading taken at every instrument station
before moving the level

Intermediate Sight (IS)

This is any reading taken at an instrument station between
the backsight and the foresight

Turning point (TP)

This point at which both a foresight and a backsight are
taken before moving the staff
 Procedures in Differential Leveling

General Procedure
Producing a longitudinal section (profile)
A B
1 C
P
D G
E F
BM
Q
(RL = 98.76 m AMSL) Plan FS
TP IS
BS IS IS
IS FS / BS
IS
2.787 2.270 1.218
1.946 1.008 1.153 1.585
0.663
G
1, BM Q F
B P C E
A D

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Longitudinal Section
Procedures in Differential Leveling

Booking and Calculations

Staff readings are booked in a level field book that is
mainly designed for this purpose

The Height of Instrument Method

The Rise and Fall Method

 Procedures in Differential Leveling

(A) The Height of Instrument Method

a. Height of Instrument HI =
Elevation Of A + Staff Reading
= 520.43 + 2.56
= 522.99 m AMSL

b. Elevation of B = HI – Staff
Reading at B = 522.99 – 0.93 =
522.06 m AMSL

a. Height of Instrument HI =
Elevation Of A + Staff Reading
= 520.43 + 0.64
= 521.07 m AMSL

b. Elevation of B = HI – Staff
Reading at B = 521.07 – 2.97=
518.10 m AMSL
 A B
1 C
P G
D
E F
BM
Q
(RL = 98.76 m AMSL) Plan

FS
TP IS
BS IS IS
IS FS / BS
IS
2.787 2.270 1.218 0.646
0.663 1.946 1.008 1.153 1.585
G
1 Q F
B P C E
BM A D

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Longitudinal Section
 Procedures in Differential Leveling

(1) The Height of Instrument Method

Point BS IS FS HI RL Distance Notes

1 0.663 99.423 98.760 - BM
A 1.946 97.477 0
B 1.008 98.415 20
C 1.153 98.270 40
D 2.787 1.585 100.625 97.838 60 TP
E 2.270 98.355 80
F 1.218 99.407 100
G 0.646 99.979 120
SUM 3.450 7.595 2.231
Check 1
No. of BS readings = No. of FS readings
2 = 2
 Procedures in Differential Leveling

(1) The Height of Instrument Method

Point BS IS FS HI RL Distance Notes
1 0.663 99.423 98.760 - BM
A 1.946 97.477 0
B 1.008 98.415 20
C 1.153 98.270 40
D 2.787 1.585 100.625 97.838 60 TP
E 2.270 98.355 80
F 1.218 99.407 100
G 0.646 99.979 120
SUM 3.450 7.595 2.231
Check 2
ΣBS - ΣFS = RL of last point - RL of first point
3.450 – 2.231 = 99.979 – 98.760
1.219 = 1.219
 Procedures in Differential Leveling

(1) The Height of Instrument Method

Point BS IS FS HI RL Distance Notes
1 0.663 99.423 98.760 - BM
A 1.946 97.477 0
B 1.008 98.415 20
C 1.153 98.270 40
D 2.787 1.585 100.625 97.838 60 TP
E 2.270 98.355 80
F 1.218 99.407 100
G 0.646 99.979 120
SUM 3.450 7.595 2.231 788.501

Check 3
ΣRL – RLfirst point = [Σ (No. of IS and FS × HI)] - Σ IS - Σ FS
ΣRL – RLfirst point = 788.501-98.760 = 689.741
[Σ (No. of (IS and FS) × HI)] - Σ IS - Σ FS
= [4×99.423 + 3×100.625] – 7.595 – 2.231 = 689.741
 Procedures in Differential Leveling

(2) The rise and fall method

a. Elevation Difference =
Elevation of A - Elevation Of B
= 2.56 – 0.93 = 1.63 m (rise)

b. Elevation of B = Elevation
at A + rise = 520.43 + 1.63 =
522.06 m AMSL

a. Elevation Difference =
Elevation of A - Elevation of B
= 0.64 – 2.97 = - 2.33 m (fall)

b. Elevation of B = Elevation
at A + fall = 520.43 - 2.33 =
518.10 m AMSL
 A B
1 C
P G
D
E F
BM
Q
(RL = 98.76 m AMSL) Plan

FS
TP IS
BS IS IS
IS FS / BS
IS
2.787 2.270 1.218 0.646
1.946 1.008 1.153 1.585
0.663
G
1 Q F
B P C E
BM A D

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Longitudinal Section
 Procedures in Differential Leveling

(2) The rise and fall method

Point BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Distance Notes

1 0.663 98.760 - BM
A 1.946 1.283 97.477 0
B 1.008 0.938 98.415 20
C 1.153 0.145 98.270 40
D 2.787 1.585 0.432 97.838 60 TP
E 2.270 0.517 98.355 80
F 1.218 1.052 99.407 100
G 0.646 0.572 99.979 120
SUM 3.450 7.595 2.231 3.079 1.860

Check 1
No. of BS readings = No. of FS readings
2 = 2
 Procedures in Differential Leveling

(2) The rise and fall method

Point BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Distance Notes

1 0.663 98.760 - BM
A 1.946 1.283 97.477 0
B 1.008 0.938 98.415 20
C 1.153 0.145 98.270 40
D 2.787 1.585 0.432 97.838 60 TP
E 2.270 0.517 98.355 80
F 1.218 1.052 99.407 100
G 0.646 0.572 99.979 120
SUM 3.450 7.595 2.231 3.079 1.860

Check 2
ΣBS - ΣFS = ΣRise – ΣFall = RLlast – RLfirst
3.450 – 2.231 = 3.079 – 1.860 = 99.979 - 98.760
1.219 = 1.219 = 1.219
 Scale 1/1000 horizontal, and 1/100 vertical
100.00

99.50

99.00

98.50
Elevation (m)

98.00

97.50

97.00

96.50

96.00

95.50

95.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Distance (m)

Profile (Longitudinal Section)

 General Notes

1- The accuracy of the reduced levels does not depend only on

correct calculations, but also depend on both correct booking of
these measurements & correct measurements (staff readings).
To ensure accurate elevations of the level points, the field work
should start at BM and close at another BM of known elevation.
If no other bench mark is available, the surveyor should go back
and close at the starting point .
2- If the purpose of leveling is to find out the elevation difference
between two points, which are unseen from each other, or if
they are far apart, no intermediate sights are necessary, only
BS & FS readings are made.
3- The BS & FS distances should be approximately equal to avoid
errors.
4- IF possible, staff readings should be made to the nearest mm at
TP, and to the nearest cm at other points.
 General Notes
5- TP points should be chosen on firm ground. On soft ground, a special
triangular base is used.
6- IF the point whose elevation is to be calculated lie above the level of
the sight line like a bridge or a ceiling or top of wall or column, then
the staff is held at this point in an-down position so that the zero of
the staff will be at the point. The reading at this point is recorded in
negative sign and the calculations are carried out in the normal way as
explained before.
7- If the BM point is the last point, then the elevation of the first point is
calculated as follows: RL of first point = RL of last point (BM)+ ∑FS -
∑BS. Now, that the RL of the first point is known, the computations
are performed as explained earlier.
8- If the BM is not the first point, neither the last point, we add the staff
reading at this bench mark to the known BM elevation to get the HI.
This HI is recorded in the table on the same line as the corresponding
BS reading. Now, the computations are started from this known HI
and continued until calculating the RL of the last point. The RL of the
first point is then calculated using previous equation. With the RL of
the first point known, the computations are continued until reaching
the BM, and with this, the table will be complete.
 Common Mistakes
 Misreading the rod : reading 3.54 instead of 4.54
 Moving the turning point : use a well– defined TP
 Field note mistakes : work within your group to check your records
 Level rod not vertical
 Instrument out of adjustment
 Environment - wind and heat
Suggestions for Good Leveling
Anchor tripod legs firmly
Check the bubble level before and after each reading
Take as little time as possible between BS and FS
Try to keep the distance to the BS and the FS equal
 Example 4.1

Using the data shown in the figure, do the required booking, and
calculate the reduced levels of points A, B, C, and D by both the
height of instrument and rise and fall methods. Make the required
arithmetic checks.
 Solution

Point BS IS FS Rise Fall HI RL Notes

A 0.60 500.00 BM
Top of concrete wall
B -1.27 -0.53 (TP)

C -3.52 Bottom of bridge

D 1.38
SUM -0.67 -3.52 0.85
 Solution
Point BS IS FS Rise Fall HI RL Notes
A 0.60 500.00 BM
Top of concrete wall
B -1.27 -0.53 1.13 (TP)

C -3.52 2.25 Bottom of bridge

D 1.38 4.90
SUM -0.67 -3.52 0.85 3.38 4.90

Rise and Fall method :

0.60 - (-0.53)  1.13 Rise
- 1.27 - (-3.52)  2.25 Rise
- 3.52 - (1.38)  - 4.90 Fall
 Solution

Point BS IS FS Rise Fall HI RL Notes

A 0.60 500.60 500.00 BM
Top of concrete wall
B -1.27 -0.53 1.13 499.86 501.13 (TP)

C -3.52 2.25 503.38 Bottom of bridge

D 1.38 4.90 498.48

SUM -0.67 -3.52 0.85 3.38 4.90

Rise and Fall method :

RL B  RL A  Rise / Fall  500.00  (1.13)  501.13 m
RL C  RL B  Rise / Fall  501.13  (2.25)  503.38 m
RL D  RL C  Rise / Fall  503.38  (-4.90)  498.48 m
 Solution

Point BS IS FS Rise Fall HI RL Notes

A 0.60 500.60 500.00 BM
Top of concrete wall
B -1.27 -0.53 1.13 499.86 501.13 (TP)

C -3.52 2.25 503.38 Bottom of bridge

D 1.38 4.90 498.48

SUM -0.60 -3.52 0.85 3.38 4.90

HI method :
HI1  H A  rA  500.00  0.60  500.60 m
RL B  HI1  rB,(FS)  500.60  (0.53)  501.13 m
HI 2  RL B  rB,(BS)  501.13  ( 1.27)  499.86 m
RL C  HI 2  rC  499.86  (3.52)  503.38 m
RL D  HI 2  rD  499.86  1.38  498.48 m
 Solution

Checks
1- # of BS = # of FS = 2 ok

2- (∑BS - ∑FS)=(-0.67-0.85)=-1.52
(∑R - ∑F)=(3.38-4.90) = -1.52 ok
(RL last – RL1st )= (498.48 – 500.00) = -1.52

3- ∑ RL excluding first RL = 501.13 + 503.38 + 498.48 = 1502.99

∑ (HI × # of FS and IS)- (∑FS) - (∑IS) = (500.6 × 1 + 499.86 × 2) – (0.85)
– (-3.52) = 1502.99 ok
 HW # 6

Solve problems 4.1, 4.4, and 4.6

 Errors in Differential Leveling
‫اﻷخطاء في الميزانية التفاضلية‬
As in any other type of surveying work, errors in leveling
can be divided into:
Systematic Errors
‫أخطاء منتظمة‬

Random Errors
‫أخطاء عشوائية‬

Blunders
‫أخطاء فادحة‬
 Errors in Differential Leveling

(1) Systematic Errors

There are two major sources of systematic errors in
differential leveling. These are:

(1)Inclination of the line of sight due to the

earth’s curvature and atmospheric
refraction.

‫ميل خط النظر نتيجة انحناء اﻷرض وانكسار الجوي‬

(2)Inclination of the line of sight due to

maladjustment of the level.

‫ميل خط النظر نتيجة عدم توازن جهاز التسوية‬

 Errors in Differential Leveling

(1) Systematic Errors

(1) Earth’s Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction
 A level line is a curved line and is everywhere normal to the
plumb line. However, a horizontal line of sight is
perpendicular to the plumb line only at the point of
observation. Hence, it should be carefully distinguished from
a level line.

 Because of atmospheric refraction, rays of light transmitted

along the earth’s surface are refracted or bent downward so
that the actual line of sight is along a curve that is concave
downward. The curve has a radius that is seven times the
radius of the earth.
 Errors in Differential Leveling

(1) Systematic Errors

(1) Earth’s Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction

BC: Refraction of line

of sight from
horizontal.
BD: Error due to
earth’s curvature.
CD: Actual net error in
the staff reading.
CD = BD - BC
 Errors in Differential Leveling

BD  0.0786L2 CD  0.0673L 2

Where L in km, BD & CD in m

When L  1 km  CD  7 cm
L  100 m  0.1 km  CD  1 mm

Therefore, to keep the effect of the earth’s curvature and

atmospheric refraction to a minimum, it is advisable that the
distance between the level and the staff should not exceed 100 m.
 Errors in Differential Leveling

Systematic Errors
(2) Maladjustment of the level (collimation error ‫)خطأ التوجيه‬
When the line of sight of a level is not perfectly parallel to the axis of
the level bubble due to maladjustment of the level, the line of sight will
be actually inclined from the horizontal even though the level bubble
is perfectly centered.

This kind of error can be completely eliminated by balancing the BS

and FS distances.
 Errors in Differential Leveling

Systematic Errors
Let
a  Actual BS reading with staff held at point A
m  Correct BS reading at A if the line of sight was perfectly horizontal
 1  Reading error at A due to maladjustment of the level
b  Actual FS reading with staff held at B
n  Correct FS reading at B if the line of sight was perfectly horizontal
 2  Reading error at B due to maladjustment of the level
  Angle of inclination of the line of sight from the horizontal.
It is positive if above the horizontal and negative if below the horizontal
 Errors in Differential Leveling

Then
ε 1  L1 tanα
ε 2  L 2 tanα
correct elevation difference (H)  m - n
 (a  ε 1 )  (b  ε 2 )
 (a  b)  (ε 1  ε 2 )

 ΔH  (a  b)  tan (L1  L 2 )

It is seen that if L1 = L2, then ε1 = ε2, and the correct elevation

difference will be equal to the difference between the two actual
readings a & b, and will be free of error caused by the
maladjustment of the level.
 Example 4.2

To check a level for the existence of collimation error, the level

was set up mid-way between points A and B and following two
staff readings were taken 1.92 at A and 1.4 at B. The level was
then moved to another position and reading in the figure were
taken. Is there a collimation error? If yes, then calculate the
angle of inclination and correct readings that should have been
taken at A and B in the second level setup if there was no
collimation error.
 Example 4.2 - Solution

First_Setu p :
ΔH 1 (correct)  1.92  1.4  0.52m
Second_Set up :
ΔH 2  1.75  1.2  0.55m
ΔH 1  ΔH 2  There is a collimation error
ΔH  (a  b)  tan α (L1  L 2 )
0.52  (1.75 - 1.20) - tan α (58  23)
α  0 2 57
o ' ''

Correct reading at A (m) = 1.75 - 58 tanα = 1.70 m

Correct reading at B (m) = 1.20 – 23 tanα = 1.18 m
Check:
Δh  1.70  1.18  0.52m  ΔH1  OK
 Errors in Differential Leveling

(2) Random Error

The principal sources of random errors that affect the accuracy of

leveling are:

• the staff not held plumb

• the bubble of the level not perfectly centered

• the incorrect reading of the staff

• the instability of turning points

• Wind may vibrate the level and the staff and make it difficult to
keep the bubble centered and to read the staff correctly.
 Errors in Differential Leveling

(3) Blunder or Mistakes

Blunders commonly made in leveling include the following:

• Misreading the staff especially when the marks on the staff are
obscured by a tree , fence and so on.

• Not setting the staff on the same point for a FS and the
subsequent BS readings.

• Recording or Booking of data. (e.g. reading 2.58 m as 2.85 m,

booking a FS in the BS column and vice versa)
 Reciprocal Leveling ‫التسوية التبادلية‬

When a line of levels crosses a wide body of water (e.g., a river or

ravine), it becomes impossible to balance the BS and FS distances,
and it might be necessary to take sights at distances much longer than
ordinarily impossible (greater than 100 m).

Under such circumstances, errors due to earth’s curvature,

atmospheric refraction and the inclination of the line of sight become
particularly significant.

A special procedure called reciprocal leveling is used to overcome this

problem and obtain the best results.
 Reciprocal Leveling

Refracted line of sight

a1 Horizontal line
b1

Level line
C A B

(a) First setup

Refracted line of sight

Horizontal line b2
a2
Level line
B D
A
(b) Second setup
 Reciprocal Leveling ‫التسوية التبادلية‬

The elevation difference between the two points A and B can be

determined as follows:

Set up the level at point C, 2 to 3 m from A and take the readings a1

at A and b1 at B. Calculate the first elevation difference:
ΔH = a1 – b1
Move the level to point D, so that the distance AC = BD. Take the
two readings a2 at A and b2 at B. Calculate the second elevation
difference:
ΔH = a2 – b2

Calculate the correct elevation difference (ΔH) as follows:

ΔH1  ΔH 2 a1  b1   a 2  b 2 
ΔH  
2 2
 Example 4.3

The elevation of point A is 917.34 m. From a setup on the left bank,

the BS reading at A was 1.44 m and the FS reading at B was 1.90 m.
At the second setup (on the right bank) of the level, the BS reading
at A was 1.80 m and the FS reading at B was 2.34 m. Find the
elevation of point B.

Solution:
ΔH1  ΔH 2 a1  b1   a 2  b2 
ΔH  
2 2
ΔH AB 
1.44  1.90   1.80  2.34 
 0.50 m
2
The elevation of point B (H B )  H A  ΔH AB
 917.34  (-0.5)  916.84 m
 Example 4.3

Another Solution:
First setup :
elev. of point B  917.34  1.44  1.90  916.88m

Second setup :
elev. of point B  917.34  1.80  2.34  916.80 m

916.88  916.80
The elevation of point B   916.84 m
2
 Closure Error ‫خطأ اﻹغﻼق‬

For the case where leveling starts as a known BM and ends at the
same or at another BM, the calculated elevation for the end
station must be equal to the elevation of the known station if the
leveling is free of errors. However, this case is rarely occurs and
a closure error results.
2
Δh2 Δh3
n2 n3
1 3

Δh4
Δh1 n4
n1 : a BM
: a surveystation

BM1 BM2
Assume that the known elevation of BM2 is (h) and the calculated
elevation from leveling is (h’), then the closure error (  ) is:

ε  h'  h
 Closure Error

Correction for closure error can be distributed to the line section

by proportion. Assuming that all the staff readings along a level
line are made with the same care and accuracy, the number of
setups needed for each of the line sections can be used for
proportioning. Therefore:

ni
Closure correction Δh i   ε
nj
Corrected Δh i  measured Δh i  closure correction for Δh i

Where n i : number of level setups

Δh : elevation difference between consecutiv e stations
i
 Example

Given:
n1 = 2, Δh1 = 1.74 m
n2 = 1, Δh2 = 2.13 m BM1 = 761.65 m
n3 = 2, Δh3 = -3.10 m BM2 = 762.38 m
n4 = 4, Δh4 = -0.45 m
 Example

Δh1 = 1.74 m
Δh2 = 2.13 m
Δh3 = -3.10 m
Δh4 = -0.45 m

ΣΔh = 0.32 m

BM2 (Calculated) = BM1 + ΣΔh

= 761.65 m + 0.32 m
= 761.97 m

Closure error (ε) = h' – h

= 761.97 – 762.38 = - 0.41 m

 Example

n1 = 2, Δh1 = 1.74 m
n2 = 1, Δh2 = 2.13 m
n3 = 2, Δh3 = -3.10 m ε = - 0.41 m
n4 = 4, Δh4 = -0.45 m
Closure corrections
2
Δh 1   (-0.41)  0.09 Corrected Δh 1  1.74  0.09  1.83 m
9
1
Δh 2   (-0.41)  0.05 Corrected Δh 1  2.13  0.05  2.18 m
9
2
Δh 3   (-0.41)  0.09 Corrected Δh 1  - 3.10  0.09  3.01 m
9
4
Δh 4   (-0.41)  0.18 Corrected Δh 2  - 0.45  0.18  0.27 m
9
Check: BM2 (Calculated) = BM1 + ΣΔh
= 761.65 m + 0.73 m
= 762.38 m (ok)
 HW # 7

Solve problems 4.5 and 4.10

 Applications of Leveling

The main uses of leveling are:

Longitudinal sections (profiles)

Cross-sections

Contouring

Setting out levels

 Applications of Leveling

(1) longitudinal sections (Profiles)

A B
1 C
P
D G
E F
BM
Q
(RL = 98.76 m AMSL) Plan FS
TP IS
BS IS IS
IS FS / BS
IS
2.787 2.270 1.218
1.946 1.008 1.153 1.585
0.663
G
1, BM Q F
B P C E
A D

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Longitudinal Section
 Applications of Leveling

(1) longitudinal sections (Profiles)

The objective is to produce on paper the existing ground profile
along a particular line such as center line of: a railway, road,
canal, sewer or water main.

• Levels are taken at:

1. Every 20 m, 50 m or 100 m depending on the topography
2. Points at which gradient changes
3. Street intersections

• Staff reading to 0.01m accuracy are adequate.

• Scale 1/1000 horizontal, and 1/100 vertical

 Applications of Leveling

(1) longitudinal sections (Profiles)

 Applications of Leveling

(1) longitudinal sections (Profiles)

To avoid errors:

 Start the work at a benchmark (BM) and make use of nearby

benchmarks

 Try to keep BS and FS distances approximately equal

 Make all changes (TP) on firm ground to make checks if required

later

 Take the final FS on a BM or close back to the starting point

 Do not work with staff extended in high wind

 Applications of Leveling

(2) Cross-Sections
•Some Engineering works require that cross sections be taken at right
angles to the center line of a proposed or existing project such as a
road.
•The width of these of sections are taken 15 m either side of the
center for a normal road
•Scale 1/50 or 1/100 for both horizontal and vertical axes.
 Applications of Leveling

(3) Contouring
A contour is an imaginary
line connecting points on
the ground that have the
same elevation.

The vertical distance or

elevation difference between
two successive contours is
called contour interval
(contour interval of 20 m is
shown).
 Applications of Leveling

Characteristics of Contours
1- Closely contours represent a steep slope, but spaced far contours
represent a flat slope.
2- Contours are perpendicular to the direction of the steepest
slope.
 Applications of Leveling

Characteristics of Contours
3- Contours of different values do not cross each other nor do they
merge except in rare situations where there is a cave or a vertically
standing surface such as a wall.
 Applications of Leveling

Characteristics of Contours
4- Contours that portray summits (such as hill) or depressions (such
as bottom of a lake) are closed lines.
5- A single contour cannot split two contours of the same value as
itself, and it must make a closed circuits although not within the
area covered by the contour plan.
6- Irregular contours represent a rough and uneven terrain.
 Applications of Leveling

Characteristics of Contours
 Applications of Leveling

Factors affecting choice of contour intervals

1- The scale of the contour plan: as the scale of the contour becomes smaller,
the distance between the contours becomes smaller, and the map becomes
crowded with lines and difficult to read. To prevent so, the contour interval is
made larger.
2- The importance and purpose for which the plan is to be used: when more
details are needed for computation of earth volumes and for design
purposes, a smaller contour interval should be used.
3- Accuracy, time and cost of the contour plan: as higher accuracy is needed,
a smaller contour interval should be chosen. As a result, the project will be
more costly and will require longer time.
4- The topography of the ground: steep ground requires a large contour
interval to increase the distance between contours, while a small interval can
be used for flat terrain.
5- The area for which the contour plan is to be made: as the area to be
covered becomes larger, a smaller scale is usually chosen to draw the map. As
a result, a larger contour interval is used.
 Applications of Leveling

Methods of Contouring

Griding

Radiating lines

Cross-sections method

Contouring using Electronic

Total Stations
 Applications of Leveling

(1) Griding
This method is most suitable for flat terrain, especially on
comparatively small sites. Rectangular or squares of 5 to 20 m a
side are usually set out on the ground in the form of a grid, and
levels (staff readings) are taken in the corners.
 Applications of Leveling

(1) Griding
Assume that the elevations of points D4, D5 and C5 are 13 m, 10 m
and 12 m respectively. The distance between corners D4 and D5 is
12 m and the distance between corners C4 and D5 is 10 m. To draw
the contour line whose elevation is 11 m:

X 1 12
By interpolation:  X   4m
12 3 3
Applications of Leveling

Y 1 10
 Y   5m
10 2 2
 Applications of Leveling

x
h2 h1
ho

h o  h1
x (L)
h 2  h1
 Applications of Leveling

(2) Radiating Lines

Rays are set out on the ground from a

central point such as the top of a small
hill, the directions of these rays being
known.

Levels are taken along these rays at

measured distances from the center.

Again, linear interpolation is used to give

the contour
 Applications of Leveling

(3) Cross-Sections Method

In this method, cross-sections are made on a line or a traverse inside the
area for which the contour plan is to be made. Levels are then taken at
points on the cross sections where the topography changes. Again contour-
lines are drawn using the method of linear interpolation as explained
earlier.
 Applications of Leveling

(4) Contouring Using Electronic Total Stations

In this method, the coordinates and heights of representative points
where topography changes are measured using total stations. These
points are then plotted and contour lines are drawn using the
method of linear interpolation as explained earlier.
 Example (Final Exam 2012/2013)

A regular grid consisting of a (5m ×5m) squares has the following

spot elevations:

Elevation
Point
(m)
A1 112.0
A2 112.5
A3 113.5
B1 113.0
B2 114.0
B3 115.5
C1 114.5
C2 114.3

If A1 is located at the top left corner of the grid, draw the grid at a
scale of 1:100, and show all the contour lines at 0.50 m interval
starting from 112.50 m.
 Example

1 2 3
A

5m
B
5m

Scale 1:100
 Example

Y 0.5
  Y  1 .7 m
5 1.5
112.0 112.5 113.5
Y 1
  Y  3 .3 m
5 1.5
Y 0.5
  Y  1 .3 m
5 2
Y 1
  Y  3 .3 m 113.0 115.5
5 1.5 114.0
Y 1
  Y  2 .5 m
5 2
X 0.5
  Y  1 .7 m
5 1.5
Y 1.5 114.5 114.3
  Y  3 .8 m
5 2
X 1
  X  3.3 m Scale 1:100
5 1.5
 Applications of Leveling

(4) Setting Out Levels

One of the basic applications of leveling is setting out sight rails which
enable the excavation operators to cut out earth to an even gradient, and
enable the pipe-layer to lay the pipes to this gradient using a boning rod
looking the capital letter T with a sight bar across it, the convenient height
above invert would be 3.75 m.
 Applications of Leveling

Sight rail A, RL= 30.02 + 3.75 =33.77m

Distance AB = 60 m
Fall = 60 ×( 1 / 100 ) =0.60 m
Invert Level at B = 30.02 – 0.60=29.42 m
Sight rail at B = 29.42 + 3.75 = 33.17 m
If a level is setup nearby has a height
Of collimation of 34.85 m, then the staff
Reading at A = 34.85 – 33.77 = 1.08 m
&Reading at B= 34.85 – 33.17 = 1.68 m
End of Chapter 4
 HW # 9

The following levels were taken with a metric staff on a series of pegs at
100-m intervals along the line of a proposed trench. If the trench is to be
excavated from peg A commencing at a formation level of 26.5 m and
falling to peg E at a grade of 1 in 200. Calculate:

BS IS FS remarks
2.10 BM1=28.75 m
2.85 Peg A
1.80 3.51 Peg B
1.58 Peg C
2.24 Peg D
1.68 2.94 Peg E
2.27

1. The depth of excavation in meters at A, B, C, D and E.

2. The height of the sight rails in meters at A, B, C, D and E, if a 3m boning rod
is to be used
 HW # 9

Solve problems 4.7 and 4.9