PHYSICS LABORATORY

GRADE: 11
SUB:PHYSICS
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:
1.Write Aim, Theory, Formula used, Materials required, Procedure and
Result on Right hand side.
2.Diagrams, tabulation on the left hand side .
3.Use Black pen for headings.
4.write neatly and legibly.
 EXPT.No.1. SCREW GAUGE

AIM:

To measure the diameter of a given wire and find its volume using screw
gauge

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Screw gauge, Wire, metre scale and thread

THEORY:

Pitch of the Screw Gauge

The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per
revolution. To find this, the distance advanced by the head scale over the
pitch scale for a definite number of complete rotation of the screw is
determined. 
The pitch can be represented as;

Least Count of the Screw Gauge

The Least count (LC) is the distance moved by the tip of the screw, when
the screw is turned through 1 division of the head scale.
The least count can be calculated using the formula; 

  

DIAGRAM:
 Zero Error and Zero
Correction

FORMULA:
1.The diameter of the wire:

T.R=total reading

H.S.R=head scale reading

P.S.R=pitch scale reading

L.C=least count

2.Volume of the wire:

r - radius of the wire: l - mean length of the wire

ERROR ANALYSIS:

1. Absolute error in length Δl = l mean - l observed

2. Absolute error in diameter Δd = d mean - dobserved
3. Fractional error in Volume ΔV/V= 2. (Δd / d)+ (Δl / l)
4. Percentage error in volume = ΔV/V*100
5. Absolute error in Volume = ΔV/V*V

PROCEDURE 

1. Determine the pitch and least count of the screw gauge using
the equations (1) and (2) respectively.
2. Bring the anvil and screw in contact with each other and find the
zero error. Do it three times and record them. If there is no zero
error, then record ‘zero error nil’.
 3. Move the screw away from the anvil and place the thin wire and
move the screw towards the anvil using the ratchet head. Stop
when the ratchet slips without moving the screw.
4. Note the number of divisions on the pitch scale that is visible
and uncovered by the edge of the cap. The reading N is called
the pitch scale reading(PSR)
5. Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying
over the reference line.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the measuring the diameter
in a perpendicular direction. Record the observations in the
tabular column.
7. Find total reading using the equation 3 and apply zero correction
in each case.
8. Take the mean of different values.
9. To measure the length of the wire, stretch a thread along the
wire lengthwise. Stretch the thread along a metre-scale. Note
the length.

OBSERVATION: TABLE 1:
Least count=……..(mm) Zero error=…… (div) Zero correction=…….
(div)

S.No. Head scale Reading Absolute error

Pitch Total Reading
(H.S.R)
Scale Δd
Reading No of Head
(P.S.R) scale Value [n x L.C]  T.R=(P.S.R+H.S.R)
(mm) divisions(n mm (mm)
)
1.  
       
 
2.  
       
 
3.  
     
 
4  
     
 
5
     
TABLE:2 Length of the wire

S.No. Length l(cm) Δl(cm)

lmean = Δl mean =

Precautions

1. There shouldn’t be any friction while moving the screw.

2. The screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K
to avoid undue pressure.
3. For zero correction proper sing should be noted.
4. To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved
in the same direction.
5. The diameter of the wire should be measured at each place in two
perpendicular directions and mean should be taken.
6. Along the entire length of the wire, readings should be taken at five
different places.
7. Avoid errors of parallax.

Sources of Error

1. There might be friction in the screw.

2. There might be a back-lash error in the screw gauge.
3. Circular scale divisions may not be equally divided.
4. There might not be uniformity in the wire.

RESULT:

1.Diameter of the wire =

2.Length of the wire =

3.Volume of the wire =

4.Fractional error in volume =

5.Percentage error in volume =

6.Absolute error in volume =

 EXPT NO.2 VERNIER CALIPERS
AIM:

To measure the internal diameter and depth of a given

beaker/calorimeter and hence find its volume.  

To verify the internal volume using a measuring jar and carry out the
error ananlysis.

Materials Required 

 Vernier callipers., A beaker or a calorimeter, measuring jar and

water.

THEORY:
A calliper is a device used to measure the distance between two
opposing sides of an object. It can be as simple as a compass with
inward or outward-facing points. First the tips of the calliper are
adjusted to fit across the points to be measured and the calliper is
then removed and the distance between the tips is measured using a
ruler. 
Least Count
The least count or the smallest reading which you can get with the
instrument can be calculated as;

or

FORMULA:
Volume of the beaker / calorimeter = internal area of the cross
section x depth
π d2
V=πr2h= h
4

where 'd' -The internal diameter of beaker / calorimeter

'h' -the depth of beaker / calorimeter.
ERROR ANALYSIS:

1. Absolute error in internal depth Δh = h mean - h observed

2. Absolute error in diameter Δd = d mean - dobserved
3. Fractional error in Volume ΔV/V= 2 ׿ )+( Δh÷ h)
4. Percentage error in volume = ΔV/V*100
5. Absolute error in Volume = Fractional error * volume=ΔV/V*V
DIAGRAM:

1.Main Scale
The main scale consists of a steel metallic strip graduated in
centimeters at one edge and in inches at the other edge . It carries
the inner and outer measuring jaws. When the two jaws are in
contact, the zero of the main scale and the zero of the Vernier scale
should coincide. If both the zeros do not coincide, there will be a
positive or negative zero error.

2. Vernier Scale

A vernier scale  slides on the strip. It can be fixed in any position by

the retainer. On the Vernier scale, 0.9 cm is divided into ten equal
parts.

3. Outer Measuring Jaws

The outer measuring jaws helps to take the outer dimension of an

object

4. Inner Measuring Jaws

The inner measuring jaws helps to take the inner dimension of an
object.

5. Retainer

The retainer helps to retain the object within the jaws of the Vernier
calipers.

6. Depth Measuring Prong

The depth measuring prong helps to measure the depth of an object. 

Procedure:

1. We'll first
determine the vernier constant
(VC), which is the least count (L.C) of the vernier calliper and
record it stepwise as in the equation, L.C = 1 MSD - 1 VSD.
2. Now, bring the movable jaw in close contact with the fixed jaw
and find the zero error. Do this three times and record the
values. If there is no zero error, then record 'zero error nil'.
3. Open the jaws of the Vernier Calliper and place cylinder
between the two jaws and adjust the movable jaw, such that it
gently grips the body without any undue pressure on it. That
done, tighten the screw attached to the Vernier scale.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the Vernier scale on the
main scale. Record the main scale reading just before the zero
mark of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is called main scale
reading (MSR).
5. Note the number (n) of the Vernier scale division which
coincides with the division of the main scale.
6. You'll have to repeat steps 5 and 6 after rotating the body by
90o for measuring the diameter in a perpendicular direction.
7. Repeat steps 4 to 7 for three different positions and record the
observations.
 8. Now find total reading using the equation, TR = MSR+VSR = N+
(n x L.C)  and apply the zero correction.
9. Take the mean of the different values of the diameter and show
that in the result with the proper unit.

Note:

 To measure the internal diameter of a calorimeter or beaker,

place the beaker upside down over the internal jaws of the
vernier calipers.Then repeat the steps 4 to 8.
 To find the ‘Depth’ of the beaker, move the metallic strip till it
touches the bottom of the beaker.Then repeat steps 4 to 8.

TABULATION:
1. Internal diameter of the Calorimeter

Least count= zero error (e)=..........cm.

zero correction (c) =.......cm.

Vernier Toatl
Main scale Reading Absolute
Vernier Scale reading error
Scale MSR + (V
Sl Coincidence
Reading VSR x S R x cm
No
divisions L.C L.C)
MSR cm  
Cm cm

           
           

2.Internal Depth of the Calorimeter

Least count= zero error (e)=..........cm. zero correction (c)

=.......cm.

Sl Main Vernier Scale Vernier Toatl Absolute

 scale Reading
Scale reading error
Coincidence MSR + (V
Reading VSR x S R x cm
No
divisions L.C L.C)
MSR cm  
Cm cm

           
           

Precautions

1. Apply machine oil or grease to make the vernier scale slide

smoothly over the main scale.
2. To avoid the damage to threads, do not exert more pressure on
the vernier screw.
3. To avoid errors due to parallax, keep the eye directly over the
division mark.
4. The significant figures and units used in observations must be
correct.

Sources Of Error

1. Not accounting for the zero error in the instrument.

2. Avoid gaps and undue pressure with respect to the placing of
vernier calipers.

RESULT:
1.Internal diameter of the Calorimeter =
2.Internal depth of the Calorimeter =

3. Internal Volume of the Calorimeter =

4.Fractional error in volume =

5.Percentage error in volume =

6.Absolute error in volume =

7.Verified volume of the calorimeter =

EXPT.No.3. SIMPLE PENDULUM

AIM

 To plot a L-T2 graph using a simple pendulum.

 To find the effective length of the simple pendulum for a given
time period using the graph.
 To calculate the acceleration due to gravity at a place.

Material Required

 Clamp stand,Split Cork,Heavy metallic spherical bob with a

hook,Long and strong cotton thread,Stopwatch and Meter scale

FORMULA:
The time period of a simple pendulum (g),
 

 
For small amplitude of oscillations,

Where,
l=length of the
pendulum
g= acceleration
due to gravity
Plotting Graph
L vs T2 Graph
Plot a graph between L versus T2 from observations recorded in the
table, taking  L along the x-axis and T2 along the y-axis. You will find
that the graph is a straight line passing through the origin as shown
in figure 2.
From the L versus T2 graph, determine the effective length of the
second’s pendulum
 PROCEDURE

1. Place the clamp stand on the table. Tie the hook attached to the
pendulum bob, to one end of the string of about 150 cm in
length and the other end of the string through two half-pieces of
a split cork.
2. Clamp the split cork firmly to the clamp stand such that the line
of separation between the two pieces of the split cork is at right
angles to the line OA along which the pendulum oscillates as
given in the figure. Mark the edge of the table a vertical line
parallel to and just behind the vertical thread OA, the position of
the bob at rest. Take care that the bob hangs vertically (about 2
cm above the floor) beyond the edge of the table so that it is
free to oscillate.
3. Measure the effective length of the simple pendulum as shown in
the figure.
4. Displace the bob not more than 15 degrees from the vertical
position OA and then gently release it. If you notice the stand to
be shaky, put a heavy object on its base. Make sure that the bob
oscillates in a vertical plane about its rest and does not (i) spin
about its own axis (ii) move up and down while oscillating
(iii)revolve in an elliptic path around its mean position.
5. Keep the pendulum oscillating for a few minutes. After the
completion of few oscillations, start the stopwatch as the thread
attached to the bob crosses the mean position. Consider it as a
zero oscillation.
6. Keep counting the oscillation 1,2,3…n every time the bob
crosses the mean position. Stop the stopwatch at the count
of n  oscillations. For better results, n should be chosen such that
the time take to complete n oscillations is 50 s or more. Read the
total time taken for n oscillations. Repeat the observation a few
times by noting down the time for the same n number of
oscillations. Once noted down, take the mean of the readings.
Calculate the time for one oscillation, i.e., the time
period T ( = t/n) of the pendulum.
 7. Change the length of the pendulum, by about 10 cm. Repeat step
6 again for finding the time (t) for about 20 oscillations or more
for the new length and find the mean time period. Take 5 or 6
more observations for different lengths of the pendulum and find
the mean time period in each case.
8. Report observations in the tabular form with proper units and
significant figures.
9. Take effective length L along the x-axis and T2  (or T) along the
y-axis, using the observed values from the table. Choose suitable
scales on these axes to represent L and T2  (or T). Plot a graph
between L and T2 as shown in figure.(Graph)

TABULATION

TABLE1.Daimeter of the bob.

Least count= zero error (e)=..........cm. zero correction (c)

=.......cm.

Vernier Toatl
Main scale Reading Absolute
Vernier Scale reading error
Scale MSR + (V
Sl Coincidence
Reading VSR x S R x cm
No
divisions L.C L.C)
MSR cm  
Cm cm

TABLE2..Daimeter of the bob+ length of the hook

Least count= zero error (e)=..........cm. zero correction (c)

=.......cm.

Sl Main Vernier Scale Vernier Toatl Absolute

No Scale Coincidence scale Reading error
 reading MSR + (V
Reading VSR x S R x cm
divisions L.C)
MSR cm L.C  
Cm cm

TABLE 3: Determination of Time Period:

The radius of the pendulum of the bob = ….. cm

Length of the hook = ….. cm
Least count of the meter scale = ….. mm
Least count of the stopwatch = ….. s

S. Length of Effectiv Time for n Time T2 L/T2

No the string e oscillations t perio m/s2
from the length, (s) d
top of the L= T (=
bob to the (l+r+e) Tria Mea t/n)
point of (m) Trai l 2 n
suspension  l1
l
(m)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
Sources of error:

1.The sring may not be weightless and inextensible

2.Point of suspension may not be rigid

3.The amplitude may not be small

4.The bob may spin

5.There may be delay in starting and stopping the watch

6.There may be error in counting

Precautions:

1.Thread should be strong ,weightless and inextensible

2.Point of suspension should be fixed

3.The amplitude should be small

4.Fan should be switched off

5.Stop clock should be accurate

6.Counting should be proper .

RESULT:

1. The graph L versus T2 is a straight line.

2. The value of g=---------
3. The effective length of the second’s pendulum from
the L versus T2 graph is … cm.