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Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Treatments of Textiles

Yuan Gao and Robin Cranston
Textile Research Journal 2008 78: 60
DOI: 10.1177/0040517507082332

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 Textile Research Journal Article

Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Treatments of Textiles

Yuan Gao1 and Robin Cranston
Abstract The growth of microbes on textiles Division of Textile and Fibre Technology,
during use and storage negatively affects the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
wearer as well as the textile itself. The detrimental Organization (CSIRO), Bayview Ave, Clayton 3168,
effects can be controlled by durable antimicrobial Australia
finishing of the textile using broad-spectrum bio-
cides or by incorporating the biocide into syn-
thetic fibers during extrusion. Consumers’ attitude
towards hygiene and active lifestyle has created a
rapidly increasing market for antimicrobial textiles,
which in turn has stimulated intensive research
and development. This article reviews the require-
ments for antimicrobial finishing, qualitative and
quantitative evaluations of antimicrobial efficacy,
the application methods of antimicrobial agents
and some of the most recent developments in anti-
microbial treatments of textiles using various active
agents such as silver, quaternary ammonium salts,
polyhexamethylene biguanide, triclosan, chitosan,
dyes and regenerable N-halamine compounds and
peroxyacids. Examples of commercial antimicro-
bial products are presented to illustrate the active
agents used and their finishing methods.

Key words textile, fiber, fabric, antimicrobial,

antibacterial, biocide

Textiles have long been recognized as media to support the likelihood of contamination [1]. For these reasons, it is
growth of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. These highly desirable that the growth of microbes on textiles be
microorganisms are found almost everywhere in the envi- minimized during their use and storage.1
ronment and can multiply quickly when basic requirements, Consumers’ demand for hygienic clothing and activewear
such as moisture, nutrients and temperature are met. Most has created a substantial market for antimicrobial textile
synthetic fibers, due to their high hydrophobicity, are more products. Estimations have shown that the production of
resistant to attacks by microorganisms than natural fibers antimicrobial textiles was in the magnitude of 30,000 tones
[1]. Proteins in keratinous fibers and carbohydrates in in Western Europe and 100,000 tones worldwide in 2000
cotton can act as nutrients and energy sources under cer- [2, 3]. Furthermore, it was estimated that the production
tain conditions. Soil, dust, solutes from sweat and some increased by more than 15% a year in Western Europe
textile finishes can also be nutrient sources for microor- between 2001 and 2005, making it one of the fastest grow-
ganisms [1]. ing sectors of the textile market [4]. Sportswear, socks,
The growth of microorganisms on textiles inflicts a shoe linings and lingerie accounted for 85% of the total
range of unwanted effects not only on the textile itself but
also on the wearer. These effects include the generation of
unpleasant odor, stains and discoloration in the fabric, a 1
Corresponding author: tel: +61-3-9545 2104; fax: +61-3-9545
reduction in fabric mechanical strength and an increased 2363; e-mail: [email protected]

Textile Research Journal Vol 78(1): 60–72 DOI: 10.1177/0040517507082332 www.trj.sagepub.com © 2008 SAGE Publications
Los Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore

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 Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Treatments of Textiles Y. Gao and R. Cranston 61 TRJ

production [2, 3]. There is also a broader market for anti-

microbial fibers, for instance, in outdoor textiles, air filters,
Modes of Antimicrobial Action
automotive textiles, domestic home furnishings and medi-
cal textiles. This high demand, in turn, has stimulated A living microbe (e.g. bacterium, fungus) typically has an
outermost cell wall which is mainly composed of polysac-
intensive research and development. Some earlier work in
charides. This cell wall maintains the integrity of cellular
antimicrobial textiles has been briefly reviewed by Purwar
components and shields the cell from the extracellular
and Joshi [1] and Williams et al. [5]. Since then a large
number of papers and patents have been published. In this environment. Immediately beneath the cell wall is a semi-
permeable membrane which encloses intracellular organelles
article, we summarize some of the most recent develop-
and a myriad of enzymes and nucleic acids. The enzymes
ment in antimicrobial treatments of synthetic, cotton and
are responsible for the chemical reactions that take place
wool fabrics or fibers using various active agents, and the
methods for the evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy. Numer- within the cell, and the nucleic acids store all of the genetic
information of the organism. The survival or growth of
ous antimicrobial textile products have been launched on
microorganisms depends on the integrity of the cell and
the market by leading manufacturers. Examples are pre-
the concerted action and proper state of all of these com-
sented to illustrate the active agents used in these products
and their application methods. ponents. Antimicrobial agents either inhibit the growth
(-static) or kill (-cidal) the microorganisms. Almost all anti-
microbial agents used in commercial textiles, e.g. silver,
triclosan, polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB) and
Requirements for Antimicrobial quaternary ammonium compounds, are biocides. They dam-
age the cell wall or alter cell membrane permeability, dena-
Finishing ture proteins, inhibit enzyme activity or inhibit lipid synthesis,
all of which are essential for cell survival. The mechanisms
In order to obtain the greatest benefit, an ideal antimicro- of biocides used on commercial textiles are discussed in the
bial treatment of textiles should satisfy a number of require- following sections.
ments [1, 5]. Firstly, it should be effective against a broad
spectrum of bacterial and fungal species, but at the same
time exhibit low toxicity to consumers, e.g. not cause toxic-
ity, allergy or irritation to the user. Antimicrobial-treated Application of Antimicrobial Agents
textiles have to meet standards in compatibility tests (cyto-
toxicity, irritation and sensitization) before marketing. Sec- Various methods, depending on the particular active agent
ondly, the finishing should be durable to laundering, dry and fiber type, have been developed or are under develop-
cleaning and hot pressing. This is the greatest challenge as ment to confer antimicrobial activity to textiles. For synthetic
textile products are subjected to repeated washing during fibers, the antimicrobial active agents can be incorporated
their life. Thirdly, the finishing should not negatively affect into the polymer prior to extrusion or blended into the fib-
the quality (e.g. physical strength and handle) or appear- ers during their formation. Such processing provides the
ance of the textile. Finally, the finishing should preferably best durability as the active agent is physically embedded in
be compatible with textile chemical processes such as dye- the structure of the fiber and released slowly during use.
ing, be cost effective and not produce harmful substances to This method of fabrication has been adopted by some man-
the manufacturer and the environment. ufacturers, such as the silver-containing Bioactive® polyes-
One further consideration is that the antimicrobial fin- ter fibers developed by Trevira and the triclosan-containing
ishing of textiles should not kill the resident flora of non- Silfresh® cellulose acetate fibers manufactured by Nova-
pathogenic bacteria on the skin of the wearer. The skin ceta. The conventional exhaust and pad–dry–cure processes
resident flora consists of several bacterial genera, which have been used for antimicrobial finishing on natural as
are important to the health of the skin as they lower skin well as synthetic fibers for the biocides such as triclosan [7]
surface pH and produce antibiotics to create an unfavora- and PHMB [8, 9]. Padding, spraying and foam finishing
ble environment for the growth of pathogenic bacteria [6]. have been used for the silicone-based quaternary agent
Fortunately, antimicrobial agents on textiles may only AEM 5700 [10]. Many other methods have been reported,
reduce the density of the skin resident flora but do not such as the use of nanosized colloidal solutions [11], nanos-
completely eliminate them. To date, no evidence exists that cale shell–core particles [12, 13], chemical modification of
the use of antimicrobial textiles changes the ecology of the biocide for covalent bond formation with the fiber [14,
skin resident flora leading to the outgrowth of pathogenic 15], crosslinking of the active agent onto the fiber using a
bacteria [6]. crosslinker [16, 17] and polymerization grafting [18]. These
methods are further illustrated in the following sections.
An emerging method for antimicrobial finishing is to use
the sol-gel process which allows the fabrication of materi-

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TRJ 62 Textile Research Journal 78(1)

als with a large variety of properties: ultra-fine powders, quantitative values on the antimicrobial finishing, but are
monolithic ceramics and glasses, ceramic fibers, inorganic more time-consuming than agar diffusion tests. Typically, a
membranes, thin film coatings and aerogels. Sol-gel has small volume (e.g. 1 ml) of bacterial inoculum in a growth
been extensively explored for applications such as coating media is fully absorbed into fabric samples of appropriate
[19]. It is claimed that sol-gel technology can enable the size without leaving any free liquid. This ensures intimate
coating of textiles with almost unlimited functionality by contact between the fabric and the bacteria. After incubat-
incorporating functional agents into the sol-gel nanoparti- ing the inoculated fabrics in sealed jars at 37°C or 27°C for
cles [20, 21]. With regards to antimicrobial ability, several up to 24 h, the bacteria in the fabric are eluted and the
biocides have been encapsulated in sol-gel particles which total number is determined by serial dilution and plating
are then coated onto textile products to provide the on nutrient agar plates. Antimicrobial activity, expressed as
desired functionality [20, 22]. percentage of reduction, is calculated by comparing the
size of the initial population with that following the incuba-
tion. Appropriate controls, e.g. samples that have gone
Evaluation of Antimicrobial Efficacy through the same processing except the antimicrobial fin-
ishing, should be included in each experiment to ascertain
A number of test methods have been developed to deter- that the observed decrease in bacterial number is truly due
mine the efficacy of antimicrobial textiles [23, 24, 25]. These to the antimicrobial finishing. Choosing a calculation equa-
methods generally fall into two categories: the agar diffu- tion may be important. It has been observed that two dif-
sion test and suspension test. The bacterial species Staphy- ferent equations can produce very different results for the
lococcus aureus (Gram positive) and Klebsiella pneumoniae same set of data [9].
(Gram negative) are recommended in most test methods. It should be noted that suspension tests are often per-
These two species are potentially pathogenic and therefore formed under artificial conditions that promote bacterial
require proper physical containment facilities for handling growth (e.g. rich nutrients in the inoculum and saturating
(e.g. a biosafety cabinet). Many studies have used the innoc- moisture in the testing fabrics). The moisture in the tests is
uous Escherichia coli (Gram negative) as a test microorgan- also essential for the action of the biocide. As a result, dra-
ism which can be cultured and handled in a standard matic results are often produced (e.g. >99% bacterial cells
laboratory with minimal health risk. are killed during the assays), leading to an overwhelming
impression of the efficacy of the antimicrobial ability. How-
ever, such conditions are rarely found during the normal
Agar Diffusion Test use of a textile product. To date, very few studies have exam-
The agar diffusion tests include AATCC 147-2004 (Ameri- ined the antimicrobial effects under normal wearing condi-
can Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists), JIS L tions. To more closely mimic the real-life situation, the JIS
1902-2002 (Japanese Industrial Standards) and SN 195920- L 1902-2002 method recommends the use of bacterial cells
1992 (Swiss Norm). They are only qualitative, but are sim- suspended in heavily diluted nutrient media to limit nutri-
ple to perform and are most suitable when a large number ent levels. The ISO (International Organization for Stand-
of samples are to be screened for the presence of antimicro- ardization) has developed a test method (ISO 20743) in
bial activity. In these tests, bacterial cells are inoculated on which bacteria are “printed” onto the surface of textiles
nutrient agar plates over which textile samples are laid for without them being in an aqueous suspension [25, 26]. The
intimate contact. The plates are then incubated at 37°C for printed samples are then incubated under humid condi-
18–24 h and examined for growth of bacteria directly under- tions at 20°C for a specified time (18–24 h) following which
neath the fabrics and immediately around the edges of the the surviving cells are counted.
fabrics (zone of inhibition). No bacterial growth directly Antimicrobial tests only assess the antimicrobial effec-
underneath the fabric sample indicates the presence of tiveness of the treated textiles. Before marketing, the tex-
antimicrobial activity. The zone of inhibition should not be tile products have to pass biocompatibility tests which
expected if the antimicrobial agent is firmly attached to the involve three separate assays: cytotoxicity, sensitization
textile (e.g. covalently) which prevents its diffusion into the and irritation. These assays are outside the scope of this
agar. If the antimicrobial agent can diffuse into the agar, a review but are discussed elsewhere [23, 24].
zone of inhibition becomes apparent and its size provides
some indication of the potency of the antimicrobial activity
or the release rate of the active agent.
Antimicrobial Agents for Textiles
Suspension Test Several major classes of antimicrobial agents are used in
This type of test is exemplified by AATCC 100-2004, JIS L the textile industry. They are generally not new per se and
1902-2002 and SN 195924-1992. These methods provide have been in use in other industries, e.g. as food preserva-

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 Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Treatments of Textiles Y. Gao and R. Cranston 63 TRJ

tives, disinfectants, swimming pool sanitizers or in wound Recent breakthroughs in technology have overcome
dressings. These agents are potent in their bactericidal cost, environmental and technical challenges associated
activity, as indicated by their Minimal Inhibitory Concen- with producing some metal treated textiles on a commer-
tration (MIC) values. However, their attachment to a tex- cial scale. As a result, silver is now used in a large number of
tile surface or incorporation within the fiber substantially commercial antimicrobial synthetic fibers and yarns. For
reduces their activity and limits their availability. Further- example, Thomson Research Associates manufactures Ultra-
more, the biocide can be gradually lost during the use and Fresh® and Silpure® products. The silver is in the form of
washing of the textile. For these reasons, large amounts of ultra-fine metallic particles and is primarily applied to pol-
these biocides need to be applied to textiles to effectively yester fabrics at the finishing stage. Milliken has developed
control bacterial growth and to sustain durability. a silver-based antimicrobial agent, AlphaSan®, which is a zir-
conium phosphate-based ceramic ion-exchange resin con-
taining silver and is added during the extrusion process of
Metals and Metal Salts synthetic fibers. AlphaSan® is being used by a number of
Many heavy metals are toxic to microbes at very low con- companies to produce antimicrobial textiles, for examples,
centrations either in the free state or in compounds. They the polyester and nylon yarn by O’Mara (MicroFresh® and
kill microbes by binding to intracellular proteins and inac- SoleFresh®) and the polyester yarn by Sinterama (Guard-
tivating them [27]. Although some other metals, such as Yarn®). AgION Technologies produces silver-based anti-
copper [28], zinc [29, 30] and cobalt [31], have attracted microbial textiles using an ion-exchange mechanism. In this
attention as effective antimicrobial agents for textiles, sil- procedure, silver ions are manufactured into multi-faceted
ver is by far the most widely used in general textiles [1, 5] as zeolite carriers which are then incorporated into a polymer
well as in wound dressings [32]. It has a MIC value of 0.05– or coating. Under conditions that support bacterial growth,
0.1 mg/l against E. coli [33]. Some concerns have been silver ions in the zeolite are exchanged with sodium ions
expressed about the development of bacterial resistance to present in ambient moisture to control bacterial growth
silver [34, 35]. [44]. In addition, The Bioactive® polyester fibers produced
For synthetic fibers, silver particles can be incorporated by Trevira also have silver incorporated into the fibers. Very
into the polymer before extrusion [36] or before nanofiber recently, silver finishing was extended to wool on a com-
formation using electrospinning [37, 38]. During use, silver mercial scale by Nanohorizon Inc. [45]. In this treatment,
diffuses onto the surface of the fiber and forms silver ions silver nanoparticles (SmartSilver®) are applied to wool
in the presence of moisture. The rate of silver release can using typical fabric and garment dye systems. The original
be influenced by the chemistry and physical characteristics properties of the wool, including handle and dyeability,
of the fiber and the amount of silver in the fiber. Gradual remain unchanged after the treatment.
release can lead to an extended period of biocidal activity
[5]. Apart from direct incorporation, nanosized silver in
colloidal solution has been padded onto synthetic and cel-
Quaternary ammonium compounds
lulosic fabrics to achieve a durable finishing [11]. Silver has Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), particularly
also been directly absorbed into pre-formed SeaCell® those containing chains of 12–18 carbon atoms, have been
Active, a fiber made of cellulose from certain seaweeds widely used as disinfectants [27]. These compounds carry a
with a large capacity for absorbing minerals [39]. positive charge at the N atom in solution and inflict a vari-
The treatment of natural fibers with metals can only be ety of detrimental effects on microbes, including damage
undertaken at the finishing stage and various strategies to cell membranes, denaturation of proteins and disruption
have been devised to enhance the uptake and durability. of the cell structure [27]. During inactivation of bacterial
Cotton has been pretreated with succinic acid anhydride, cells, the quaternary ammonium group remains intact and
which acted as ligand for metal ions to enhance the subse- retains its antimicrobial ability as long as the compound is
quent adsorption of metallic salts (Ag+ and Cu2+) and to attached to textiles [46].
provide very effective antibacterial activity [40]. In pro- The attachment of QAC to a textile substrate is believed
tein fibers (e.g. wool), the free carboxyl groups of aspartyl to be predominantly by ionic interaction between the cat-
and glutamyl residues are considered the most likely ionic QAC and anionic fiber surface [47, 48]. Therefore,
binding sites for metal ions. The binding capacity can be for polyester fibers such as Acrilan® (from Acrilan) and
further enhanced by pre-treatment with tannic acid which Orlon® (from Dupont) which contain carboxylic or sul-
increases the number of binding sites, or with EDTA dian- fonate groups, QAC can be directly exhausted under near
hydride which has chelating ability towards metal ions [41, boiling conditions [49, 50, 51]. Similarly, the glutamyl and
42, 43]. However, such treatments of textiles with metal aspartyl residues in wool provide carboxylic groups.
ions have serious limits due to technical and environmental Exhaustion of QACs, particularly cetylpyridinium chloride,
problems and therefore have not been adopted in commer- onto untreated wool at a level of around 5% oww can
cial production. render it antimicrobial with durability to 10 launderings [52,

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TRJ 64 Textile Research Journal 78(1)

53]. Cotton fabrics have been treated with a 4-aminobenze- PHMB

nesulfonic acid-chloro-triazine adduct which increased the
anionic sites on the fabric surface and facilitated the PHMB (Figure 2, trade name Vantocil) is a heterodisperse
exhaustion of QACs [54]. In general, the exhaustion in mixture of polyhexamethylene biguanides with an average
these studies was affected by pH, the concentration of the molecular weight of approximately 2500 Da. Being a
QAC, temperature and exhaustion time. potent and broad spectrum bactericidal agent with low tox-
Other synthetic fibers, such as Nylon 66, contain fewer icity (MIC = 0.5–10 ppm, Arch technical information), it
reactive sites and are quite resistant to chemical modifica- has been successfully used as a disinfectant in the food
tion procedures, including antimicrobial finishing. Sun and industry and in the sanitization of swimming pools [27] and
colleagues have hypothesized that dye molecules may act is being explored as a biocide in mouthwashes [60] and
as bridges to bind functional molecules to the fiber surface wound dressings [61]. PHMB impairs the integrity of the
[46]. In their studies, the fabrics were first dyed with acid cell membrane in its action, and its activity increases on a
dyes before QACs were applied under alkaline conditions. weight basis with increasing levels of polymerization [27].
The ionic interaction between the dye molecules and the To date, bacterial resistance to PHMB has rarely been
QAC was sufficiently strong to provide a semi-durable observed although resistance to the bisbiguanide chlorhex-
antimicrobial finishing [46, 47, 48]. idine is well known [58, 59].
Attempts have been made to covalently attach QAC onto In 1997, Payne patented a treatment of cellulosic fibers
wool. Diz et al. synthesized a new QAC, N-dodecyl-amino- with PHMB in which an after-treatment with a strong
betaine-2-mercaptoethylamine hydrochloride (DABM) [15, organic acid was used to increase durability as well as to
55]. DABM can react with wool by means of its thiol group, overcome fabric yellowing [62]. Payne and Yates later
either with cysteine-S-sulphonate residues (Bunte salts) of extended PHMB treatment to synthetic fibers using a self-
sodium bisulphite pretreated wool or with the disulfide crosslinkable resin and a catalyst [63]. PHMB can also be
bond of cystine wool, forming an asymmetrical disulfide directly exhausted onto cotton at room temperature and
bond. Such covalent attachment of the quaternary ammo- neutral pH [8, 9], or applied in a pad–dry–cure process
nium surfactant provides antimicrobial activity [15, 55]. [64]. Owing to its cationic nature, PHMB attachment to
One commercial antimicrobial textile product using cotton is believed to be through ionic as well as hydrogen
QAC as the active agent is the BIOGUARD® produced by bonding [65]. The carboxyl groups on cotton fabrics that
AEGIS Environments. The active substance, 3-trimethox- have originated from chemical finishing are involved in
ysilylpropyldimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride (AEM some of these interactions [66, 67]. Dyeing of cotton fab-
5700, formerly known as the Dow Corning 5700 Antimi- rics with reactive dyes, which introduces additional anionic
crobial Agent; see Figure 1), has a MIC of 10–100 mg/l sulphonic groups in the fabric, further increases the uptake
against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria [59]. of PHMB [66, 67], but the strong ionic bonding may
AEM 5700 is made into an aqueous solution and applied decrease the release of free PHMB and antimicrobial effi-
by padding, spraying and foam finishing. Upon drying, the ciency [68]. PHMB needs to be applied at a level of 2–4%
non-volatile silane forms covalent bonds with the textile, owf for durable finishing and 0.25–1% owf for disposable
resulting in excellent durability [57]. So far, this chemical items (Arch technical information).
has been commercially used on cotton, polyester and nylon Arch Chemicals has developed a special grade of PHMB,
fabrics. Although little information is available on bacterial Reputex 20®, for textile treatments [69]. Reputex® has a
resistance to this particular QAC, bacterial resistance to higher molecular weight than Vantocil, containing an average
other QACs have been widely observed [58, 59]. of 16 biguanide units in the polymer (Arch technical infor-
mation). This longer polymer length not only results in
higher biocidal activity but also provides more cationic sites
per molecule for possibly stronger binding to the textile sur-
face. Reputex® is initially applied to cotton or its blends
using exhaust or pad–dry–cure processes, and more recently
to polyester and nylon [70], under the trade name Purista®.

Figure 1 Structure of 3-(trihydroxysilyl) propyldimethyl- Figure 2 Structure of polyhexamethylene biguanide

octadecyl ammonium chloride (AEM 5700). (PHMB).

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 Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Treatments of Textiles Y. Gao and R. Cranston 65 TRJ

Triclosan sary use” of triclosan in textiles and some other products

[83, 84].
Triclosan (2,4,4’-trichloro-2’-hydroxydiphenyl ether, Figure 3)
is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent with a MIC of less
than 10 ppm against many common bacterial species [71]. Chitosan
Unlike most other cationic biocides used on textiles, triclosan
is not ionized in a solution. It has been in use since the 1960s Chitosan (Figure 4) is the deacetylated derivative of chitin,
in a wide array of professional and consumer products which is the main component of the shells of crustaceans
including hand soaps, surgical scrubs, shower gels, deodor- such as shrimps, crabs and lobsters [85]. Large quantities of
ants, healthcare handwashes, toothpastes and mouthwashes chitin are produced as a byproduct of the seafood industry.
[71, 72]. It inhibits microbial growth by blocking lipid bio- Chitosan has been found to inhibit the growth of microbes
synthesis [73]. in a large body of work that has been extensively reviewed
In 2004, Payne patented the treatment of cotton or cot- by Lim and Hudson [86]. It has a MIC of 0.05–0.1% (w/v)
ton blends with triclosan mixed with a polyurethane resin against many common bacterial species, although the activ-
and a plasticizer [74]. Being a relatively small molecule, tri- ity can be affected by its molecular weight and degree of
closan can also act like a disperse dye and can be used by deacetylation [86, 87, 88]. The antimicrobial mechanism is
exhaustion prior to dyeing, together with dyeing or after not clear but is generally accepted that the primary amine
dyeing of polyester and nylon fibers at 5% owf (see [7]). groups provide positive charges which interact with nega-
During fabric use, the agent migrates to the surfaces of the tively charged residues on the surface of microbes. Such
treated textiles at a slow yet sustained rate to provide anti- interaction causes extensive changes in the cell surface
microbial efficacy [7]. To achieve a more durable finishing, and cell permeability, leading to leakage of intracellular
triclosan has been inserted into the hydrophobic cavity of substances [86]. This antimicrobial ability, coupled with
β-cyclodextrins to form an inclusion complex which was its non-toxicity, biodegradability and biocompatibility, is
then embedded in a polymer film or fiber [75], or encapsu- facilitating chitosan’s emerging applications in food sci-
lated in microspheres which were subsequently attached to ence, agriculture, medicine, pharmaceuticals and textiles
viscose [76]. Triclosan can also be directly incorporated [85, 86].
into synthetic polymers through melt-mixing or suspension
polymerization [77, 78].
A number of companies manufacture and market tri-
closan-based fibers, yarns or fabrics. For instance, the nylon
and polyester products Tinosan AM 100® and CEL® (Ciba
Speciality Chemicals), the Silfresh® cellulose acetate yarn
(Novaceta) and Microban® textile products (Microban
International) all contain triclosan as the active antimicro-
bial agent which is applied at the finishing stage or incor-
porated into the fiber during extrusion [7, 10].
However, bacterial resistance to triclosan has been well
documented and is of great concern [59, 79]. Furthermore,
when exposed to sunlight in the environment, triclosan
breaks down into 2,8-dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin [80, 81] which
is chemically related other toxic polychlorinated dioxins
[82]. Owing to such health and environmental issues, a
number of leading retailers as well as governments in
Europe are concerned about or have banned the “unneces-

Figure 3 Structure of triclosan. Figure 4 Deacetylation of chitin to chitosan.

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TRJ 66 Textile Research Journal 78(1)

The prime focus for chitosan as an antimicrobial treat- fiber of chitosan and viscose, Crabyon®, that has durable
ment has been on cotton. Early work indicated that the anti- antimicrobial efficacy and is suitable for a range of textile
microbial effect was potent against a range of microbes, but products [108]. Furthermore, chitosan can be spun into fib-
the finishing was not durable [86]. To improve durability, ers but their applications seem to be limited to medical
chitosan has been crosslinked to cotton using chemicals uses (e.g. medical gauzes, sutures and wound dressings)
such as dimethyloldihydroxyethyleneurea (DMDHEU), [109, 110].
citric acid, 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid (BTCA) or
glutaric dialdehyde [16, 17, 89, 90]. These chemicals, some
of which are used in cotton durable press, crosslink chitosan Regenerable N-halamine and Peroxyacid
to cotton through hydroxyl groups. Antimicrobial activity
One route that has been explored for durable antimicro-
with a durability of up to 50 washes has been reported in
bial finishing is to make the finishing regenerable by using
some of these studies. Ye et al. [12, 13] synthesized nanos-
chlorine-containing N-halamine compounds. N-halamine
cale core–shell particles of poly(n-butyl acrylate) cores and
compounds are broad-spectrum disinfectants that have
chitosan shells and applied them to cotton fabrics in a pad–
been used in water treatment [111], and their antimicrobial
dry–cure process. The antibacterial activity was maintained
ability is attributed to the oxidative properties of the hala-
at over 90% reduction levels after 50 washes.
mine bond (N–Cl). In deactivating a microorganism, the
Chitosan has been applied to wool as a shrink-proofing
N-halamine bond is reversibly reacted to N–H. However,
polymer, although antimicrobial activity of the treated
the inactive substance can be recharged with chlorine in a
wool was not examined in these studies [91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
bleaching solution during laundering, as depicted in Figure 5
96]. Given the intrinsic antimicrobial activity of chitosan, it
(see also 112). This regenerable approach was first pro-
is envisaged that the shrink-proofing treatment will dually
posed and demonstrated for the treatment of cotton by
lead to antimicrobial function. Owing to the hydrophobic
Sun and Xu in 1998 [113]. Different heterocyclic N-hala-
and non-reactive nature of the wool fiber surface, treat-
mine compounds have since been covalently attached to
ment with chitosan requires pre-treatments so that the pol-
nylon [114], polyester fibers [115, 116], cotton [116] and
ymer can adhere to the surface. Pre-treatments include
keratinous fibers [117], or grafted onto cellulosic fabrics
oxidation with peroxide [91, 92, 93], protease digestion [94,
[18, 118, 119, 120] and synthetic fabrics [121, 122]. In most
95] and plasma treatment [96]. Hsieh et al. reported oxidiz-
cases strong and regenerable antimicrobial activity was
ing wool with potassium permanganate and crosslinking
achieved by washing and recharging the substrates in aque-
chitosan onto it using citric acid in a pad–dry–cure treat-
ous solution containing chlorine.
ment [97]. Although chitosan conferred durable antimicro-
However, as pointed out by Li [123], N-halamine treat-
bial ability and shrink resistance, the disadvantage was that
ment also results in a substantial amount of adsorbed chlo-
the handle of the fabric, together with some other physical
rine (or other halogens) remaining on the surface of the
properties, was adversely affected [93, 97, 98].
fabric in addition to the covalently bonded N-halamines.
In addition to native chitosan, a number of chitosan
Such residual adsorbed halogen (e.g. chlorine) produces
derivatives have been synthesized and used as antimicrobial
an unpleasant odor and discolors fabrics, which has proven
agents on textiles. These include chito-oligosaccharide [99,
problematic for such a promising antimicrobial system in
100], N-(2-hydroxy)propyl-3-trimethylammonium chitosan the textile industry. A reduction step (i.e. with sodium
chloride [101, 102, 103] and N-p-(N-methylpyridinio)meth- sulfite) has been used to remove the unbonded residual
ylated chitosan chloride and N-4-[3-(trimethyl-ammonio)
propoxy]benzylated chitosan chloride [104]. Many of these
derivatives contain a quaternary ammonium group to enhance
the antimicrobial activity. Another derivative is O-acrylami-
domethyl-N-[(2-hydroxyl-3-trimethylammonium)propyl] chi-
tosan chloride [14]. The acrylamidomethyl group is fiber
reactive and can form a covalent bond with cellulose in cot-
ton, resulting in excellent durability. Kenawy et al. attached
several compounds to the reactive amino group of chitosan
[105]. These modified chitosans were highly active against
microbes, in particular fungi species.
Despite such active research and recent patents cover-
ing the use of chitosan on cotton [106] and polyester [107],
chitosan has yet to be used as a finishing agent on any com-
mercial textiles. The poor handle, among other factors, Figure 5 Regenerable antimicrobial treatments using N-
may be limiting its application on textiles. Nevertheless, halamine compounds (A) and peroxyacids (B).
the Swiss company Swicofil manufactures a composite

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 Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Treatments of Textiles Y. Gao and R. Cranston 67 TRJ

Table 1 Some commercially used biocides and those under development for the treatment of various fibers. In the
application method column, “F” denotes that biocide is used as finishing agent and “I” denotes that biocide is incorporated
into the fiber during extrusion.
Application Commercial
Biocide Fiber Comments
method products?
Silver Polyester F/I Yes Slow release, durable but Ag can be depleted
Nylon I Yes
Wool F Yes
Regenerated cellulose F Yes?
QACs Cotton F Yes Covalent bonding, very durable, Possible bacte-
(e.g. AEM Polyester F Yes rial resistance
5700) Nylon F Yes
Wool F No
PHMB Cotton F Yes Large amount needed, Potential bacterial resis-
Polyester F Yes tance
Nylon F Yes
Triclosan Polyester F/I Yes Large amt needed, Bacterial resistance, breaks
Nylon F/I Yes down into toxic dioxin, banned in some Euro-
Polypropylene I Yes pean countries
Cellulose acetate I Yes
Acrylic fiber I Yes
Chitosan Cotton F No Adverse effect on handle, low durability
Polyester F No
Wool F No
N-halamine Cotton F No Needs regeneration, odor from residual chlorine
Polyester F No
Nylon F No
Wool F No
Peroxyacids Cotton F No Needs regeneration, poor durability
Polyester F No

chlorine (or other halogen) from the target fabric surface Dyes
to overcome this problem [123].
An alternative regenerable antimicrobial finishing uses Some synthetic dyes used in the textile industry, e.g. metal-
peroxyacids, such as peroxyacetic acid which is a well lic dyestuff, exhibit antimicrobial activities [128]. Therefore,
known and powerful disinfectant used in hospitals [124]. dyeing and antimicrobial finishing can be simultaneously
Peroxyacids are converted to carboxylic acid in deactivat- achieved by choosing specific dyes. Some synthetic dyes
ing microbes but can be regenerated through the reaction have been specifically made with antimicrobial activity. For
with an oxidant (e.g. hydrogen peroxide) [125, Figure 5]. examples, a new series of azo disperse dyestuffs, prepared
Huang and Sun demonstrated the feasibility by grafting by the reaction of sulphanilamidodiazonium chloride
BTCA or citric acid onto cotton fabrics in a pad–dry–cure derivatives with indan-1,3-dione, gave excellent dyeing and
process similar to cotton durable press [125, 126]. The antimicrobial results on wool and nylon [129]. Another
grafted polycarboxylic acid provided the necessary carbox- approach to achieve simultaneous dyeing and antimicro-
ylic groups which were then converted to peroxyacids in an bial finishing is to covalently attach a biocide to a dye via a
oxygen bleach bath [125] or with the strong oxidant sodium linker. For example, novel cationic dyes were synthesized
perborate [126]. Such finishing can also be applied to poly- by linking quaternary ammonium group to the aminoan-
ester fabrics [127]. While the peroxyacids on the fabrics thraquinioid chromophore [130, 131]. These dyes showed
was stable over extended periods during fabric storage, the varying levels of antimicrobial activities, depending on
antimicrobial activity appeared to be diminished after sev- their structures, but when applied to acrylic fabrics the
eral washing and recharging cycles [125, 126]. antimicrobial durability generally did not last for more
than five washes [132]. Some natural dyes have also been
examined for antimicrobial ability. Curcumin, a common

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TRJ 68 Textile Research Journal 78(1)

dye used for fabric and food colorations [133], a dye iso- microbial textiles should be considered and monitored
lated from Quercus infectoria [134] and the colorant Ber- closely.
berine, which contains the quaternary ammonium group,
all exhibit durable antimicrobial efficacy when attached to
textiles []135.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to offer their sincere thanks to Dr
David J. Evans and Dr Ron J. Denning, Division of Textile
Summary and Fibre Technology, CSIRO, for critically reading the
The biocides discussed above are summarized in Table 1. manuscript during its preparation.
Silver, PHMB, quaternary ammonium compounds and tri-
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