UNIT 4 CHANGE MANAGEMENT

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 -Introduction

4.2 Change Management Concept

4.3 Forces of Change

4.3.1 Types of Change

4.4 Change Management Process

4.5 Different Models of Change

•
4.6 Change Management Strategies

4.7 Resistance to Change

4.8 Organisation Development

4.9 Change Management in Libraries and Information Centres

4.10 Summary

4.11 Answers to Self Check Exercises

4.12 Keywords

4.13 References and Further Reading

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

• understand the basic concept of change management;

• learn the various forces of change which operate on an organisation and the
various types of change;
• discuss various models ?f change and different strategies for change;
_. explain reasons for resistance to change, and how to overcome it;
• understand the concept of organisation development; and
• discuss change management in library and information centres.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Change has always been a norm of life but over the past few decades' widespread
organisational change has assumed gigantic proportions. The developments in
technology, increasing needs of society, and the emergence and growth of global
organisations are some of the factors that have contributed to the need for, and
frequency for change. Planning, implementing and managing change in a fast changing
environment is increasingly the situation in which most organisations now work.
People are normally resistant to change as change affects structures and procedures,
job security and terms and conditions, social structures etc. Identification of the
need for change and leading organisations through that change, therefore, needs
effective change management. This unit discusses some of the issues related to change
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management and highlights its significance in the context of library and information Change Management
centres.

4.2 CHANGE MANAGEMENT CONCEPT

"Change is the only constant" is a well known premise. Over the past few decades
large-scale change has become a norm in organisational life. The organisations no
longer have a choice, they must change to survive. The need for change is increasing,
the capability to change is becoming essential for organisations to survive and succeed
in future.

Rapid advancements in technology and globalisation of trade have given momentum

to change. This momentum of change is not going to decelerate. However, a look at
the intimidating rate of change into atechnology-driven world, that has affected all
spheres oflife in the past decades, is more than enough to give a picture of the ever
accelerating drive onwards.

As the speed of change continues to increase and affect all the sectors of life, change
management is a fundamental competence needed to manage the change in
organisations.
..
Thus in the present scenario managing change has assumed lot of significance. As
change must be aimed at epsuring organisational survival, whether the economy is
strengthening or weakening, the consequences of change being uncertain, proper'
management of change becomes ~ven more vital.

The term cnange management can be defined in simplest words as the task of managing
change. Thus change management is about change to realise business results and
, managing change involves the process of making changes in a well-planned, systematic
manner.

In the words of Lisa Kudray and Brain Kleuier in the article "Global trends in
Managing Change":

"Change Management is defined as the continuous process aligning an organisation

with its market place ... and doing it more responsively and effectively than its
competitors."

Change management can also be defined as the effective management of a business

change such that organisational leaders, managers and employees work in concert
to successfully implement the needed technology or organisational changes. Change
management could be organisational or individual.

Organisational change management is the management of change from the

perspective of the top leadership looking down into the organisation. It focuses on
the broad change management practices. an.d skills to help the organisation
comprehend, accept and support the required changes. It provides the knowledge
and skill to implement proper methodology for managing a change throughout an
organisation. Organisational change management involves top level and middle level
managers and the human resource managers who sponsor the change in the
organisation.

Individual change management is the management of change from the perspective

of the employees who are at the bottom level. These are the people who actually
implement the change. In this the focus is on empowering them by providing them
the tools and required training to help them in navigating their way through the change
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 Management Perspectives process. For an effective individual change management, various tools and techniques
are employed to help an employee transition through the change process.

In the context of library and information services, change is greater in extent than
ever before. In libraries and other knowledge-based organisations the present
information explosion and the consequent knowledge revolution has unleashed a
gigantic wave of change. The changes that libraries and information services are
facing today are unpredictable and unquantifiable. The political, economic, social
and technological climate worldwide has created an atmosphere of uncertainty in
which it is difficult to anticipate the future. Therefore, no matter how hard we try to
project current trends into the future, it is not possible to predict the form of challenges
facing the libraries and information centres. Thus in case of libraries and information
centres it is not just a matter of managing change out a question of proper organising
so as to cope with any uncertainty that comes across.

.
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4.3 FORCES OF CHANGE
According to Carson (1998) "organisational change is any alteration of activities in
an organisation. The alteration of activities may be the result of change in the structure
of the organisation, transfer of tasks, new product introduction, or changes in attitudes
of group members or process, or any number of events inside and outside of the
organisation" .

All these factors constitute the different forces of change encountered by the
organisations. These forces are the external and the internal forces of change for
every organisation.

External forces
External forces of change originate outside the organisation. These forces arise in
the social, political, legal, economic, and technological environments within which
the organisation operates. The main external forces of change are technological
advancements, demographic characteristics, market changes, social and cultural
framework, legal system, political pressure, and economic factors. The technological
breakthroughs taking place from time to time have a direct bearing on the competence
of organisations in an industry (or sector). The various advancements in
technology can enhance an organisation's performance if it is able to learn, assimilate
and imbibe the newer technologies in its functioning. If an organisation fails to keep
up with the pace of advancements, it faces the danger of lagging behind or becomi ng
obsolete.

The emergence of global economy with liberalised trade policies and easy cross
bonier business in the world market has directly affected the way various organisations
operate and function. Organisations are controlled to a large extent by various
economic factors like interest rates, inflation etc., over which they have little or no
control.

The social-cultural framework includes the norms, values and beliefs associated
with a particular demographic area or region. The various legal and governmental
systems within which the organisation's function, also influence their performance.
The various developments taking place in countries outside the organisation's home
country can also trigger change within the organisation.

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 Internal forces Change Management

The Internal forces for change come from within the organisation. This constitutes
the internal environment of an organisation and includes factors such as the
organisation members, the nature of their interactions and the physical atmosphere
in which they operate. Human resource problems, managerial decisions, Changes in
organisational goals etc. are some internal forces of change. These changes take
place within the organisation's culture, which is the general condition within
organisations, and consists of shared values, norms, beliefs, and assumptions that
unite members of an organisation.

The various internal and external forces can be highly interrelated. At times the
internal forces do have some part of their origin in the world external to the organisation.
Therefore, both the external and internalforces of changes must be assessed,
monitored and evaluated to devise a proper strategy for organisational change.

• 4.3.1 Types of Change

Carson ( 1998) has mentioned three kinds of change:

i) Adaptive change - This involves reimplementation of a change in the same

organisational unit. Adaptive change is not considered threatening.
ii) Innovative change - This involves changes that are generally new and
unfamiliar. The innovative changes create a kind of uncertainty and fear in
organisations.
iii) RadicallyInnovative change - This is the most intimidating type of change.
This type of change is most resisted in organisations. Implementation of a radical
change in an organisation requires a long-term strategy .:

Changes in organisations can also be categorised as:

Reactive change - This is change brought about by a sudden or unplanned
event.
Planned change - This is a systematic, deliberate change in the way part or all
of an organisation functions. In planned change the focus is on processes, people,
or technology; and one person, a project team, a department, or the entire firm
can be involved in the change process.

4.4 CHANGE MANAGEMENT PROCESS

Fundamental ideas exist about change and one fundamental is that change has always
existed and will always exist. According to Smith (1998), "Change starts with a
goal, often called a vision ... and the difference between the goal and the status quo
is the intended change". Before affecting a change a proper study must be made
regarding all those who will be involved in the change process and all those who will
. be affected by the anticipated change .
•
Management of a change process involves four broad stages:

i) Planning - In the planning stage the organisation determines a need for change,
creates a change management team and develops a plan of action.
ii) Implementation and Management- In this stage the change plan is executed
and the main focus is on implementing, managing and maintaining the change
process, so that the change is affected smoothly. without hiccups.
 Management Perspectives iii) Development of Tracking and Monitoring Instruments - In this stage
various tracking and monitoring instruments are developed to assess the
successes or failures of the change so that necessary adjustments can be made.
Likewise, precautionary measures, if required, can be adopted.

iv) Tracking and Monitoring - This is the final stage and "consists solely of
continuous tracking and monitoring until the organisation has institutionalised
the change" (Wilbur, 1992).
As Smith (1998) has stated, the change management team must be willing to
"listen and monitor constantly ... and ensure adjustments are made with the
goal always in mind" throughout all the four stages of the change process.

4.5 DIFFERENTMODELS OF CHANGE

For a thorough understanding of change, and proper planning, management and
• implementation of the change process, various models of change have been
proposed. Some ofthese are discussed below:

Kurt Lewin's Model

Kurt Lewin had a profound influence on the theory and practice of change in
organisation. Most theories of organisational change originated from the landmark
work of this social psychologist. Lewin (1947) instituted a three-stage model of .
change which explained how to initiate, manage and stabilize the change process.
The three stages of change, according to this'model are, unfreezing, changing, and
refreezing. Let us fIrst go through the various assumptions underlying Lewin's model
of change (USDA). These are:

1) The change process involves learning something new, as well as discontinuing

current attitudes, behaviours, or organisational practices.
2) Change will not occur unless there is motivation to change. This is often the
most difficult part of the change process.
3) Individuals are the centre of all organisational changes. Any change, whether in
terms of structure, group process, reward systems, or job design, requires
individuals to change.
4)' Resistance to change is found even when the goals of change are highly desirable.
5) Effective change requires reinforcing new behaviours, attitudes and organisational
practices.
Let us now consider the three stages of change as suggested by Lewin:

Phase l-Unfreezing
This stage involves preparing the organisation for change. The main focus is on
creating the motivation to change. Change is more likely to be successful when
those involved are prepared for what is to happen. Therefore, individuals are
encouraged to replace old behaviours and attitudes with those desired by the
management. In unfreezing stage organisation begins to encourage the employees to
address the change, inform employees of the process, and thus dispel false
information. This stage thus helps in creating conditions for the change to be
implemented.

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 Phase 2-Changing Change Management

This stage involves planning and implementing the change. Once a change has been
initiated it is important not to lose momentum. As change involves learning, this stage
entails providing employees with new information, new behavioural models, or new
way oflooking at things. The main purpose is to help employees learn new concepts
or points of view. Role models, mentors, experts, training etc. are various mechanisms
employed to facilitate the Change. Gradually, the employee behaviour begins to change,
causing a change in organisational attitudes, corporate values and management
practices. Thus, the changing stage requires organizing and mobilizing the resources
required to bring about the change.

Phase 3 - Refreezing
This stage involves embedding the new ways of working into the organisation. The
main focus is on consolidating the organisation in its new mode of operation. It can
•
be all too easy for people to try to return to the "old way of doing things", especially
if the change is a bit difficult or uncomfortable to achieve. Change is stabilised
during refreezing by helping the employees integrate the changed behaviour or
attitude into their normal way of doing things. For accomplishing this, first the
employees are given a chance to exhibit the new behaviours or attitudes. Once
exhibited, positive reinforcement is used to reinforce the desired attitude. praising
successful change in practice and attitude can assist the process of refreezing.
Coaching and training can also be used for reinforcing the change in the informal
culture of the organisation.

In his model Lewin identified three ways that organisational change could be
accomplished (Branch, 2002):
i) Changing the individuals who work in the organisation (their skills, values, attitudes
and behaviour).
ii) Changing various organisational structures and systems like reward systems,
work designs, relationships etc.
iii) Directly changing the organisational climate or interpersonal stylei.e., issues
like how often people are with each other, how the conflict is managed and
how decisions are made.
This model has attracted major criticisms. The key ones are that his work assumed
organisations operate in a stable state, was only suitable for small-scale change
projects, ignored power and politics, and was top-down and management driven.
But rather than being outdated or redundant, Lewin's opporach is still relevant to
the modern world.

Beer's Model
According to Stafford Beer, a complex system has to be dealt with by means that
are equally complex. Beer's' model looks similar to the human organism and describes
what makes for the viability of living, social and cognitive systems. These conditions
for viability and the ability to evolve can be applied not only to human beings and
their organisation but also to information systems such as computers, software, and
organisational tools and actions.

Beer considers the human organism as three main interacting parts - the muscles
and organs, the nervous systems, and the external environmental. According to
Stafford Beer's Viable System Model (VSM), any system has three elements:
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 Management Perspectives i) The operation
ii) The metasystem
ill) The environment

He further suggested five systems for creating a whole from the parts.

1) System 1(S 1) -This system is called operation, is the part that actually does
something. It could be the muscles, the machines, the producers.
2) System 2 (S2) - This system deals with resolution of conflicts which occur as
the parts of SI interact. System 2 is also giving the job of ensuring stability.
3) System 3(S3) - This system regulates the working of system 1 and its main
function is optimisation of various interactions.

4) System 4(S4) -This system ensures the survival of the optimised set of
operational unitsin a changing environment. It produces plans to ensure long
term viability. Thus it is concerned with adaptation to the changes and forward
planning.

5) System 5(S5) - This system provides the ground rules and the means of
enforcing them to ensure that the system is complete. System 5 provides the
ultimate authority and is primarily concerned with policy making.
These fiv"esystems form the basis of the Viable Systems Model. This model can be
applied to any and all systems which are viable in the sense that they can maintain a
separate existence.

Beer has prescribed a six-step process to achieve effective change. These stages are:

I) Preliminary Diagnosis

In this various units comprising the organisation are considered, to identify the
operational units, the parts which deal with stability and optimisation of the operational
units, the parts which make long term plans and the policy systems. This gives a
basic model representing the entire organisation in its totality.

2) Designing Autonomy

This involves developing a shared vision of how to organise. The main focus is on
creating the right conditions for all the operational units to function with as much
autonomy as possible.

3) Balancing the internal environment

This is done by fostering consensus, competence and commitment to shared vision.

The focus is on ensuring that conflicts are resolved and the performance of the
operational units is optimised.

4) Information Systems
Proper up-to-date systems must be maintained. The essence of the VSM approach
to information is that you need to know if something changes. The emphasis is on
providing operational units with the information they need to learn and adopt to
changes.

5) Balance with the Environment

This involves developing strategies for adapting to changes in the external environment
of the organisation. These could be change in the market or emergence of new
98 technology.
6) Policy systems Change Management

Policy systems need to be developed to institutionalise the change through formal

policies.

Thus the Viable System Model describes the crucial capabilities that constitute the
viability of cells, organs, organisms, human beings, teams, companies, organisations,
associations, institutions, corporate groups, international bodies etc. In organisations,
the Beer's Model can be used as a means of analysing or diagnosing, designing,
regulating and developing all the systems and subsystems that are present.

Prosci's Change Management Maturity Model

This model is based on benchmarking research and interactions with companies
going through change. Prosci's change management maturity model describes
the varying levels of change management capability across organisations. The
maturity model has five levels .or stages, from no change management to
organisational competency. Each level involves more attention and management of
the people side of change. A common methodology, that is built on
situational awareness and customisation, allows the entire organisation to move
towards Level 4 and LevelS while retaining the flexibility for individual groups and
departments.

Levell
At this level, project teams are not aware of and do not consider change management
as a formal approach
, for managing the people side of change. The main focus of the
management is on funding, schedule, issue tracking and resource management.
Employees are not informed about the proposed change and come to know about
it only through rumours and gossip.

Change management cornpe- Continuous Highest

LevelS Organisational tency is evident in all levels of process profitabiliy and
competency the organization and is part of improvement responsi veness
the organisation's intellectual in place
property and competitive edge

Level 4 Organi-
sational
Orrganisation-widestandards
and methods are broadly
Selection of
common approach
..
Standards deployed for managing and
leading change

Level 3 Multiple Comprehensive approach for Examples of best

projects managing change is being practices evident
applied in multiple projects

Level 2 Isolated Some elements of change Many different

Projects management are being applied tactics used
r
in isolated projects inconsistently

Level I Adhoc or Little or no change People-dependent Highest rate of

Absent management applied without any formal project failure,
practices or plans turnover and
productivity loss

Fig. 4.1: Prosci's Change Management Maturity Model

(Source: http://www.change-management.comlProsci-CM-Maturity-Model-writeup.pdf)
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 Management Perspectives Level 2
In this level, elements of change management begin to emerge in isolated parts of the
organisation. Change management is applied to isolated projects and those projects
that are currently experiencing resistance to change. At this level change management
is not fully integrated into project management.
Level 3
At this level also change management is localised to particular terms or areas in the
organisation. While structured change management processes are used, no
organisational standards or requirements exist. Multiple approaches and
methodologies are being utilised. Top level management takes on a more active role
in sponsoring change. But there are no programmes to train project leaders or
managers on change management.
Level 4

.
, At this level, the organisation selects a common approach and implemented standard
for using charige management on every new project or change. A common change
management methodology is selected and plans are developed for introducing the
methodology into the organisation. Formal training in change management and other
tools are provided to managers and supervisors. At this level teams regularly use a
change management approach from the beginning of their project. Change
management work begins at the planning phase of the project.
LevelS
At levelS, change management competency is a part of the skill set of the organisation.
Managing change effectively is an explicitly stated strategic goal. Employees across
the enterprise understand change management, why it is important and how they
can play a role in making change successful. Managers and supervisors routinely
use change management techniques to help support a broad range of initiati ves from
strategy changes to individual employee improvement. Extensive training exists at all
levels of the organisation. Change management steps are completely integrated into
project management.

RACIModel
The RACI model is a simple tool that can be used for identifying roles and
responsibilities during an organisational change process. The RACI diagrams help
to map activities to roles and define how roles contribute to an activity. Therefore,
they can be used to describe what should be done and by whom during a change
process.
Responsible - People who are expected to actively participate in the change process.
Accountable - Person to whom "R" is accountable and who is ultimately responsible
for the results.
Consulted - People who have, a particular expertise, which can be utilised for making
specific decisions. This also includes people who must be consulted for some reason
before a final decision is taken.
Informed - People who are affected by change and therefore, must be kept informed,
but need not be consulted.

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•

Fig. 4.2: Example of a RACI Chart

(Source: http://www.valuebasedmanagement.net)

The various steps in aRACI process are:

1) Identify all the processes or activities involved and list them down the left hand
side of the chart.
\

2) Identify all the roles and list them along the top.of the chart. •
3) Complete the cells of the chart: identify who has R.A.C.! for each process.
4) Every process should preferably have only one "R". A gap occurs when a
process exists with no "R", and an overlap occurs when multiple roles exist
that have an "R" for a given process.
5) Resolve overlaps, if any
6) Resolve gaps, if any.

Change Management Iceberg

The Change Management Iceberg given by Wilfried Kruger, enables to visualise the
essence of change in organisation and the issue of dealing with barriers.
The top of the iceberg consists of three factors--cost, quality and time. These three
are the prime factors of concern for the management.
Below the surface of the water there are two other factors of change management.
These are:
Management of Perceptions and Beliefs
Power and Politics management
Promoters, Opponents, Middle opponents and potential promoters are individuals
who could have negative or positive effect on the change process.
Promoters have a positive attitude towards the change and support the change.
Opponents have a negative attitude towards change. Their perceptions and beliefs
need to be moulded by the management to change their mindset towards the affected
change. 101
 Management Perspectives ..
Cha nge Management Iceberg

Qu~lity

Cost .,;/ ..:..Time

-...::::::::.~===

.•
•

Fig. 4.3: Change Management Iceberg

(Source: www.valuebasedmanagement.net)

Hidden opponents are those who have a negative attitude towards the change
though they seem to be supporting the change on the superficial level. Therefore,
Management of perceptions and beliefs supported by adequate information is required
•
to change their attitude towards the affected change.

Potential promoters have positive attitude towards the change but need to be
assured about the change.

The Change Model

The Change Model (Change Formula or Change Equation) given by Beckhard and
Harris (1987) is attributed by them to David Gleicher,

It is simple yet powerful tool that gives a clear representation of the possibilities and
conditions to change an organisation. Beckhard and Harris suggested that a change
will occur only when three factors (dissatisfaction with the status quo, vision of the
proposed change and the first step towards the change) added together are greater
than the cost or resistance to change. These three components must be present to
overcome the resistance to change in an organisation. This change Model Formula
is shown in Fig. 4.4.

C=DXVXF>R

C=Change
D = Dissatisfaction with the status quo

V = Vision of proposed change

F = First Steps
R = Cost/Resistance to change

Fig. 4.4: Change Equation

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 To meet the affected change all the factors of the change formula must be managed. .Change Management

Self Check Exercise

1) What are the three stages of change according to Kurt Lewin' s model of change.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with answers given at the end of this Unit.

4.6 CHANGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

A change can be apJ2roached in a number of ways. A strategy which is most
appropriate should be chosen to implement a change. Five different change
management strategies~hich can be adopted for affecting a change are:

1) Directive Strategy
This strategy involves the use of authority to impose change. Directive strategy is
undertaken by the top-level management with little or no involvement of other people.
Here, the manager exercises hislher power and authority to manage the change. The
advantage of this approach is that it can be undertaken quickly. On the other hand,
this approach has a disadvantage that the views and opinions ofthose involved in or
. affected by the change are not taken into consideration. In directive strategy, the
changes are imposed and not discussed or agreed, thus causing resentment among
the staff members.

2) Expert Strategy
In this approach the management change is viewed as a problem solving process
and help of an expert is sought to resolve it. In this approach there is likely to be little
involvement of those who are affected by the change. In expert strategy the experts
are involved for the proper management of change process. The major advantage
of this approach is that with the help and guidance of experts the change can be
implemented quickly and effectively.

3) Negotiative Strategy
In this approach the top management discusses the various issues involved with
those affected by the change. This approach is marked by the willingness of the top
management to negotiate and bargain in order to implement the change. The changes
JO be made are discussed and, the methods of implementation and the possible
outcomes are also agreed upon. The disadvantages of this approach are that it takes
longer to implement the changes, and it is difficult to predict all the possible outcomes.
The changes made may not fulfill the overall expectations of the managers affecting
the change. However, the major advantage is that this approach calls for the
involvement of all the individuals affecting the change. Thus the management gets the
participation and support from all the individuals. 11)3
r
Management Perspectives 4) Educative Strategy
Educative strategy is based on redefining and reinterpreting people's norms and
values thus motivating them to support the changes being made. In this strategy the
main focus is on individuals who are involved in the change process. Itis believed
that people's behaviour and mindset is composed of social norms and values.
Therefore, in order to affect a change properly these existing values and beliefs must
be changed and redefined first. For this a number of activities are undertaken which
comprise education, training and selection, by consultants, specialists and in-house
experts. The major disadvantage .of this approach is that it takes longer to implement.
Whereas the advantage is that it helps in developing positive commitment to the
changes being implemented. Thus, this approach helps the management in garnering
the support and participation of the individuals within the organisation towards
implementation of change.

.. 5) Participative Strategy
•
In this strategy all the individuals within the organisation are fully involved in the
change process. Though the major decisions are taken by the top level management,
the change process is driven more by groups or individuals within the organisation.
Discussions and meetings are held and the views of all the individuals aretaken into
account before affecting the changes. Thus the focus is on the full involvement of all
who are involved in, and affected by the proposed changes. The views of consultants
and experts are also sought to facilitate the change process. The Major advantage
of this strategy is that it allows for the participation of all the individuals involved in
the change process. The changes implemented by the management get the support
of all those affected. The individuals are provided an opportunity to increase their
skills and knowledge about the organisation as a whole and its functioning. The main
disadvantage of this approach that it takes longer to decide the major changes to be
implanted, thus it is relatively slow to implement. It can also be costly and time
consuming owing to the number of meetings that take place. Moreover, it is also not
possible to predict the possible outcomes. This strategy is more complex to manage
and requires more resources and costs.

These strategies are not independent or mutually exclusive. Depending on the situation
and the changes to be affected, a range of strategies can be employed to implement
the changes in an organisation. Effective change management involves assessment
and monitoring to recognise what strategy/s to employ, when, where and how to use
them in order to be most effective.

Factors Affecting the Choice of a Change Strategy

The proper change strategy can be chosen taking into consideration a number of
factors. Even a mix of strategies can be adopted depending upon a number of factors.
These basic factors are:

i) The urgency of the .need for change - based on the urgency for the
implementation of the change process a suitable strategy can be chosen and
employed. If the situation demands affecting the change in short time the quick
change strategies should be chosen.,
ii) The degree of resentment to change - If the changes to be affected is bound to
be opposed then the strategies which provide for larger participation ofall the-
individuals within the organisation must be employed. But such strategies are
'.
relatively slow to implement. Therefore, the rate of change must also be
104 considered.
iii) The power of the individual/ group initiating the change - The individual or Change Management
group initiating the change process must have enough clout within the
organisation. Thus he/she will be able to overcome opposition or resistance to
change if any, and implement fast change strategies.
iv) The necessity for information and commitment - If the change process calls for
the wider involvement of individuals in affecting the change, this necessitates
the education of those involved in the change process. This involves informing
the individuals about the various aspects of change and gradually developing
commitment to the change process. This factor is essential for choosing strategy
because any change can be fully achieved and sustained by the commitment
and education of those involved in the change process. (The time period for
implementation of change should also be taken into account.) .
v) Available Expertise -If adequate expertise for affecting the change is available
then expert strategy can be employed. Otherwise strategies like directive strategy
relying on the use of power and authority can be adopted. Even when using
directive strategy or educative strategy or negotiative strategy, experts can be
involved in planning and implementation of the change.
vi) Target population '--The size of the individuals involved in or affected by the
change process must also be taken into consideration. Depending upon their
skills, know iedge and attitude towards anticipated change, a mix of the above
mentioned strategies can be employed.
vi) Dependency Factors - If the organisation is more employee-oriented, the
management's ability to command or demand is limited. Therefore, the
management will have to involve the individuals in the organisation in the change.
On the other hand, if the management is powerful and authoritarian, then the
ability of the individuals in an organisation to oppose or resist any management
decision for affecting a change is limited. If there is a situation of mutual
dependency between the management and the individuals then the negotiating
strategy can be adopted.

4.7 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

Resistance to change can be defined as an individual or group changing in acts to
block or disrupt an attempt to introduce change. Koonce (1996), notes that change
is difficult because it forces new learning on people, and most people resist new
learning a lot of time, as do organisations. Skoldberg (1994) stated that people tend
to resist change for six reasons: fear, vested interests, lack of trust or misunderstanding,
differences in assessment of the situation, limited resources, and inter organisational
agreements.

Some of the reasons for employee's resistance to change are:

i) The individual's predisposition towards change.

This could be very personal and deeply innate. This determines individual's
attitude towards change which could be negative.
ii) Fear of the unknown
Change always brings about fear of inability to cope with the anticipated change.
iii) Uncertainty
Employees often resist change because they are uncertain about the impact the
change will have on their lives. They may worry about job security or they may
be anxious in face of the ambiguity associated with a new way of doing things. 105
,-
Management Perspectives iv) Self-interest
At times people have vested interests and defmite perceptions of what is needed.
They usually resist change as they feel that it will take away something of value
of them.
v) Satisfaction with the status quo
People are often satisfied with the way things are now and with current priorities
and working relationships. Therefore, they resist any kind of change.
vi) Peer-pressure
Often people resist change because of the peer pressure, even though they
have a mental or positive attitude towards change. Group norms and pressure
from the group influences their attitude towards change.
vii) Disruption of cultural traditions or group relations
Groups of individuals may be comfortable working together. Therefore, any
, change which causes disruption of cultural traditions or group relations in the
•
organisation are resisted.
viii) Lack of understanding and trust
Some people resist change because they lack proper understanding of the
need for change. At times they mistrust the initiators of change and fear that
they are being manipulated.
ix) Speed with which change occurs
This also leads to resistance to change. At times the organisation itself may not
be able to cope. On being overwhelmed by change, people affected by it,
resist it. Rapid change causes anxiety and fear among people and leads to
inhibition of the change process.
x) 'Insensitive manner of change introduction.
Change must not be forced upon the organisation. No person wishes to have
change in his or her working environment forced upon him or her.
xi) Difficult timing of change .
The organisation may not be ready for change. If the change is introduced at
wrong time, this may cause resistance to change.
xii) Fear offailure
At times people are not well-informed about the anticipated change and are
therefore skeptical about the success of the effort.
Force Field Analysis, developed by Kurt Lewin (1951) provides another way to
look at resistance to change. This involves analysing the two types of forces, driving
forces and restraining forces, that influence any proposed change and then assessing
how best to overcome resistance.
According to Kurt Lewin "An issue is held in balance by the interaction of two
opposing sets of forces - driving forces and the restraining forces". Driving forces
are those factors that put pressure for a particular change, whereas restraining forces
are those factors that attempt to maintain the status quo and pressure against.a
change. At any given point in time, the two types of forces push in opposite directions,
leading to an equilibrium that defines current conditions, or the status quo. In order
to change the status quo to the desired condition, it is therefore necessary to increase
the driving forces, to decrease the restraining forces, or to do both. Though managers
106 tend to think in terms of increasing the driving forces, such increases, according to
 Lewin, are highly likely to provoke a corresponding increase in the resistant forces. Change Management
Therefore, the focus should be on reducing the restraining forces.

.i=
Chanae Issu~
D,-,v'ng ,forces Restn,"mn';J tor-ces

~'

s
no change :@
':;1
~ W
c:r
L..~ __ -.

Fig. 4.5: Force Field Diagram

(Source: http://www.va)uebasedmanagement.net)

Kurt Lewin developed, Force Field Analysis using Force Field Diagrams. The Force
Field diagram is a model built on the idea that various factors like persons, habit,
attitude etc. act as forcedriving and restraining change. Driving forces are listed in
the left column and the r=straining forces in the right column. Arrows are drawn
towards the middle. Lonzer arrows mmcate stranger forces.

On In fo

P'old::c Ihllmt.of OutllOU

CO~lptHl~v;o I)/\'SSU

Fig. 4.6: Driving and Restraining Forces ilia Force Field Dragrarr
(Source: httpz/www.mhsc.org.uk)

The diagram provides a mechanism to understand and depict all the forces acting on
a change issue. This diagram can be used at any level - personal, organisational or
project level - to visualise the various forces ,!bat may work for and against the
various change initiatives. The force field analysis method helps to - investigate the
balance of power involved in a change issue, identify the stakeholders and target
groups, and visualise how to influence each target group. lO7
 Management Perspectives John Kotter and Leonard A Schlesinger suggested a model to prevent or minimise
resistance to change in organisations. This model related managerial strategies to the
source of resistance to change. Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) suggest that there is
no one way of managing every change, but one should adopt an appropriate approach
depending on the particular situations. An appropriate strategy for change and
management style should be selected according to the type of source of resistance.
According to Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) there are four basic reasons that people
resist change.
i) Parochial self interest - Some people fear the implications of change for
themselves. They feel they will lose something they value such as power, status,
money etc.
ii) Misunderstanding and lack of trust - At times people affected do not understand
.. the actual reasons and benefits of the change and mistrust the management
initiating the change. This situation could arise because of communication
problems and the people in the organisation getting inadequate information.
iii) Low tolerance to change - Some people are very keen on security and stability
in their work, and do not adapt to change by the very nature of their personality,
or feel that they cannot cope with the changes that will effect them.
iv) Different assessments of the situation - This condition arises when both the
initiators of change and individuals affected by it disagree on the reasons for the
change and on the advantages and disadvantages ofthe change process.
Kotter and Schlesinger have suggested six change approaches to deal with resistance
to change:

Education and Communication

This approach is useful whenever there is a lack of information one of the ways to
overcome resistance is to educate and communicate with the people affected by the
change so as to for change and increase their trust that the changes are in the
organisation's interests.

Participation and Involvement

•• This approach is useful when the management is not in a position to introduce change.
The management can involve the employees in the change process and overcome
resistance, if any.

Facilitation and Support

This approach helps to make people adapt to the affected change in situations,
where individuals affected by change fear the anticipated change. The best way to
prove their fears unfounded is to force them into the new situation, so that they can
realise that they can cope. Appropriate support by the management also helps
employees deal with fear and anxiety during the transition period. There should be
provision of counseling, coaching, further training etc.

Negotiation and Agreement

This approach can be employed in situations where some group or people have fear
of losing something (power, money etc.) in the affected change and, therefore may
resist the change. The way of lessening such resistance is to negotiate something in
return and offer incentives to those resisting change.
108
r
Manipulation and Co-option Change Management

This approach involves eo-opting with the resistors. Co-option involves the
patronising gesture in fringing a person into a change management planning group
first just for the sake of appearances rather than any substantive contribution.

Explicit and Implicit Coercion

This approach can be employed in situations where change is imposed for the survival
of the organisation and speed is essential. Management can explicitly or implicitly
force employees to accept change by 'making clear that any resistance to change
can lead to firing, transferring or losing jobs.
This model of six approaches helps in identifying the different types of resistance to
change and in understanding different sources of resistance can be overcome by
different approaches. Often, a combination of these approaches can be employed.
In his book "A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management
• (1990)" John Kotter has mentioned eight reasons for the failure of the change
processes. These are --:
AHowingtoo much comple xity
Failing to build a substantial coalition
Understanditrg the need for a clear vision
Failing to clearly ~ornmunicate the vision
Permitting roadblocks against the vision
Not planning and getting short-term wins
Declaring victory too soon
Not anchoring changes in the corporate culture
Kotter suggested the following eight phase model to avoid these mistakes.
1) Establish a sense of urgency
2) Create a coalition
I 3) Develop a clear vision
4) Share the vision
5) Empower people to clear obstacles
6) Secure short-term wins
7) Consolidate and keep moving
8) Anchor the change
The organisation as a whole must explore the core of any kind of resistance to
change, validate its existence, and then try to minimise its impact through
understanding and problem solving as emphasised by Stueart and Moran (2002).

Self Check Exercise

2) Mention the six change approaches suggested by Kotter and Schlesinger, to
deal with resistance to change.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with answers given at the end of this Unit.

109
r
Management Perspectives

4.8 ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT

The evolution of a skilled approach to bringing about organisational change has led
to the emergence of the field of management called Organisation Development.

Organisation development can be definedas an effort (1) planned (2) organisation

wide and (3) managedform the top, to (4) increase organisation effectiveness
.. and health through (5) planned interventions in the organisation's "processes" using
• behavioural-science know ledge .
In recent times it is being realised that there is a need for a long-range, coordinated
sustained strategy to develop organisation climates, ways of work, relationships,
communication systems and information systems that will be congruent with the
predictable and unpredictable requirements of the years ahead (Beckhard, 1969).

In the management literature organisation development is recognised as a process.

by which members of an organisation can influence change and help the organisation
achieve its goal. The main purpose of organisation development is to increase the
ineffectiveness and health of the organisation. In simple words, organisational
development can be viewed "as an elaborate problem solving process".

The objectives of organisational development include creating an open problem

solving climate, supplementing the authority of role and status with the authority of
knowledge and competence, locating decision making and problem solving close as
to information sources as possible, building trust and collaboration, developing a
reward system which recognises the organisational mission and the growth of people,
helping managers to manage according to relevant objectives rather than past
practices, and increasing self-control and self-direction for people within the
organisation. Organisational Development is based on ideas and concepts from the
behavioural sciences i.e., psychology, sociology "andpolitics of individuals, groups
and organisations .
..
The generally accepted goals of organisation development are:
~
a) To create an open, problem solving climate throughout an organisation.
b) To supplement the authority associated with role or status, with the authority of
knowledge and competence.
c) To locate decision making and problem-solving responsibilities as close to
sources of information as possible.
d) To build trust among persons and groups throughout an organisation.
e) To make competition more relevant to work goals and to maximise collaborative
efforts.
f) To develop a reward system that, recognises both the achievement of the
organisation's goals (profit or service) and development of people.
g) To increase the sense of 'ownership' or organisation's objectives throughout
110 the work force. .
 h) To help managers to manage according to relevant objectives rather than Change Management
according to past practices or according to objectives which do not make
sense for one's area of responsibility.
i) To increase self-control and self-direction forpeople within the organisation.
j) .To improve effectiveness of the organisation.

Process of Organisation Development

The organisation development process can be viewed as a series of six steps.
Step 1:. Recognising a Problem
The recognition of the need to changeis the first step towards making a
.change.
Step 2: Diagnosing the situation
r This i!1volves making personal assessmem and thorough analysis of the
• potential problems. A careful study of the people and processes making
up the organisation is also made.
Step 3: Identifying the problem and admitting it Exists
The main emphasis in this step is to make the key people affected by the
problem to recognise it and "own it". This means that the people involved
accept that they are apart of the problem, share responsibility for its
consequences, and thus participate in identifying and implementing the
changes necessary to solve it..
Step 4: Selecting and 'owning' a s~lution.
After recognition of a problem, the next step is to choose a solution to
deal with the problem. The emphasis should be in involving all the
individuals affected in determining a solution to the problem.
Step 5: Planning and Implementing the change
The next step is planning and implementing the change process. The
solution selected in the earlier step is implemented in this stage.
Step 6: Evaluating the change
This stage involves evaluating whether the changes have produced the
desired results or not. Depending on the results obtained further
adjustments are made.
In this stage the impact of the changes which have been implemented, is evalnated.
Organisation Development is a method for facilitating change and development in
people (e.g., styles, values, skills), in technology (e.g., greater simp~icity, complexity),
and in organisational processes and structures (Friedlander, 1971). The organisational
development process includes organisational analysis feedback from employees and
managers and strategy development.

Self Check Exercise

3) Mention briefly the various steps involved in the process of Organisational
Development.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with answers given at the end of this Unit.

] 11
r
Management Perspectives

4.9 CHANGE MANAGEMENT IN LIBRARIES AND

INFORMATION CENTRES
The library and information centres and other knowledge based organisations are
faced with the rapidly evolving rate of change. This change is evolutionary because
tasks, technologies and even organisational structure are dictated by constantly
changing environmental pressures and relationships (Stueart and Moran, 2002).
.• The library and information centre is a complex organisation relying upon a trusting
• relationship among its various units. Worker's roles in adopting a change environment
are enhanced as they are allowed, as far as capabilities permit, to grow beyond a
traditional hierarchical job to the point of being involved in team problem solving
activities (Weber, 1967).

There has been a steady progress in computerisation of almost all the aspects of
library functions. The technological changes began with the development of
computerised library catalogues, circulation systems, integrated library systems and
most recently, the OPACs which have revolutionised catalogue searching. The
development of the web and the web-based resources and access tools also has
had a significant impact on the functioning oflibrary and information centres. Library
and information centres "have had to encompass these emerging services and
sometimes embrace them within a traditional library framework".

The library and information centres are faced with substantial and multifold change
•
issues which involve both human and resource factors. Most of all, these changes
are often difficult to predict, as they are dependent on the ever-changing nature of
technology. The various changes facing library and information services are unknown
and unpredictable. Therefore, in the context of library and information centres,
managing of change involves organizing "to cope with anything that might come
along".

The basic change problems that library and information centres face are the massive
challenge of technology; more complex and interrelated problems, shorter time spans;
problem-solving that has to be innovative because old solutions will not work; a
need to build cross-boundary and cross-sector collaboration; a need for management
styles based on identifying common interests and sharing; personnel who are willing
to take responsibility; more discerning users who are also ready to exercise some
control over how their needs are met; competition and the loss of a previously
unchallenged position (Pugh and Fawr, 1999).

Change requires strategic management, a more thoughtful approach. A good

organisational climate is high in individual autonomy, low injob structure, high in
reward and recognition of achievement (personal or organisational), and high in
consideration, warmth and support (Soundek, p.337). Successful organisational
change must include these measures as outcomes of the change process. The various
theories, strategies, approaches and models for managing change work for libraries
and information centres also. Librarians should adopt the approach which is most
112 appropriate to them. The suitability of an approach can be decided on the basis of
I~~----------------~~~
personal preference, knowledge about management theories, the conditions in the Change Management
organisation, and the nature of anticipated changes. The theoretical basis of change
management in information services should be very firmly grounded in an awareness
of organisational and environmental characteristics (Pugh and Fawr, 1999).
For proper management of change there has to be a "unity between theory, strategy,
aims, process and operation". Selecting a proper strategy is the first step in handling
the issues of motivation and resistance in change management. Strategy illuminates,
informs and guides the process, and it is the early decisions about how toproceed,
that.often influence the degree of difficulty and the ultimate success of a change
project (Pugh and Fawr, 1999).
Today library and information centres have become complex organisations due to
various factors such as:
.• use of technology
internal diversity
increasingly discerning and informed users
staff with increased expectations of development management
the need to respond to rapid environmental change
potential cross-sectoral working with other information services
discontinuous change
!

Keeping all these characteristics, in view proper change management strategy should
be adopted.
If the nature of anticipated changes is complex then they can be managed by adapting
more flexible and participative strategies. In an organisation good at managing change,
different parts should be allowed different modus operandi. Learning about application
of knowledge should be at the centre of its operation. Decision making procedures
should be decentralised and open, inputs into strategy and policy should be taken
from all the parts of the organisation. Management should be participative, with an
emphasis on people management.
Change management has become difficult in the case of library and information
centres because of the multiple and unpredictable change factors affecting the
information services, in the current period. In devising and using strategies for handling
change, some basic principles such as an emphasis on the people aspect and also on
the acceptance that the process of change is in itself an educational experience, must
be underlined and reinforced (Pugh and Fawr, 1999). Creativity, free flow of ideas
and innovation should be encouraged.
Managing of a change process involves managing of the people involved in the
change process. For this the process of forging cultural change based on organisation
development should be adopted. General problems with communication, management
attitudes, resources, working conditions and procedures should also be dealt with.
Numerous other factors like organisational environment, which also depends on the
environment of the parent organisation, the service culture, which is the internal
climate, the organisational structure and the preferred management style also influence
the change process.
The organisation should not be of closed type i.e., impervious to change, inflexibly
managed, exclusive in decision making, functionally organised, and resistant to any
kind of change. If it is, then the focus should be on opening up the organisation,
113
r~~---- -~~-~------
~~---~~ ---------------~--------------

Management Perspectives ~building teams, encouraging natural and spontaneous change, experimenting, learning
and creating an atmosphere of involvement and participation.'
The library or information center can be regarded as an open system which receives
input from the outside, absorbs it, transforms that information, and then transmits it
back to the environment. This system consists of a number of subsystems. These
subsystems continually interact in informal and formal ways within the overall system.
Any change in anyone component of the organisation invariably leads to a change in
all the components.
There is a combination of forces acting on information services today. Political,
social, economic, .educational and technological influences are some of the forces
driving change inside information services, and across information service sectors.
These change forces are "powerful, numerous, complex, interrelated and far-
reaching". To handle these changes successfully, as Pugh and Fawr have stated,
.
,
•
libraries will need to strengthen even further their sectoral and cross-sectorallinks
and collaborate more and more with commercial organisations in the interests of
development and of service delivery.
The technique of conflict resolution should be a part of change management process.
Organisation culture includes beliefs, relationships, the organisational ideology, social
and professional relationships, communication channels, rewards and agreed method
of doing things. Proper management of change also calls for a change in the attitude
of people affected by change.
Libraries are developing into boundaryless organisations. The development of
electronic and digital libraries, virtual libraries, is an indictor to the organisational
form Of library of the future. A sound approach to managing change in library and
information centres should focus on strategic thinking and visioning a strategic vision
for the future, and also deciding upon necessary choices about technological and
facility investments, staffing, and service needs.

4.10 SUMMARY
In this unit we discussed about the basic concept of change management and various
strategies which can be adopted for effective change management. We also studied
the change management process and the various models of change. Any change
invokes resistance among people affected by it. We studied about various reasons
for resistance to change and the approaches to deal with that resistance, Participation,
involvement and open communication are some of the factors which help to obtain
people's involvement in the change process. Organisational development is an
approach to organisational change that has received considerable attention in recent
years. Organisational development rs a process in which behavioural science
knowledge, theory and techniques are employed to help an organisation improve its
capacity for effective change. Information services are just like other organisations
and various strategies and approaches available can be used for managing change in
modern information organisations. The unpredictable and multiple changes facing
the library and information centres highlight the importance and need for "real changes
in management styles and leadership, real structural change, decentralisation and
new ways of looking at education and training" (Pugh and Fawr,1999). Change
management in libraries and information centres should focus on "a way of managing
which optirnises organisational responses to change, and which embraces structural
change, new ways of working, non-traditional ideas about control and responsibility,
114 new forms of leadership and the creation of an organisational culture which has a
 IJositive attitude to change embedded in it" (Pugh and Fawr, 1999), while involving Change Management
the people, affected by change, in the entire change process.

Change Management can thus be used to create and maintain a healthy organisation,
improve operations and culture, and anticipate and manage ch~nge. r .

4.11 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) According to Kurt Lewin there are three phases of the change process:
Unfreezingphase-This involves getting the need to change to be accepted.
, Changing or Moving Phase- This involves putting the changes into effect.
Refreezing Phase-This involves consolidating the changes into the organisational
system so that there is no revision.

.
, 2) Six approaches to deal with resistance to change as suggested by Kotter and
Schlesinger are:
i) Education and Communication
ii) -Participation and Involvement
iii) Facilitation 'and Support
iv), Negotiation and Agreement
v) Manipulation and Co-option
Vi) Explicit and Implicit Coercion
3) Various steps involves in the process of Organisational Development are:
Step l-s-Recognising a problem
Step 2-Diagnosing the situation
Step 3-Identifying the problem and admitting it exists
Step 4-Selecting and 'owning' a solution
Step 5-Planning and implementing the change
Step6-Evaluating the change

4.12 KEYWORDS
Closed System A system that does not interact with its environment:
Economic Forces Pressures on a business that result from the nature
and direction of the economy in which the business
operates.

Environmental Forces Bxternal and largely uncontrollable factors that

influence the internal structures and processes of
organisations.
External Environment Social, political and economic factors that might affect
an organisation.
Human Resources People needed to operate the' business and to
perform those tasks that require human talent, skills,
and abilities.
InternalEnvironment The conditions inside an organisation.
115
r
Management Perspectives Management Management is the process ofleading and directing
all or part of an organisation,often a business, through
the deployment and manipulation of resources
(human, financial,material,intellectualor intangible).
Objectives Intended or expected end results; recognised by
effectivemanagersas essentialingredientscontributing
to organisational performance.
Open System A system that interact with its environment.
,
Planned Change Systematic, deliberate change in the way part or all
of an organisation functions.
Planning Determiningthe directionof a businessby establishing
objectives and by designing and implementing the
.. strategies necessary to achieve those objectives .
Staffing Process of obtaining and keeping the number and
type of workers, necessary, to accomplish an
organisation's objectives.
Strategy A strategy is a long term plan of action designed to
achieve a particular goal
Technological Change Changes in tools, equipment, processes, actions,
materials, and knowledge with which an organisation
creates and provides its products or services.

4.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Akeroyd, John. (2000). The Management oJ Change in Electronic Libraries.
66th IFLA Council and General Conference. Jerusalem. Available at: http://
www.ifla.org/IV/ifla66/papers/037-110e.htm
Aronovitz, Toni C. Change Management. Available at: http://www2.gsu.edu/
-mstswh/courses/it7000/papers/change2.htm
Beckhard, R. (1968). Organisation Development: Strategies and Models.
Reading, Mass. Addison-wesley, p.9- 14.
Beer, S. (1979). Heart ofEnterprise. Chichester: Wiley& Sons.
Beer, S. (1979). The Brain of the Firm. Chichester: Wiley& Sons.
Branch, Kristi M (2002). Change Management. Available at:
www.science. doe. gov /sc-5/benchmark/Ch %204% 20Chan ge %20
Management%2006.10.02.pdf
Burke, W.W. and Hornstein, B.A., Eds. (1972). The Social Technology of
Organisation Development. Fairfax, VA: Learning Resources corporation.
Carson, Terry C. (1999). Organisational change and strategies Jor turbulent
Environments. Journal of Modern Business. Available at: http://www.depress.com!
page2I.html
Christopher, Paula. Change Management: Changing for the Better. Available at:
http://www2.gsu.edul-mstswh/courseslit7000/papers/changeI.htm
CIPD literature on Change Management. Available at: http://www.cipd.co.uk/ .
116 subjects/corpstrtgy/changemmt
r
I
Connor, Patrick E. et.al. (2003). Managing Organisational Change. 3rd Edition. Change Management
I USA: Praeger.
I
Devi, Laxmi ed. (1998). Organisational Development. New Delhi: Anmol
Publications

French, Wendell L. ed. (1990). Organisation Development- Theory, practice

and Research. New Delhi: Universal Book Stall.
Fried Lander, F. (1972). Congruence in Organisation Development. Proc. 31 st
Ann. Meet. Acad. Manage. 1971, 153-60.

Friedlander, Frank and Brown, L. Dave (1974). Organisation Development. Annual

review of Psychology, 25, pp.313 ..J41.
http://floti.bell.ac.ukl7620021/3main.htm

http://home.att.netl-nickols/change.htm

, http://www.change-management.coml
•
http://www.change-management.comlartic1es.htm

http://www.change-management.comIProsci-CM-Maturity-Model-writeup.pdf

http://www.managementkybemetik.comlenlfs_metbmod.html

http://www.mapnp.orgllibrary/mgmntlorgchnge.htm

http://www.rnhsc.org.uk ,

http://www.organisationalchange.co.uklmbc_article.htm
i
http://www.uq.net.auJaction_research!arp/involv.html

http://www.valuebasedmanagement.netl

http://www.wrce.org.uklmateriallpschange .doc

JP. Engardio. (1979). Why Eastern is Backing Off from a union showdown. Business
Review, March-April, pp. 106-114.
Kleiner, B., Kudray, L. (1997). Global Trends in Managing Change. Industrial
Management, (39) 3, 18-21.
Koonce, R.(1996). The human face of change. Training and Development,
50,23-24.

Kotter, lP. and Schlesinger, L.A. (1979). Choosing strategies for change. Harvard
Business Review, March! April.
Leonard, Allenna. (1999). A Viable System Model: Consideration of Knowledge

Management. Journal of Knowledge Management Practice, August. Available

at: http://www.tlainc.comlartic112.htm

Lewin, K. (1947). Frontiers in Group dynamics: concept, method and reality in

social science.

Lewin, K. (1951). Field Theory in Social Science. New York: Harper & Row.

Lewin, Kurt. (1958). Group Decisions and Social Change. In Readings in Social
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