FLUID MECHANICS

HOME ASSIGNMENT

SUBMITTED TO: Mr.M ZUNAID

Submitted by – kaushal kumar

- 2K20/ME/120
 FLOW NETS:
A Flow net is a graphical representation of flow of water through a soil
mass.

flow net is a grid that is obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines and
streamlines. Flow net is very much useful in analyzing the two dimensional,
irrotational flow problems

The flow nets can be constructed only in following situations - The flow should
not be governed by the force of gravity, because under the action of gravity, the
shape of the free surface changes constantly, and hence no fixed flow net
pattern can be obtained.
 CIRCULATION:

Circulation, which is a scalar integral quantity, is a macroscopic measure of rotation

for a finite area of the fluid. The circulation, C, about a closed contour in a fluid is
defined as the line integral evaluated along the contour of the component of the
velocity vector that is locally tangent to the contour.

Circulation is a measure of rotation is demonstrated readily by considering a

circular ring of fluid of radius R in solid-body rotation at angular velocity angular
velocity Ω about the z axis about the z axis.
Applications of Flow net

The flow net helps in depicting and analyzing the behavior of irrotational flow.

The following are some of the important uses of flow net analysis -
I. For given boundaries of flow, the velocity and pressure distribution can
be determined, if the velocity distribution and pressure at any reference
section are known.
II. Outlets can be designed for their streamlining.
 SIMPLE FLOWS:

Fluid Flow is a part of fluid mechanics and deals with fluid dynamics. It involves the
motion of a fluid subjected to unbalanced forces.For example, if you are pouring
water from a mug, the velocity of water is very high over the lip, moderately high
approaching the lip, and very low at the bottom of the mug. The unbalanced force is
gravity, and the flow continues as long as the water is available and the mug is tilted.

Types of Fluid Flow

Steady: the velocity of the fluid is constant at any point.

Unsteady: the fluid’s velocity can differ between any two points.

Viscous or Non-viscous Flow

Viscosity is a measure of the thickness of a fluid, and very gloppy fluids such as
motor oil or shampoo are called viscous fluids.
 Source and Sink

Consider a radial flow going away from the; origin at a velocity v(r) as shown
in Fig 1. This constitutes a Source Flow. This is a purely radial flow with no;
component of velocity in the tangential direction, i.e., v(theta)=0. If m is the
volumetric flow rate we have

(1)

(2)

It is easily verified that v(theta)=0 for this flow. Further, the equation we
started out with namely, Eqn.1 is the continuity equation for the source flow.
It states that the Volumetric flow rate (mass flow rate when multiplied by
density) is constant in; a radial direction and is equal to m, which is called
the Strength of the source. Another, point to make is that; the radial
velocity v(r) becomes infinite at r = 0. So, the origin is a singularity of the
flow. If m is negative, we have a flow; which flows inwards and is called a
Sink flow, which again has a singularity at the origin. The Source flow is
defined as the two-dimensional flow coming from a point called source and
moving out; radially on a plane in a uniform rate. From source, fluid is flowing
radially in all direction of plane. The strength of the source, q is defined as
the volume flow rate per unit; depth of fluid. The unit of source strength is
m2/s.

Sink flow is the opposite of source flow. The streamlines are radial, directed
inwards to the line source. As we get closer to the sink, area of flow
decreases. In order to satisfy the continuity equation, the streamlines get
bunched closer and the velocity increases as we get closer to the source.
Vortex

A vortex is a rapidly spinning, circular or spiral flow; of fluid around a central axis.
The swirling motion tends to suck everything within the fluid toward its center.
Examples of vortices range from a vortex can be observed in the spiraling motion
of air or liquid around a center of rotation. The circular current; of water of
conflicting tides form vortex shapes. Turbulent flow makes many vortices.

Some number of examples of vortices are listed below The core of every vortex is
considered to contain a vortex line, and every particle in the vortex is also
considered to be circulating around the vortex line. Vortex lines may start and end
at the boundary of the fluid or also form closed loops. They cannot start or end in
the fluid. (See Helmholtz's theorems.) Vortices mainly deflect and attach
themselves to a solid surface. For example, consider a vortex that usually forms
ahead of the propeller disk or jet engine of a slow-moving airplane. One end of the
vortex line is attached to the propeller disk or jet engine, but when the airplane is
taxiing the other end of the vortex line readily attaches itself to the ground
rather; than end in midair. The vortex can suck water and small stones into the
core and then into the propeller; disk or jet engine.
the fluid in a forced vortex; rotates as a solid body (there is no shear). The motion
can be realized by placing a dish of fluid on a; turntable rotating at ω radians/sec;
the fluid has vorticity of 2ω everywhere, and the free surface (if present) is a
parabola.

DOUBLET

A doublet is a result of construction of a flow field using the superposition of a

source and a sink that are placed very close to each other. The superposition of
these two will result in flow leaving the source and entering the sink.
To extend the use of a source and sink of equal strength to a doublet we take the
limit as their separation distance . First, we note that the arctan of a small
number is equal to the number so,

then we have:
Since we want we will also let at the same time and
say , where CC is some constant. This may seem arbitrary but it assures
us that the stream function doesn’t vanish to zero and since we can set to any
desired value. The result is that we can rewrite the equation for the stream function
of a doublet as:

where a constant that determines the “strength of the doublet”. This

equation can be rearranged:

Noting that for a constant value of ψ the coefficient on the right inside the
parenthesis, and the same term added to x2 is a constant resulting in an equation of
a circle. The center of the circle changes with changing values of ψ as does the
radius of the circle. The result is a series of streamlines for selected values of ψ,
each of which is a circle centered along the x2 axis as is shown in Fig.. Notice that

the radius of the circle is . Streamlines associated with a doublet – a source

and sink with a distance near to 0.
 Reynolds Transport Theorem
The Reynolds theorem states that the rate of change of an extensive property of a system with
respect to time is equal to the sum of the rate of change of property per unit time for a control volume
and rate of efflux of the property.

The Reynolds transport theorem is the major theorem that helps to derive conservation laws like
conservation of mass, Conservation of momentum, Conservation of linear momentum, etc.

 Euler’s Equation
Euler’s equations in fluid dynamics describe the flow of a fluid without accounting for the fluid’s
viscosity. Euler’s equations are derived from the Naiver-Stokes equations or from basic equations in
continuum mechanics. Although Euler’s equations consider a somewhat impossible physical
situation of zero viscosity, they are useful for describing low-viscosity fluids like water or alcohols.

Euler’s equations for compressible fluids written in Eulerian form

Here, e is an internal energy per unit mass of fluid. The above set of equations is valid for
compressible or incompressible inviscid flows
 Buckingham’s Theorem
Buckingham ' s Pi theorem states that:
If there are n variables in a problem and these variables contain m primary dimensions (for
example M, L, T) the equation relating all the variables will have (n-m) dimensionless groups.
Buckingham referred to these groups as π groups.
The final equation obtained is in the form of:
πl = f (π2, π3 ,….. πn-m)
The π groups must be independent of each other and no one group should be formed by multiplying
together powers
of other groups.
This method offers the advantage of being more simple than the method of solving simultaneous
equations for
obtaining the values of the indices (the exponent values of the variables).
In this method of solving the equation, there are 2 conditions:
a. Each of the fundamental dimensions must appear in at least one of the m variables
b. It must not be possible to fom1 a dimensionless group from one of the variables within a recurring
set. A recurring set is a group of variables forming a dimensionless group

Application of Buckingham’s Theorem: -

 provides a method for computing sets of dimensionless parameters from the given
variables, or nondimensionalization, even if the form of the equation is still unknown.
 Buckingham π theorem indicates that validity of the laws of physics does not depend on
a specific unit system.
 provides a way of generating sets of dimensionless parameters.

 Power absorbed in viscous resistance

As we know that oil is used as lubricant for the lubrication of machine parts. Now let us consider
the case of oil lubricated bearings as one example to understand this concept. Flow of oil in oil
lubricated bearing will be a good example of viscous flow. Let us consider that we are using high
viscosity grade oil as lubricant for the lubrication of bearings. High viscosity grade oil will offer
higher resistance and hence more power will be lost.
If we will use oil of lower viscosity grade as the lubricant for the lubrication of bearings, there will
not be any possibility to secure the desired oil film thickness between rotating components and
stationary metal surface. Therefore, there will be more wear and tear and service life of bearings (in
this case) will be reduced.
Therefore, it is very important to select the correct viscosity grade oil as the lubricant for bearings.
We will now find out the power required to overcome the viscous resistance in following conditions.

1. Viscous resistance of journal bearings

2. Viscous resistance of foot-step bearings
3. Viscous resistance of collar bearings

 Film Lubrication
Fluid film lubrication occurs when opposing surfaces are completely separated by a lubricant
film and no asperities are in contact. The applied load is carried by pressure generated within the
fluid, and frictional resistance to motion arises entirely from the shearing of the viscous fluid.

 Turbulence and Turbulence Intensity

Turbulent flow is a type fluid flow, characterized by recirculation, eddies and apparent randomness, in
which the fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations(chaotic), in contrast to laminar flow, in which the
fluid moves in smooth paths or parallel layers. Usually, the Reynolds number (the ratio of inertial
forces to viscous forces) is the key parameter for predicting the flow type.
In an unsteady laminar flow, the velocity may change. however, it is different from velocity
fluctuation of turbulent flow.
he turbulence intensity, is defined as the ratio of the root-mean-square of the velocity fluctuations, to
the mean flow velocity, a turbulence intensity of 1% or less is generally considered low and
turbulence intensities greater than 10% are considered high.
A turbulent flow is the state where a flow is turbulent. If a flow is completely uniform (no velocity
difference), turbulence does not occur. In reality, a completely uniform flow does not exist and may
sound oddly for you. However, it is theoretically true. When velocity difference occurs due to some
factor, turbulence occurs. So it is not true to consider turbulent flow as turbulence intensity.

 Turbulence Modelling
Turbulence modelling is a key issue in most CFD simulations. Virtually all engineering
applications are turbulent and hence require a turbulence model.
Classes of turbulence models:
 RANS-based models
 Linear eddy-viscosity models
 Algebraic models
 One and two equation models
 Non-linear eddy viscosity models and algebraic stress models
 Reynolds stress transport models
 Large eddy simulations
 Detached eddy simulations and other hybrid models
 Direct numerical simulations

 Prandtl mixing length hypothesis

Prandtl’s mixing length theory is a 2-Dimensional model attempting to describe the momentum
transfer within a turbulent fluid flow.
Mixing length is defined as that distance in the transverse direction which must be covered by a
lump of fluid particle travelling with its original mean velocity in order to make the difference
between its velocity and the velocity of the new layer equal to the mean transverse fluctuation in
the turbulent flow OR simply It can be defined as the average distance that a small mass of fluid will
travel before it exchanges its momentum with another mass of fluid.

The concept of mixing length is similar to the mean free path used in kinetic theory of gases. Prandtl
proposed that when there is mixing between two fluid elements; there is complete exchange of
momentum.

 Hagen–Poiseuille Flow
In nonideal fluid dynamics, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, also known as the Hagen–Poiseuille
law, Poiseuille law or Poiseuille equation, is a physical law that gives the pressure drop in an
incompressible and Newtonian fluid in laminar flow flowing through a long cylindrical pipe of
constant cross section.

 Flow between two cocentric circles

flows developing between two concentric cylinders with vertical axes. The inner cylinder rotates
and the outer and the lower end wall are fixed. The upper boundary is a free surface. The flow is at
rest in an initial state, and the inner cylinder impulsively begins to rotate or its rotation speed linearly
increases to a prescribed value. The acceleration rate of the inner cylinder changes the formation
processes of flows and/or the final flow modes. Time-dependent flows appear at higher Reynolds
numbers. At critical Reynolds numbers appear, at which the fluctuations in the displacement of the
free surface and the kinetic energy of a velocity component steeply increase.