CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY
"Philosophy demands: seek constant communication, risk it without
reserve, renounce the defiant self-assertion which forces itself upon
you in ever new disguises, live in the hope that in your very renunciation you will in some
incalculable way be given back to yourself."
Karl Jaspers, Ways to Wisdom, New Haven, Yale University Press,
1954, p. 124.

Chapter Overview

Logic is often treated simultaneously as a field of study and as an instrument. As a field of study,
it is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of arguments and the principles and
methods of right reasoning. As an instrument, it is something, which we can use to formulate our
own rational arguments and critically evaluate the soundness of others’ arguments. Before logic
itself has become a field of study, philosophers have been using it as a basic tool to investigate
issues that won their philosophical attention, such as, reality, knowledge, value, etc. Philosophy
is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence,
knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice, validity, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical
enterprise that tries to answer fundamental questions through an intensive application of reason-
an application that draws on analysis, comparison, and evaluation. It involves reason, rational
criticism, examination, and analysis. In this chapter, we will learn the fundamental nature,
concepts, features and areas of philosophy. Furthermore, we will discuss why it is so important
to learn philosophy.

Chapter Objectives:

Dear learners, after the successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

 Understand the meaning, nature and features of philosophy;

 Recognize the major fields of philosophy; and
 Understand why it is so important to learn logic and philosophy.

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Lesson 1: Meaning and Nature of Philosophy

Lesson Overview

Because of its universal nature, it is difficult to define philosophy in terms of a specific subject
matter. However, we can define it etymologically as ‘love of wisdom’. Thus, as a pursuit of
wisdom, philosophy refers to the development of critical habits, the continuous search for truth,
and the questioning of the apparent. In this lesson, students will be introduced with the
fundamental meaning, nature, and concepts of philosophy.

Lesson Objectives:

After the accomplishment of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Recognize the basic concepts of philosophy.

 Understand the meaning and nature of philosophy.

Activity # 1: - Dear learners, do you have a prior awareness of philosophy? If so, how do
you understand philosophy?

Dear learners, it is important to note first that giving a clear-cut definition of philosophy is
difficult. It may be easy to define other disciplines, such as, chemistry, physics, geography, etc in
terms of a subject matter, for they have their own specific subject matters to primarily deal with.
However, it is difficult to do the same with philosophy, because philosophy has no a specific
subject matter to primarily deal with. Philosophy deals primarily with issues. What contents
philosophy has are not the specific subject matters, but issues, which are universal in nature.
However, this should not lead us into thinking that philosophy is incomprehensible. It is only to
say that whenever you want to understand philosophy, it is better to read different thoughts of
philosophers, consciously see its salient features by yourself, participate in it, and do it.

Philosophy is not as elusive as it is often thought to be. Nor is it remote from our various
problems. It is unanimously agreed that the best way to learn and understand philosophy is to
philosophize; i.e., to be confronted with philosophical questions, to use philosophical language,
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to become acquainted with differing philosophical positions and maneuvers, to read the
philosophers themselves, and to grapple with the issues for oneself. Socrates once stated that
“Wonder is the feeling of a philosopher, and philosophy begins in wonder”. It is true that most
of us may not have a clear knowledge about the history, nature, language, and issues of
philosophy. But, we all think and reflect in our own way about issues that matter to us most. We
all have touched and moved by the feelings of wonder from which all philosophy derives. Thus,
we all participate, more or less, in philosophical issues, even though thinking alone cannot make
us philosophers.

If, however, you still want to find its clear-cut definition, it is better to refer to the etymology of
the word itself, instead of trying to associate it with a certain specific subject matter.
Etymologically, the word “philosophy” comes from two Greek words: “philo” and “sophia”,
which mean “love” and “wisdom”, respectively. Thus, the literal definition of philosophy is “love
of wisdom”. The ancient Greek thinker Pythagoras was the first to use the word “philosopher” to
call a person who clearly shows a marked curiosity in the things he experiences. Anyone who
raises questions, such as Does God exist? What is reality? What is the ultimate source of Being?
What is knowledge? What does it mean to know? How do we come to know? What is value? and
the like, is really showing a curiosity that can be described as a vital concern for becoming wise
about the phenomena of the world and the human experiences. Therefore, seeking wisdom is
among the various essences of philosophy that it has got from its etymological definition.
Nevertheless, this is not sufficient by itself to understand philosophy, for not all wisdoms are
philosophy.

Activity # 2: - Dear learners, what do you think is the wisdom that philosophers seek?

The wisdom that philosophers seek is not the wisdom of the expertise or technical skills of
professionals. Someone may be encyclopedic, and thus seemingly intelligent, but he may
actually be foolish when it comes to understanding the meaning and significance of what he
knows. According to Socrates, wisdom consists of a critical habit and eternal vigilance about all
things and a reverence for truth, whatever its form, and wherever its place. Based on the Socratic
understanding of wisdom, philosophy, as a pursuit of wisdom, is, thus, the development of
critical habits, the continuous search for truth, and the questioning of the apparent.

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 Activity # 3: - Dear learners, what do you think it means to question the apparent?
Does it mean to deny the fact or the practical reality?

To interrogate the obvious means to deal creatively with the phenomenal world, to go beyond the
common understanding, and to speculate about things that other people accept with no doubt.
But, questioning/criticism is not the final end of philosophy, though raising the right question is
often taken not only as the beginning and direction of philosophy but also as its essence. Raising
the right question is an art that includes the ability to foresee what is not readily obvious and to
imagine different possibilities and alternatives of approaching the apparent. When we ultimately
wonder about the existing world, and thus raise different questions about its order, each question
moves us from the phenomenal facts to a profound speculation. The philosophical enterprise, as
Vincent Barry stated, is “an active imaginative process of formulating proper questions and
resolving them by rigorous, persistent analysis”.

Therefore, philosophy is a rational and critical enterprise that tries to formulate and answer
fundamental questions through an intensive application of reason- an application that draws on
analysis, comparison, and evaluation. It involves reason, rational criticism, examination, and
analysis. Accordingly, we can say that Philosophy has a constructive side, for it attempts to
formulate rationally defensible answers to certain fundamental questions concerning the nature
of reality, the nature of value, and the nature of knowledge and truth. At the same time, its
critical side is manifested when it deals with giving a rational critic, analysis, clarification, and
evaluation of answers given to basic metaphysical, epistemological, and axiological questions.

The other thing, which is worthy of noting, is that philosophy is an activity. It is not something
that can be easily mastered or learned in schools. A philosopher is a great philosopher, not
because he mastered philosophy, but because he did it. It is not his theory, but his extraordinary
ability to critically think, to conceptualize, to analyze, to compare, to evaluate, and to
understand- i.e., to philosophize- that makes him so. Of course, the product of philosophizing is
philosophy as a product. However, what makes someone a great philosopher is not the produced
philosophy, but his/her outstanding ability to philosophize.

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Lesson 2: Basic Features of Philosophy

Lesson Overview

As an academic discipline, philosophy has its own salient features that distinguishe it from other
academic disciplines, be it natural, social and humanistic disciplines. In this lesson, students will
be introduced with the generally fundamental features of philosophy.

Lesson Objectives:

After the accomplishment of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Recognize and understand the fundamental features of philosophy that makes it a

unique academic discipline.

Activity # 1: - Dear learners, list the possible features of philosophy you could think of
based on our previous lesson (Lesson 1) and discuss about them with the
student(s) beside you.

Dear learners, the general features of philosophy can be summarized as follows:

Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe,

which are often held uncritically.

We refer to this meaning as the informal sense of philosophy or “having” a philosophy. Usually
when a person says “my philosophy is,” he or she is referring to an informal personal attitude to
whatever topic is being discussed.

1) Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions
and beliefs.
This is the formal sense of “doing” philosophy. These two senses of philosophy-”having” and
“doing”- cannot be treated entirely independent of each other, if we did not have a philosophy in
the formal, personal sense, then we could not do a philosophy in the critical, reflective sense.
However, having a philosophy is not sufficient for doing philosophy. A genuine philosophical
attitude is searching and critical; it is open-minded and tolerant- willing to look at all sides of an

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issue without prejudice. To philosophize is not merely to read and know philosophy; there are
skills of argumentation to be mastered, techniques of analysis to be employed, and a body of
material to be appropriated such that we become able to think philosophically.

To philosophize also means to generalize. Philosophers are reflective and critical. They take a
second look at the material presented by common sense. They attempt to think through a variety
of life’s problems and to face all the facts involved impartially. The accumulation of knowledge
does not by itself lead to understanding, because it does not necessarily teach the mind to make a
critical evaluation of facts that entail consistent and coherent judgment. Critical evaluations
often differ. Philosophers, theologians, scientists, and others disagree, first because they view
things from different points of view and with different assumptions. Their personal experiences,
cultural backgrounds, and training may vary widely. This is especially true of people living at
different times and in different places. A second reason philosophers disagree is that they live in
a changing universe. People change, society changes, and nature changes. Some people are
responsive and sensitive to change; others cling to tradition and the status quo, to systems that
were formulated some time ago and that were declared to be authoritative and final. A third
reason philosophers disagree is that they deal with an area of human experience in which the
evidence is not complete. Different people may interpret the evidence we do have in various
ways. Despite these disagreements, however, philosophers continue to probe, examine, and
evaluate the material with the hope of presenting consistent principles by which we can live.

2) Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole.

Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences and human experience into
some kind of consistent worldview. Philosophers wish to see life, not with the specialized slant
of the scientist or the businessperson or the artist, but with the overall view of someone
cognizant of life as a totality. Although there are difficulties and dangers in setting forth any
worldview, there also are dangers in confining attention to fragments of human experience.
Philosophy’s task is to give a view of the whole, a life and a worldview, and to integrate the
knowledge of the sciences with that of other disciplines to achieve a consistent whole.
Philosophy, according to this view, attempts to bring the results of human inquiry- religious,
historical, and scientific into some meaningful interpretation that provides knowledge and insight
for our lives.

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 3) Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of
words and concepts.
Certainly, this is one function of philosophy. In fact, nearly all philosophers have used methods
of analysis and have sought to clarify the meaning of terms and the use of language. Some
philosophers see this as the main task of philosophy, and a few claim this is the only legitimate
function of philosophy. Such persons consider philosophy a specialized field serving the sciences
and aiding in the clarification of language rather than a broad field reflecting on all of life’s
experiences. This outlook has gained considerable support during the twentieth century. It would
limit what we call knowledge to statements about observable facts and their interrelations i.e., to
the business of the various sciences. Not all linguistic analysts, however, define knowledge so
narrowly. Although they do reject and try to “clean up” many non-scientific assertions, many of
them think that we can have knowledge of ethical principles and the like, although this
knowledge is also experientially derived. Those who take the narrower view neglect, when they
do not deny, all generalized worldviews and life views, as well as traditional moral philosophy
and theology. From this narrower point of view, the aim of philosophy is to expose confusion
and nonsense and to clarify the meaning and use of terms in science and everyday affairs.

4) Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which
philosophers always have sought answers.
Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human existence. Some of the
philosophical questions raised in the past have been answered in a manner satisfactory to the
majority of philosophers. Many questions, however, have been answered only tentatively, and
many problems remain unsolved. What are philosophical questions? The question “Did Ram
make a false statement on his income tax return?” is merely a question of fact. However, the
questions “What is truth?” and “What is the distinction between right and wrong?” have
philosophical importance. Sometimes we think seriously about fundamental life issues: What is
life and why am I here? Why is there anything at all? What is the place of life in this great
universe? Is the universe friendly or unfriendly? Do things operate by chance or through sheer
mechanism, or is there some plan, purpose, or intelligence at the heart of things? Is my life
controlled by outside forces, or do I have a determining or even a partial degree of control? Why
do people struggle and strive for their rights, for justice, for better things in the future? What do

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concepts like “right” and “justice” means, and what are the marks of a good society? Often men
and women have been asked to sacrifice their lives, if need be, for certain values and ideals.
What are the genuine values of life and how can it attained? Is there really a fundamental
distinction between right and wrong, or is it just a matter of one’s own opinions? What is beauty?
Should religion count in a person’s life? Is it intellectually valid to believe in God? Is there a
possibility of a “life after death?” Is there any way we can get an answer to these and many
related questions? Where does knowledge come from, and can we have any assurances that
anything is true?

The above questions are all philosophical. The attempt to seek answers or solutions to them has
given rise to theories and systems of thought, such as idealism, realism, pragmatism, analytic
philosophy, existentialism, phenomenology, and process philosophy. Philosophy also means the
various theories or systems of thought developed by the great philosophers, such as Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, Locke, Berkeley, Kant, Hegel,
Nietzsche, Royce, James, Dewey, Whitehead, and others. Without these people and their
thoughts, philosophy would not have the rich content it has today. Even though we may be
unconscious of the fact, we are constantly influenced by ideas that have come down to us in the
traditions of society.

Core Fields of Philosophy

Lesson 3: Metaphysics and Epistemology

Lesson Overview

Dear learners, we have said earlier that philosophy is a rational and critical enterprise that tries
to formulate and answer fundamental questions through an intensive application of reason- an
application that draws on analysis, comparison, and evaluation. It deals with the most basic
issues faced by human beings. The content of philosophy is better seen as asking the right
questions rather than providing the correct answers. It even can be said that philosophy is the
study of questions. Van Cleve Morris has noted that the crux of the matter is asking the “right”
questions. By “right” he meant questions that are meaningful and relevant- the kind of questions
people really want answered and that will make a difference in how they live and work.

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Philosophy has different primary and secondary branches. This course deals only with the
primary ones, namely Metaphysics, Epistemology, Axiology, and Logic. Metaphysics is the most
important fields of philosophy that deal with the studies of ultimate reality and human
knowledge, respectively.

In this lesson, we will discuss the first two major fields, Metaphysics and Epistemology, and we
will deal with the remaining two fields, Axiology and Logic, in the next lesson (Lesson 4).

Lesson Objectives:

After a successful completion of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Understand the fundamental concern and issues that metaphysics and epistemology
primarily deal with.
 Identify the major subsets or aspects of metaphysical questions.
 Recognize the fundamental philosophical, i.e., epistemological, debates concerning
the sources of human knowledge.

3.1 Metaphysics

Activity # 1: - Dear learners, what do you think is metaphysics? List any question that
you might think is a metaphysical question. Show your question to
student(s) beside you, and discuss about your questions together.

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the ultimate nature of reality or existence. It
deal with issues of reality, God, freedom, soul/immortality, the mind-body problem, form and
substance relationship, cause and effect relationship, and other related issues. Metaphysicians
seek an irreducible foundation of reality or ‘first principles’ from which absolute knowledge or
truth can be induced and deduced. The term metaphysics is derived from the Greek words
“meta” means (“beyond”, “upon” or “after”) and physika, means (“physics”). Literally, it refers
‘those things after the physics.’ Aristotle’s writings on ‘first philosophy’ came after his treatise
on physics, therefore, Aristotle’s editor, Andronicus of Rhodes, named them metaphysics.

Here are some of the questions that Metaphysics primarily deals with:
 What is reality?

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 What is the ultimately real?
 What is the nature of the ultimate reality?
 Is it one thing or is it many different things?
 Can reality be grasped by the senses, or it is transcendent?
 What makes reality different from a mere appearance?
 What is mind, and what is its relation to the body?
 Is there a cause and effect relationship between reality and appearance?
 Does God exist, and if so, can we prove it?
 Are human actions free, or predetermined by a supernatural force?
 What is human being? A thinking mind? A perishable body? Or a combination of both?
 What is time?
 What is the meaning of life?

At first, questions like, ‘What is real?’ seem too simple to bother asking. But consider George
Knight’s example about the existence of a floor and one will see that the question has far
reaching implications: What is exactly the nature of the floor upon which you stand? It may seem
to have a rather straightforward existence. It is obviously flat, solid, and smooth; it has a
particular color; it is composed of an identifiable material, such as wood or concrete; and it
supports your weight. Suppose, however, that a physicist enters the room and questioned about
the reality of the floor. She will reply that the floor is made of molecules; that molecules consist
of atoms, electrons, protons, and neutrons; and these, finally, of electric energy alone. A third
position is offered by a passing chemist. To him the floor is a hotbed of hydrocarbons associated
in a particular way and subject to certain kinds of environmental influences, such as heat, cold,
wetness, dryness, and oxidation.

It is evident that the question of reality is not as simplistic as it appears. If the reality of a
common floor is confusing, what about the larger problems that presents themselves as
humankind searches for the ultimate reality of the universe?

Metaphysical questions are the most basic to ask because they provide the foundation upon
which all subsequent inquiry is based. Metaphysical questions may be divided into four subsets
or aspects.

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i) Cosmological Aspect: Cosmology consists in the study of theories about the origin,
nature, and development of the universe as an orderly system. Questions such as these
populate the realm of cosmology: “How did the universe originate and develop? Did it
come about by accident or design? Does its existence have any purpose?”
ii) Theological Aspect: Theology is that part of religious theory that deals with conceptions
of and about God. “Is there a God? If so, is there one or more than one? What are the
attributes of God? If God is both all good and all powerful, why does evil exist? If God
exists, what is His relationship to human beings and the ‘real’ world of everyday life?”
iii) Anthropological Aspect: Anthropology deals with the study of human beings and asks
questions like the following: What is the relation between mind and body? Is mind more
fundamental than body, with body depending on mind, or vice versa? What is humanity’s
moral status? Are people born good, evil, or morally neutral? To what extent are
individuals free? Do they have free will, or are their thoughts and actions determined by
their environment, inheritance, or a divine being? Does each person have a soul? If so,
what is it? People have obviously adopted different positions on these questions, and
those positions influence their political, social, religious, and educational ideals and
practices.
iv) Ontological Aspect: Ontology is the study of the nature of existence, or what it means for
anything to exist. Several questions are central to ontology: “Is basic reality found in
matter or physical energy (the world we can sense), or is it found in spirit or spiritual
energy? Is it composed of one element (e.g., matter or spirit), or two (e.g., matter and
spirit), or many?” “Is reality orderly and lawful in itself, or is it merely orderable by the
human mind? Is it fixed and stable, or is change its central feature? Is this reality friendly,
unfriendly, or neutral toward humanity?”

3.2 Epistemology

Activity # 2: - Dear learners, what do you think is epistemology? List any question
that you might think is an epistemological question. Show your question
to student(s) beside you, and discuss about your questions together.

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Epistemology is the other field of philosophy that studies about the nature, scope, meaning, and
possibility of knowledge. It deals with issues of knowledge, opinion, truth, falsity, reason,
experience, and faith. Epistemology is also referred to as “theory of knowledge”.
Etymologically, the word epistemology has been derived from the Greek words episteme,
meaning “knowledge, understanding”, and logos, meaning “study of”. In other words, we can
say that Epistemology is the study of the nature, source, and validity of knowledge. It seeks to
answer of the basic questions as “What is true?” and “How do we know?” Thus, epistemology
covers two areas: the content of thought and thought itself. The study of epistemology deals with
issues related to the dependability of knowledge and the validity of the sources through which
we gain information.

The following are among the questions/issues with which Epistemology deals:
 What is knowledge?
 What does it mean to know?
 What is the source of knowledge? Experience? Reason? Or both?
 How can we be sure that what we perceive through our senses is correct?
 What makes knowledge different from belief or opinion?
 What is truth, and how can we know a statement is true?
 Can reason really help us to know phenomenal things without being informed by sense
experiences?
 Can our sense experience really help us to know things beyond our perception without
the assistance of our reasoning ability?
 What is the relationship and difference between faith and reason?

Epistemology seeks answers to a number of fundamental issues. One is whether reality can even
be known. Skepticism in its narrow sense is the position claiming that people cannot acquire
reliable knowledge and that any search for truth is in vain. That thought was well expressed by
Gorgias, the Greek Sophist who asserted that nothing exists, and that if it did, we could not know
it. A full-blown skepticism would make intelligent action impossible. A term closely related to
skepticism is agnosticism. Agnosticism is a profession of ignorance in reference to the existence
or nonexistence of God.

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Most people claim that reality can be known. However, once they have taken that position, they
must decide through what sources reality may be known, and must have some concept of how to
judge the validity of their knowledge. A second issue foundational to epistemology is whether all
truth is relative, or whether some truths are absolute. Is all truth subject to change? Is it possible
that what is true today may be false tomorrow? If the answer is “Yes” to the previous questions,
such truths are relative. If, however, there is Absolute Truth, such Truth is eternally and
universally true irrespective of time or place. Closely related to the issue of the relativity and
absoluteness of truth are the questions of whether knowledge is subjective or objective, and
whether there is truth that is independent of human experience.

A major aspect of epistemology relates to the sources of human knowledge. If one accepts the
fact that there is truth and even Truth in the universe, how can human beings comprehend such
truths? How do they become human knowledge? Central to most people’s answer to that
question is empiricism (knowledge obtained through the senses). Empirical knowledge appears
to be built into the very nature of human experience. Thus, when individuals walk out of doors
on a spring day and see the beauty of the landscape, hear the song of a bird, feel the warm rays of
the sun, and smell the fragrance of the blossoms, they “know” that it is spring. Sensory knowing
for humans is immediate and universal, and in many ways forms the basis of much of human
knowledge.

The existence of sensory data cannot be denied. Most people accept it uncritically as
representing “reality.” The danger of naively embracing this approach is that data obtained from
the human senses have been demonstrated to be both incomplete and undependable. (For
example, most people have been confronted with the contradiction of seeing a stick that looks
bent when partially submerged in water but appears to be straight when examined in the air.)
Fatigue, frustration, and illness also distort and limit sensory perception. In addition, there are
sound and light waves that are inaudible and invisible to unaided human perception.

Humans have invented scientific instruments to extend the range of their senses, but it is
impossible to ascertain the exact dependability of these instruments since no one knows the total
effect of the human mind in recording, interpreting, and distorting sensual perception.
Confidence in these instruments is built upon speculative metaphysical theories whose validity

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has been reinforced by experimentation in which predictions have been verified through the use
of a theoretical construct or hypothesis. In general, sensory knowledge is built upon assumptions
that must be accepted by faith in the dependability of human sensory mechanisms. The
advantage of empirical knowledge is that many sensory experiences and experiments are open to
both replication and public examination.

A second important source of human knowledge is reason. The view that reasoning, thought, or
logic is the central factor in knowledge is known as rationalism. The rationalist, in emphasizing
humanity’s power of thought and the mind’s contributions to knowledge, is likely to claim that
the senses alone cannot provide universal, valid judgments that are consistent with one another.
From this perspective, the sensations and experiences humans obtain through their senses are the
raw material of knowledge. These sensations must be organized by the mind into a meaningful
system before they become knowledge. Rationalism in a less extreme form claims that people
have the power to know with certainty various truths about the universe that the senses alone
cannot give. In its extreme form, rationalism claims that humans are capable of arriving at
irrefutable knowledge independently of sensory experience. Formal logic is a tool used by
rationalists. Systems of logic have the advantage of possessing internal consistency, but they risk
being disconnected from the external world. Systems of thought based upon logic are only as
valid as the premises upon which they are built.

A third source of human knowledge is intuition- the direct apprehension of knowledge that is not
derived from conscious reasoning or immediate sense perception. In the literature dealing with
intuition, one often finds such expressions as “immediate feeling of certainty.” Intuition occurs
beneath the threshold of consciousness and is often experienced as a sudden flash of insight.
Intuition has been claimed under varying circumstances as a source of both religious and secular
knowledge. Certainly many scientific breakthroughs have been initiated by intuitive hunches that
were confirmed by experimentation. The weakness or danger of intuition is that it does not
appear to be a safe method of obtaining knowledge when used alone. It goes astray very easily
and may lead to absurd claims unless it is controlled by or checked against other methods of
knowing. Intuitive knowledge, however, has the distinct advantage of being able to bypass the
limitations of human experience.

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A fourth influential source of knowledge throughout the span of human history has been
revelation. Revealed knowledge has been of prime importance in the field of religion. It differs
from all other sources of knowledge because it presupposes a transcendent supernatural reality
that breaks into the natural order. Christians believe that such revelation is God’s communication
concerning the divine will. Believers in supernatural revelation hold that this form of knowledge
has the distinct advantage of being an omniscient source of information that is not available
through other epistemological methods. The truth revealed through this source is believed by
Christians to be absolute and uncontaminated. On the other hand, it is generally realized that
distortion of revealed truth can occur in the process of human interpretation. Some people assert
that a major disadvantage of revealed knowledge is that it must be accepted by faith and cannot
be proved or disproved empirically.

A fifth source of human knowledge, though not a philosophical position, is authority.

Authoritative knowledge is accepted as true because it comes from experts or has been sanctified
over time as tradition. In the classroom, the most common source of information is some
authority, such as a textbook, teacher, or reference work. Accepting authority as a source of
knowledge has its advantages as well as its dangers. Civilization would certainly stagnate if
people refused to accept any statement unless they personally verified it through direct, firsthand
experience. On the other hand, if authoritative knowledge is built upon a foundation of incorrect
assumptions, then such knowledge will surely be distorted.

Dear learners, it is important to note that one source of information alone might not be capable
of supplying people with all knowledge. It might be important to see the various sources as
complementary rather than antagonistic. However, it is true that most people choose one source
as being more basic than, or preferable to, the others, and then use it as a benchmark for testing
other sources of knowledge. For example, in the contemporary world, knowledge obtained
empirically is generally seen as the most basic and reliable type.

Lesson 4: Axiology and Logic

Lesson Overview

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We have said earlier that philosophy deals with the most basic issues faced by human beings.
Axiology is the philosophical study of value, which originally meant the worth of something. It
includes the studies of moral values, aesthetic values, as well as political and social values.
Logic, on the other hand, is a philosophical study of arguments and the methods and principles of
right reasoning. In this lesson, we will discuss Axiology and Logic as the other two major fields
of philosophy.

Lesson Objectives:

After a successful completion of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Understand the fundamental concern and issues that axiology and logic primarily deal
with.
 Identify the major subsets or aspects of axiological questions: ethical, aesthetical,
political and social questions.
 Recognize the fundamental philosophical debates concerning the nature and sources
of moral, political and social rules and principles.

4.1 Axiology

Activity # 1: - Dear learners, what do you think is Axiology? List any question that
you might think is an axiological question. Show your question to
student(s) beside you, and discuss about your questions together.

Axiology is the study or theory of value. The term Axiology stems from two Greek words-
“Axios”, meaning “value, worth”, and “logos”, meaning “reason/ theory/ symbol / science/study
of”. Hence, Axiology is the philosophical study of value, which originally meant the worth of
something. Axiology asks the philosophical questions of values that deal with notions of what a
person or a society regards as good or preferable, such as:
 What is a value?
 Where do values come from?
 How do we justify our values?
 How do we know what is valuable?
 What is the relationship between values and knowledge?

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 What kinds of values exist?
 Can it be demonstrated that one value is better than another?
 Who benefits from values?
 Etc.
Axiology deals with the above and related issues of value in three areas, namely Ethics,
Aesthetics, and Social/Political Philosophy.

I. Ethics

Activity # 2: - Dear learners, how do you define ethics? What ethical rules,
principles, and standards do you know and follow, and why? Discuss
about it with the student(s) beside you.

Ethics, which is also known as Moral Philosophy, is a science that deals with the philosophical
study of moral principles, values, codes, and rules, which may be used as standards for
determining what kind of human conduct/action is said to be good or bad, right or wrong. Ethics
has three main branches: meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Ethics raises various
questions including:
 What is good/bad?
 What is right/wrong?
 Is it the Right Principle or the Good End that makes human action/conduct moral?
 Is an action right because of its good end, or it is good because of its right principle?
 Are moral principles universal, objective, and unconditional, or relative, subjective and
conditional?
 What is the ultimate foundation of moral principles? The supernatural God? Human
reason? Mutual social contract? Social custom?
 Does God exist? If so, is He Benevolent and Omnipotent?
 If God is Benevolent, why He creates evil things? If God does not create evil things, then,
there must be another creator who is responsible to creation of the evil things? But, if it is
so, how can God be an Omnipotent creator?
 Why we honor and obey moral rules? For the sake of our own individual benefits?, or for the sake of
others?, or just for the sake of fulfilling our infallible duty?

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Ethics, or ethical studies, can be grouped into three broad categories: Normative ethics, Meta-
ethics, and Applied Ethics.

Normative Ethics refers to the ethical studies that attempt to study and determine precisely the
moral rules, principles, standards and goals by which human beings might evaluate and judge the
moral values of their conducts, actions and decisions. It is the reasoned search for principles of
human conduct, including a critical study of the major theories about which things are good,
which acts are right, and which acts are blameworthy. Consequentialism or Teleological Ethics,
Deontological Ethics, and Virtue Ethics are the major examples of normative ethical studies.

Meta-ethics is the highly technical philosophical discipline that deals with investigation of the
meaning of ethical terms, including a critical study of how ethical statements can be verified. It is
more concerned with the meanings of such ethical terms as good or bad and right or wrong than
with what we think is good or bad and right or wrong. Moral Intuitionism, Moral Emotivism,
Moral Prescriptivism, Moral Nihilism, and Ethical Relativism are the main examples of meta-
ethical studies.

Applied Ethics is a normative ethics that attempts to explain, justify, apply moral rules, principles,
standards, and positions to specific moral problems, such as capital punishment, euthanasia,
abortion, adultery, animal right, and so on. This area of normative ethics is termed applied
because the ethicist applies or uses general ethical princes in an attempt to resolve specific moral
problems.

II. Aesthetics

Activity # 3: - Dear learners, how do you define and understand aesthetics? What
Discuss about it with the student(s) beside you.

Aesthetics is the theory of beauty. It studies about the particular value of our artistic and aesthetic
experiences. It deals with beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory/emotional values, perception, and
matters of taste and sentiment.
The following are typical Aesthetic questions:
 What is art?

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  What is beauty?
 What is the relation between art and beauty?
 What is the connection between art, beauty, and truth?
 Can there be any objective standard by which we may judge the beauty of artistic works,
or beauty is subjective?
 What is artistic creativity and how does it differ from scientific creativity?
 Why works of art are valuable?
 Can artistic works communicate? If so, what do they communicate?
 Does art have any moral value, and obligations or constraints?
 Are there standards of quality in Art?

III. Social/Political Philosophy

Activity # 4: - Dear learners, how do you define politics and society? What political
and social rules, principles, and standards do you know and follow,
and why? Discuss about it with the student(s) beside you.

Social/Political Philosophy studies about of the value judgments operating in a civil society, be it
social or political.
The following questions are some of the major Social/Political Philosophy primarily deal with:
 What form of government is best?
 What economic system is best?
 What is justice/injustice?
 What makes an action/judgment just/unjust?
 What is society?
 Does society exist? If it does, how does it come to existence?
 How are civil society and government come to exist?
 Are we obligated to obey all laws of the State?
 What is the purpose of government?

4.2 Logic
Activity # 5: - Dear learners, how do you define and understand logic? Discuss
about it with student(s) beside you.

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Logic is the study or theory of principles of right reasoning. It deals with formulating the right
principles of reasoning; and developing scientific methods of evaluating the validity and
soundness of arguments. The following are among the various questions raised by Logic:
 What is an argument; What does it mean to argue?
 What makes an argument valid or invalid
 What is a sound argument?
 What relation do premise and conclusion have in argument?
 How can we formulate and evaluate an argument?
What is a fallacy?; What makes an argument fallacious?

Lesson 5: Importance of Learning Philosophy

Lesson Overview

Dear learners, we have seen in our first lesson that philosophy is a rational and critical enterprise
that tries to formulate and answer fundamental questions through an intensive application of
reason- an application that draws on analysis, comparison, and evaluation-, and deals with the
most basic issues faced by human beings. In this lesson, we will discuss the fundamental benefits
of learning philosophy.

Lesson Objectives:

After a successful completion of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Understand the fundamental benefits philosophy could provide to humanity.

Activity # 1: - Dear learners, can you list, based on our previous lessons, the
possible benefits of studying philosophy? Who do you think needs
philosophy? Why? Discuss with the student(s) beside you.

Dear learners, if you ask any philosophy student ‘what is the necessity of studying philosophy’,
he/she may give you the following famous philosophical statement: “The unexamined life is not
worth living”. The ancient Greek philosopher, Socrates, once said that “I tell you that to let no
day pass without discussing goodness and all the other subjects about which you hear me talking
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and examining both myself and others is really the best thing that a man can do, and that life
without this sort of examination is not worth living.…” Thus, among the various benefits of
learning philosophy is that philosophy provides students with the tools they need to critically
examine their own lives as well as the world in which they live. Let us clarify it more.

Some modern psychologists point out that human beings have both maintenance and actualizing
needs. The former refer to the physical and psychological needs that we must satisfy in order to
maintain ourselves as human beings: food, shelter, security, social interaction, and the like. The
later appear to be associated with self-fulfillment, creativity, self-expression, realization of one’s
potential, and being everything one can be. Although philosophy may not necessarily lead to this
sort of self-actualization, it can assist us to actualize ourselves by promoting the ideal of self-
actualization. There are many characteristics of self-actualization to whose achievement studying
philosophy has a primordial contribution. Here below are some of them.

1) Intellectual and Behavioral Independence:- This is the ability to develop one’s own
opinion and beliefs. Among the primary goals of philosophy, one is the integration of
experiences into a unified, coherent, and systematic world views. Studying philosophy
helps us not only to know the alternative world views but also to know how philosophers
have ordered the universe for themselves. As a result, we can learn how to develop and
integrate our experiences, thoughts, feelings, and actions for ourselves, and thus how to be
intellectually and behaviorally independent.
2) Reflective Self-Awareness:- self-actualization cannot be realized without a clear knowledge
of oneself and the world in which one lives. Philosophy helps us to intensify our self-
awareness by inviting us to critically examine the essential intellectual grounds of our lives.
3) Flexibility, Tolerance, and Open-Mindedness:- by studying different philosophical
perspectives we can understand the evolutionary nature of intellectual achievement and the
ongoing development of human thought. As we confront with the thoughts of various
philosophers we can easily realize that no viewpoint is necessarily true or false- that the
value of any attitude is contextual. Finally, we become more tolerant, open-minded, more
receptive, and more sympathetic to views that contend or clash with ours.
4) Creative and Critical Thinking: - this is the ability to develop original philosophical
perspective on issues, problems, and events; and to engage them on a deeper level. From

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 the study of philosophy, we can learn how to refine our powers of analysis, our abilities to
think critically, to reason, to evaluate, to theorize, and to justify.
5) Conceptualized and well-thought-out value systems in morality, art, politics, and the like: -
since philosophy directly deals with morality, art, politics, and other related value theories,
studying philosophy provides us with an opportunity to formulate feasible evaluations of
value; and thereby to find meaning in our lives.
The other benefit of studying philosophy that should not be missed is that it helps us to deal with
the uncertainty of living. Philosophy helps us to realize the absence of an absolutely ascertained
knowledge. But, what is the advantage of uncertainty? What Bertrand Russell stated in his book,
The Problem of Philosophy, can be a sufficient answer for this question.
The value of philosophy is, in part, to be sought largely in its very uncertainty. The man who
has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from
common sense, from the habitual benefits of his age or his nation, and from convictions which
have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason. To
such a man the world tends to become definite, finite, obvious; common objects rouse no
questions, and unfamiliar possibilities are contemptuously rejected. As soon as we begin to
philosophize, on the contrary, we find… that even the most everyday things lead to problems
to which only very incomplete answers can be given. Philosophy, though unable to tell us with
certainty what is the true answer to the doubts which it raises, is able to suggest many
possibilities which enlarge our thoughts and free them from the tyranny of custom. Thus, while
diminishing our feeling of certainty as to what things are, it greatly increases our knowledge
as to what they may be; it removes the somewhat arrogant dogmatism of those who have never
traveled into the region of liberating doubt, and it keeps alive our sense of wonder by showing
familiar things in an unfamiliar aspect (Bertrand, 1912, P; 158).

Chapter Summary

Logic, as a field of study, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of arguments and
the principles and methods of right reasoning. Etymologically, the term ‘philosophy’ can be
defined as “love of wisdom”, being wisdom a critical habit and eternal vigilance about all things
and a reverence for truth, whatever its form, and wherever its place. Therefore, philosophy, as a
pursuit of wisdom, is the development of critical habits, the continuous search for truth, and the
questioning of the apparent. It is, however, important to note that ‘questioning the apparent’ does
not mean denying the obviously real. It simply refers to the extraordinary ability and curiosity to
deal creatively with the phenomenal world, to go beyond the common understanding, and to
speculate about things that other people accept with no doubt. Philosophy, as a rational and

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critical enterprise that tries to formulate and answer fundamental questions through an intensive
application of reason, is a dual-sided universal discipline: critical and constructive sides. While,
as a critical discipline, it deals with giving a rational critic, analysis, clarification, and evaluation
of answers given to basic metaphysical, epistemological, and axiological questions, it attempts,
as a constructive discipline, to formulate rationally defensible answers to certain fundamental
questions concerning the nature of reality, the nature of value, and the nature of knowledge and
truth.

Philosophy, as an academic discipline, has its own salient features that distinguish it from other
academic disciplines. Its systematic, logical and flexible approach to the ultimate reality of the
universe, human life, knowledge experience, truth and values and its holistic and evolutionary
nature are some the fundamental features of philosophy. Philosophy uses its major branches to
deal with the most important issues human beings face, namely Metaphysics, Epistemology,
Axiology, and Logic. Metaphysics deals with the studies of ultimate reality and existence.
Epistemology deals with the study of the meaning, nature, source, scope and possibility of
human knowledge. Axiology deals with the philosophical studies of human values, such as moral
values, aesthetic values, as well as political and social values. Logic, on the other hand, is a
philosophical study of arguments and the methods and principles of right reasoning.

Philosophy provides various fundamental benefits to learners. It provides students with the tools
they need to critically examine their own lives as well as the world in which they live, it assist
them to actualize themselves by promoting the ideals of self-actualization. That is, studying
philosophy helps to achieve the most important characteristic of self-actualization: Intellectual
and Behavioral Independence, Reflective Self-Awareness, Flexibility, Tolerance, and Open-
Mindedness, Creative and Critical Thinking, and Conceptualized and well-thought-out value
systems in morality, art, politics, and the like. Moreover, studying philosophy helps us to deal
with the uncertainty of living, meaning it helps us to realize the absence of an absolutely
ascertained knowledge, and hence prepare ourselves to the ever growing human knowledge.

Self-Check Exercise

1. Define philosophy as a pursuit of wisdom.

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______________________________________________________________________________
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2. It is said that ‘seeking wisdom’ is one of the various essences of philosophy. Explain the
wisdom that philosophers seek.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. List and discuss the major features of philosophy.

______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

4. Discuss briefly the core branches of philosophy.

______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

5. Explain the major aspects of metaphysical study.

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________________________________________________________________________________

6. Discuss the fundamental epistemological debates concerning the source of human

knowledge.
______________________________________________________________________________
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7. Discuss briefly the major branches Ethics or Moral Philosophy.

8. Discuss the importance of studying philosophy.

______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

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