MOCHE TOMBS

at
DOS CABEZAS

MOCHE TOMBS at DOS CABEZAS

Christopher B. Donnan is Professor of Anthropology at UCLA. Considered one of the world’s foremost
authorities on the Moche, he has studied Moche civilization for more that four decades, combining the systematic
analysis of Moche art with numerous archaeological excavations in Peru. His many publications include Moche
Portraits from Ancient Peru, Moche Fineline Painting: Its Evolution and Its Artists (with Donna McClelland), Royal Tombs of
Sipán (with Walter Alva), Ceramics of Ancient Peru, and Moche Art of Peru: Pre-Columbian Symbolic Communication.

“This work is a detailed description and analysis of a number of elaborate burials from Dos Cabezas. This is

Donnan
Donnan at its best, and at the top of his game. In my point of view, it represents the most important contribution
on the subject after the Royal Tombs of Sipán. It will provide a wealth of information for people interested in
Moche religion and cosmovision.”
— Steve Bourget, The University of Texas at Austin

“This work is a detailed description and analysis of a number of elaborate burials from Dos Cabezas. This is
Donnan at his best, and at the top of his game. In my opinion, it is the most important contribution on the
subject since the royal tombs of Sipán. It will provide a wealth of information for people interested in Moche
religion and cosmovision.”
— Steve Bourget, Professor of Art History, University of Texas at Austin
ISBN 978-1-931745-38-3 TO COME

Christopher B. Donnan
MOCHE TOMBS
at
DOS CABEZAS
MOCHE TOMBS
at
DOS CABEZAS

Christopher B. Donnan

COTSEN INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AT UCLA

MONOGRAPH 59
 MONOGRAPHS
Contributions in Field Research and Current Issues in
Archaeological Method and Theory
MO05 The Archaeology of Oak Park, Ventura County, California C. W. Clewlow, Jr., Allen Pastron, and Helen F. Wells (editors)
MO06 Obsidian Dates II: A Compendium of Obsidian Hydration Determinations Made at the UCLA Obsidian Hydration Laboratory C. W. Meighan and P. I. Vanderhoeven (editors)
MO07 History and Prehistory at Grass Valley, Nevada C. W. Clewlow, Jr., Helen F. Wells, and Richard Ambro (editors)
MO08 Papers on the Economy and Architecture of the Ancient Maya Raymond Sidrys (editor)
MO09 The Late Minoan I Destruction of Crete: Metal Groups and Stratigraphic Considerations Hara Georgiou
MO10 Rock Art of East Mexico and Central America: An Annotated Bibliography Matthias Strecker
MO11 The Archaeology of Oak Park, Ventura County, California C. William Clewlow, Jr. and David S. Whitley (editors)
MO12 The Running Springs Ranch Site: Archaeological Investigations at VEN-65 and VEN-261 Jack Prichett and Allen McIntyre
MO13 Archaeological Investigations at the Ring Brothers Site Complex, Thousand Oaks, California C. W. Clewlow, Jr., David S. Whitley and Ellen L. McCann (editors)
MO14 Papers in Cycladic Prehistory Jack L. Davis and John F. Cherry (editors)
MO15 Inland Chumash Archaeological Investigations David S. Whitley, E. L. McCann, and C. W. Clewlow, Jr. (editors)
MO16 Obsidian Dates III: A Compendium of Obsidian Hydration Determinations Made at the UCLA Obsidian Hydration Laboratory Clement Meighan and Glenn Russell
MO17 Excavations in Northern Belize, Central America Raymond Sidrys
MO18 Studies in Cypriote Archaeology Jane C. Biers and David Soren
MO19 Prehistoric Indian Rock Art: Issues and Concerns JoAnne Van Tilburg and Clement W. Meighan (editors)
MO20 Messages from the Past: Studies in California Rock Art Clement W. Meighan (editor)
MO21 Pictographs and Petroglyphs of the Oregon Country, Part 1 Malcolm Loring and Louise Loring
MO22 The Archaeology of Two Northern California Sites Delmer E. Sanburg, F. K. Mulligan, Joseph Chartkoff, and Kerry Chartkoff
MO23 Pictographs and Pegroglyphs of the Oregon Country, Part 2 J. Malcolm Loring and Louise Loring
MO24 Pots and Potters: Current Approaches in Ceramic Archaeology Prudence Rice
MO25 Prehistoric Production and Exchange in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean A. Bernard Knapp and Tamara Stech (editors)
MO26 Excavations at Mission San Antonio 1976-1978 Robert L. Hoover and Julio J. Costello (editors)
MO27 Andean Archaeology, Papers in Memory of Clifford Evans Ramiro Matos M., Solveig Turpin, Herbert Eling, Jr. (editors)
MO28 Archaeological Field Research in the Upper Mantaro, Peru, 1982-1983: Investigations of Inka Expansion and Exchange Timothy Earle et al. (editors)
MO29 Obsidian Dates IV: A Compendium of Obsidian Hydration Readings from the UCLA Obsidian Hydrastion Laboratory Clement W. Meighan and Janet L. Scalise (editors)
MO30 Archaeology of the Three Springs Valley, California. A Study in Functional Cultural History Brian D. Dillon and Matthew A. Boxt
MO31 Investigaciones Arqueológicos de la Costa Sur de Guatemala David S. Whitley and Marilyn P. Beaudry (editors)
MO32 Western Pomo Prehistory: Excavations at Albion Head, Nightbirds’ Retreat and Three Chop Village, Mendocino County, California Thomas N. Layton
MO33 Girikihaciyan: A Halafian Site in Southeastern Turkey P. J. Watson and S. LeBlanc
MO34 Settlement Archaeology of Cerro de las Mesas, Veracruz, Mexico Barbara Stark (editor)
MO35 Pottery of Prehistoric Honduras: Regional Classification and Analysis J. S. Henderson and M. Beaudry-Corbett
MO36 New Light on Old Art: Recent Advances in Hunter-Gatherer Rock Art Research D. W. Whitley and L. L. Loendorf (editors)
MO37 Hawaiian Adze Production and Distribution: Implications for the Development of Chiefdoms Barbara Lass
MO38 Approaches to the Historical Archaeology of Mexico, Central and South America Gasco, Greg Charles Smith, and Patricia Fournier-Garcia
MO39 Recent Advances in the Archaeology of the Northern Andes. In Memory of Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Augusto Oyuela-Caycedo and J. Scott Raymond (editors)
MO40 Prehistory of Agriculture: New Experimental and Ethnographic Approaches Patricia C. Anderson (editor)
MO41 Rethinking Mycenaean Palaces: New Interpretations of an Old Idea Michael L. Galaty and William A. Parkinson (editors)
MO42 Pompeian Households: An Analysis of the Material Culture Penelope M. Allison
MO43 Pottery of Postclassic Cholula, Mexico Geoffrey McCafferty
MO44 Ceramic Production and Circulation in the Greater Southwest Donna M. Glowacki and Hector Neff (editors)
MO45 Pathways to Prismatic Blades Kenneth Hirth and Bradford Andrews (editors)
MO46 Domestic Ritual in Ancient Mesoamerica Patricia Plunket (editor)
MO47 Archaeology in the Borderlands : Investigation in Caucasia and Beyond Adam T. Smith and Karen S. Rubinson (editors)
MO48 Yeki bud, yeki nabud : Essays on the archaeology of Iran in honor of William M. Sumner Naomi F. Miller and Kamyar Abdi (editors)
MO49 Perspectives on Ancient Maya Rural Complexity Gyles Iannone and Samuel V. Connell (editors)
MO50 Settlement Archaeology and Political Economy at Tres Zapotes, Veracruz, Mexico Christopher A. Pool (editor)
MO51 Maya Zooarchaeology: New Directions in Theory and Method Kitty F. Emery (editor)
MO52 Archaeological Research on the Islands of the Sun and Moon, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia: Final Results from the Proyecto Tiksi Kjarka Charles Stanish and Brian S. Bauer (editors)
MO53 Us and Them: Archaeology and Ethnicity in the Andes Richard Martin Reycraft
MO54 Advances in Titicaca Basin Archaeology - 1 Charles Stanish, Amanda B. Cohen, and Mark S. Aldenderfer
MO55 Roman Foodprints at Berenike: Archaeobotanical Evidence of Subsistence and Trade in the Eastern Desert of Egypt René T.J. Cappers
MO56 Berenike 1999/2000 Steven E. Sidebotham and Willeke Wendrich (editors)
MO57 Kasapata and the Archaic Period of the Cuzco Valley Brain S. Bauer (editor)
MO58 Moche Fineline Painting From San José de Moro Donna McClelland, Donald McClelland, and Christopher B. Donnan
MO59 Moche Tombs at Dos Cabezas Christopher B. Donnan
TO BILL, BOB, AND ELIZABETH LENDE
 CONTENTS
Preface xi

CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1

CHAPTER 2 Tomb A 19

CHAPTER 3 Tomb B 29

CHAPTER 4 Architectural Modifications 41

CHAPTER 5 Tomb 2 65

CHAPTER 6 Tomb 3 149

CHAPTER 7 Tomb 1 169

CHAPTER 8 Observations and Conclusions 191

Appendix Vertebrate Faunal Remains 211

References Cited 231

Index 235
 PREFACE
This study focuses on five Moche tombs that were excavated at the site
of Dos Cabezas, on the north coast of Peru, between 1997 and 2000. My
goal is to provide full documentation of the tombs and their contents,
describe the chronology of construction phases for the pyramid in which they
were found, and explain how these tombs expand our understanding of
Moche civilization. The excavation of these tombs is only part of the work
that was accomplished at Dos Cabezas in the eight field seasons that we
worked there (1994–2001). Our objective was to obtain information on all
periods of the Pre-Columbian occupation, and most of our focus was on the
domestic and ceremonial architecture. That material will be presented in
future publications.
Our work at Dos Cabezas involved many individuals and institutions. Of
great importance was the participation of Guillermo “Willy” Cock, who was
co-director of the project and was largely responsible for helping secure the
excavation permits from, and submitting annual reports to, the National
Institute of Culture in Lima. His participation in the excavation of these tombs
and his loyal support of the Dos Cabezas project were invaluable.
Alana Cordy-Collins also played a major role in the excavation. Her pri-
mary responsibility was to recover, analyze, and publish the human skeletal
remains, and she is currently working on a book that will provide full docu-
mentation of that aspect of the research. All of the information in this publi-
cation regarding the age, sex, and pathology of the human skeletal remains is
derived from her analyses and published articles. Alana was also involved in
the delicate excavation of nearly all of the tomb contents. She has an extraor-
dinary ability to recover fragile objects intact — an ability that constantly
amazed those of us who worked with her — and was extremely helpful in
the excavation of the tombs.
Four archaeologists who had recently graduated from the Universidad
Nacional de Trujillo also participated in the project: Carmen Oliden, Jeisen

p r e f a c e x i
 Navarro, Estuardo La Torre, and Hildebrando Paredes. They did excellent
work, both in the field and laboratory, and were instrumental in interpreting
the archaeological material.
Many men were hired to work with us on the excavation. All were from
the nearby town of Jequetepeque, where I have had a home for many years.
Most of them had worked with me on other projects in this region and were
already well aware of excavation procedures. They are wonderful people — I
have always felt privileged to work with men of this quality. Four were par-
ticularly important in the success of our work at Dos Cabezas: Desposorio
Vera, Genaro Arana, Rodolfo Arana, and Henry Soto.
Walter Alva, former director of the Museo Bruning in Lambayeque,
kindly made the metallurgical conservation facility of the museum available
for the metal objects from the Dos Cabezas tombs. Thus we were able to store
the objects in an environment with constant temperature and humidity. He
also allowed us to employ Ethel Oblitas Durand, one of their metallurgical
conservators, who worked full-time for more than four years cleaning and
conserving these objects. Her work was excellent, as were the numerous
observations that she made about the form and manufacture of the objects.
Thomas Wake made a detailed analysis of the vertebrate faunal remains
from these tombs and produced an excellent report on the results of his study.
I am pleased that it is included as an appendix to this book since it is the first
detailed account of animal remains included in Moche burials.
Three talented artists worked closely with me to produce the line draw-
ings in this report: Alberto Gutierrez of Lambayeque, and Jorge Gamboa of
Trujillo, and Patrick Finnerty of Los Angeles. They were a pleasure to work
with. I particularly appreciate their patience in working with me until we
found good solutions to the various kinds of illustrations that were required.
John Byron Daquioag was very helpful in creating the digital images that
illustrate this volume, and Don McClelland, Marydee Donnan, and Steve
Bourget not only patiently proofread several versions of the text, they also
provided numerous thoughtful suggestions for improving various parts of it.
The preparation of this publication was made possible by support from
the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA, Yvonne and Harry Lenart, the
Elbridge and Evelyn Stuart Foundation, the Lende Foundation, the
Committee on Research of the Academic Senate at the University of

x i i m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
California, Los Angeles, and the Sainsbury Research Unit at the University of
East Anglia.
The primary funding for our excavation at Dos Cabezas was provided
by the National Geographic Society. Partial support also came from the Latin
American Center at the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Lende
Foundation of San Antonio, Texas.
Bill, Bob, and Elizabeth Lende became interested in my plans to exca-
vate at Dos Cabezas even before the project began, and through the Lende
Foundation they generously provided support for the first season of excava-
tion. When I was able to obtain National Geographic support for the subse-
quent seasons, they continued to provide funding for the analysis, conserva-
tion, and publication of the material recovered. I am profoundly grateful to
them for their generous financial support, but equally for their enthusiasm for
the research, and their wonderful friendship. This book is affectionately ded-
icated to them.

p r e f a c e x i i i
x i v m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
M oche civilization flourished on the north coast of Peru between
approximately AD 100 and 800. Although the Moche had no writing system,
they left a vivid artistic record of their beliefs and activities. Their potters cre-
ated beautifully modeled and painted ceramic vessels. Their metalworkers
made remarkable objects of gold, silver, and copper, skillfully creating objects
in sheet metal and in lost wax castings. Their weavers produced sumptuous
fabrics from cotton and wool, often elaborated with colorful woven or
embroidered designs. The Moche also pyroengraved gourds, and carved and
inlaid bone, wood, and stone. Tens of thousands of these objects can be seen
today in museums and private collections throughout the world.
Unfortunately, nearly all of them have been looted from Moche tombs by
grave robbers, and thus there is no record of the grave, or the archaeological
site, or even the valley from which they came. There is no record of what
objects were found together in a single grave, or how those objects were
placed in the burial chamber. The lack of this information severely limits what
could have been learned about the Moche if the graves had been excavated
archaeologically and their contents systematically recorded.
This study focuses on five Moche tombs that were archaeologically exca-
vated at the site of Dos Cabezas. The tombs are remarkable not only for the
objects they contained but also because we now know whom the objects were
buried with, how the tombs were constructed, and how the tombs relate to
one another both spatially and temporally. Thus they provide an unusual
opportunity to understand aspects of Moche funerary practice that are lost
when Moche tombs are looted, and to appreciate the extraordinary artistic
and technological sophistication of this ancient Peruvian civilization.

i n t r o d u c t i o n 1
 Figure 1.1 Map of the north coast of Peru showing the area of Moche occupation.

2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
THE MOCHE

The Moche inhabited an arid coastal plain, bordered on the east by the
Andean Cordillera and on the west by the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 1.1). Most of
their settlements were located in a series of valleys whose rivers flow across
the coastal plain, carrying water from the mountains to the sea.
Archaeologists have traced the human occupation of this area from the end of
the Pleistocene, around 10,000 years ago, through the development of settled
village farming communities and the subsequent rise and fall of civilizations
that took place prior to the arrival of Europeans in the sixteenth century.
Centuries before Moche civilization began, the area was occupied by
highly stratified societies that constructed monumental architecture and
developed sophisticated weaving, ceramics, and metallurgy. The Moche took
the arts, technology, and social organization they inherited from previous civ-
ilizations and developed them to form their own distinctive culture.
By channeling the rivers into a complex network of irrigation canals, the
Moche greatly extended the land under cultivation, which supported abun-
dant agriculture. They grew a wide variety of crops, including corn, beans,
guava, avocados, squash, chili peppers, and peanuts. From the Pacific Ocean
and from rivers, marshes, and lagoons, they harvested a rich catch of fish,
shrimp, crabs, crayfish, and mollusks. Domesticated llamas, guinea pigs, and
ducks were additional sources of food, along with other animals, birds, snails,
and wild plants that were occasionally hunted or gathered. With an abundant
and nutritious diet, the Moche sustained a dense, highly stratified population
and were able to allocate large numbers of workers to the construction and
maintenance of irrigation canal systems, pyramids, palaces, and temples.
The area inhabited by the Moche was not large. At its maximum it includ-
ed only the valleys from Piura to Casma, a distance of approximately 550
kilometers north-south (Fig. 1.1). Its east-west extent was considerably small-
er. Moche settlements are found only between the ocean shoreline and the
point where the valley floodplains narrow as they enter the canyons leading
up into the Andean mountain range — usually a distance of 50 to 80 kilo-
meters. Yet the Moche maintained trade relationships with people living far
beyond the borders of their territory. They obtained lapis lazuli from hun-
dreds of kilometers to the south, in what is now Chile, and Spondylus shells

i n t r o d u c t i o n 3
 from hundreds of kilometers to the north, in what is now Ecuador.
The Moche probably did not have markets or money, but they almost cer-
tainly practiced the system of redistribution characteristic of Andean people
at the time of European contact. Local lords received from their subjects food
and commodities, which they redistributed to nobles of lesser rank. In this
way, vast quantities of food, raw materials, and handmade goods were sys-
tematically collected and redistributed in an efficient manner. The surplus
from redistribution supported a corps of full-time artisans who created objects
for the elite. Many of these items were used by the lords to demonstrate their
power and wealth; others were given by them to lesser nobility to maintain
social and political allegiances and to desseminate ideology. With skilled craft
specialists supported in this way, an ideal climate was created to stimulate
artistic excellence and innovate sophisticated technology.

Figure 1.2 Map of the lower Jequetepeque Valley showing Dos Cabezas, the
archaeological sites that are related to it, and the modern towns.

4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
DOS CABEZAS

Dos Cabezas is a spectacular archaeological site located near the delta of the
Jequetepeque River (Figs. 1.2, 1.3). Extending over an area of approximately
one square kilometer, the site consists of pyramids, palaces, and domestic
structures that reflect a rich and complex Pre-Columbian occupation (Donnan
2001, 2003). It is bordered by the Pacific Ocean on the west, by cultivated
fields on the south and east, and by the Jequetepeque River on the north. The
Jequetepeque River originates at an elevation of more than 2,800 meters in
the Andean Cordillera and flows for more than 150 kilometers before finally
reaching the sea at this location. Here it forms a beautiful intertidal lagoon
filled with fish, waterfowl, and marsh plants. The resources from this lagoon,
combined with those from the adjacent ocean, augmented the abundant food

Figure 1.3 Oblique view of the lower Jequetepeque Valley, looking north.

i n t r o d u c t i o n 5
 that resulted from intensive cultivation of the rich farmland of the lower
Jequetepeque Valley, thus sustaining a dense population in ancient times.
Today, the area is inhabited by only a few families that work in the nearby
fields and graze their cows, sheep, and goats in and around the ancient ruins.
No archaeological excavation had ever been carried out at the site of Dos
Cabezas prior to 1994, when our project began, and little was known about
its ancient occupation. Our excavation there over a period of eight field sea-
sons (1994–2001) demonstrated that the site was occupied as early as the
Preceramic Period, ca. 1800 BC, and may have been inhabited continuously
from that time up to the beginning of the Moche occupation, approximately
AD 200.
The site flourished during the Moche occupation, reaching its greatest
size and population. Most of the monumental architecture was constructed at
that time — Huaca Dos Cabezas (Fig. 1.4) was built, as were four smaller
adobe pyramids to the east of it (designated Huacas 1, 2, 3, and 4 in Fig. 1.5),
and one low platform to the west (designated Area E). A large pyramid was

Figure 1.4 The site of Dos Cabezas, looking southeast. The large structure, Huaca Dos Cabezas,
is in the background, and the flat-topped structure, Huaca La Mesa, is in the center.

6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
also built west of Huaca Dos Cabezas, consisting of thick retaining walls that
encased massive amounts of loose fill (designated Area G).
The Moche occupation appears to have ended around AD 600 as a result
of severe inundation by windblown sand that buried much of the site
(Moseley et al. ms.). Following this abandonment, the site was unoccupied for
several centuries.
Around AD 900, the northern part of the site was reoccupied by people
who used Lambayeque style ceramics. They built the large, flat-topped pyra-
mid called Huaca La Mesa, at the northern part of the site, with smaller pyr-
amids surrounding it, and several large walled enclosures. The Lambayeque
occupation ended around AD 1370. No Chimu, Chimu Inca, or Colonial

Figure 1.5 The site of Dos Cabezas showing the location of the major structures.

i n t r o d u c t i o n 7
 Figure 1.6 Moche fineware ceramic fragments from Dos Cabezas.

Figure 1.7 Moche domestic ceramic fragments from Dos Cabezas.

8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Period material has been found at Dos Cabezas, suggesting that the site was
not occupied after the Lambayeque occupation.
Our excavations in various parts of Dos Cabezas uncovered numerous
fragments of Moche ceramics (Figs. 1.6, 1.7). These included spout fragments,
along with beautifully painted and polished pieces of chambers modeled in
the form of animals, birds, humans, and supernatural creatures. These high-
quality Moche ceramics were repeatedly found associated with common util-
ity ware and figurines that have generally been identified as Gallinazo style
— a style that is generally thought to precede Moche. It is now clear, how-
ever, that this style of domestic ware was used for centuries on the north coast
of Peru, and was produced by both the Gallinazo and Moche people (Donnan
2006b, ms.b).
There were three types of Moche domestic architecture at Dos Cabezas.
The simplest structures had cane walls coated with mud, and dirt floors. More
elaborate architecture had adobe walls and clay floors (Fig. 1.8). The most
elaborate architecture had adobe walls that were plastered with clay and often
painted white, and very well-prepared clay floors. The adobes used in the
domestic structures were large and cane-marked. Similar adobes were used to
construct Huaca Dos Cabezas and the other pyramids and walled enclosures
built by the Moche.

Figure 1.8 Excavation of Moche domestic structures at Dos Cabezas.

i n t r o d u c t i o n 9
 HUACA DOS CABEZAS

The huge structure in the southern part of the site is called Huaca Dos
Cabezas (Fig. 1.9). It is the largest structure ever built in the Jequetepeque
Valley and one of the largest ever constructed in South America. It consists
of a rectangular platform and a pyramid on top of the platform (Figs. 1.9,
1.10). The platform is extremely large, measuring approximately 231 meters
north-south by 167 meters east-west, and rising more than 6 meters above
the surrounding terrain. It was constructed by building a retaining wall
more than 4 meters thick along each of its four sides, and then filling the
area inside these walls with loose sandy fill.
A large truncated pyramid was then constructed on the south side of the
platform near its southwest corner. In contrast to the platform, the pyramid
was built of solid adobe masonry. Today, this pyramid measures approximate-
ly 90 meters north-south by 90 meters east-west, and its summit is more than
30 meters above the surrounding terrain.
A massive adobe wall was also built on top of the large platform.

Figure 1.9 Huaca Dos Cabezas today, looking south.

1 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Extending more than 100 meters along the west side of the platform, it was
at least 8 meters thick and 6 meters high (Figs. 1.10, 1.11). Its south end
abuts the northwest corner of the pyramid. There were probably walls on the
north, east, and south sides of the platform as well, although no evidence of
them has been found. The walls along the sides of the platform would have
created an enormous patio more than 200 meters north-south by 150 meters
east-west, with the pyramid situated near its southwest corner.
During the early Colonial Period, the central portion of the pyramid was
removed during a large-scale looting operation. Nearly the entire center of
the pyramid was dug out, and thousands of cubic meters of broken adobe and
clay mortar were removed through a large cut near the center of its north side.
This material was dumped along the pyramid’s north face, completely bury-
ing much of the construction under an enormous pile of backdirt (Figs. 1.9 -
1.11). This left the summit with two humps or heads — thus the name Huaca
Dos Cabezas (pyramid of two heads). Today, the entire archaeological site is
known simply as Dos Cabezas.
Unfortunately, Huaca Dos Cabezas has been heavily eroded by both
wind and water since its abandonment around AD 600. This erosion and the

Figure 1.10 Original form of Huaca Dos Cabezas, showing dam-

age and backdirt from looting.

i n t r o d u c t i o n 1 1
 damage from the massive looting operation during the early Colonial Period
have togethe made the pyramid’s original size and form extremely difficult to
reconstruct. It is clear, however, that it was built in a series of construction
phases, many of which tended to encapsulate the earlier stages with thick sec-
tions of solid adobe masonry. In the process the pyramid became larger, its
footprint expanded, and it grew in height.

THE SOUTHWEST CORNER OF HUACA DOS CABEZAS

The massive retaining walls of the platform served to contain loose sandy fill,
with rudimentary interior walls of broken adobes that served to stabilize the
fill and maintain its position (Fig. 1.12). Tombs were subsequently construct-

Figure 1.11 Huaca Dos Cabezas, showing where the tombs were located.

1 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 1.12 The southwest corner of Huaca Dos Cabezas, looking northeast.

ed in the upper part of the sandy fill. As the pyramid was enlarged, it even-
tually expanded out over these tombs. During one of its construction phases,
three additional tombs were created, not in the sandy fill of the platform but
above it in the solid adobe masonry of the pyramid.
In the centuries that have passed since Huaca Dos Cabezas was aban-
doned, strong prevailing winds and intermittent periods of heavy rainfall
have extensively eroded its southwest corner. This erosion exposed some of
the tombs that were in the sandy fill of the platform, which led to the recent
looting by grave robbers. These grave robbers also cut into the west face of
the solid adobe pyramid, leaving an area approximately 18 meters north-
south by 15 meters east-west, with scattered pits and piles of backdirt.
In an effort to learn as much as possible about the tombs that had been
looted, we carefully removed the looters’ backdirt (Fig. 1.13). In the process,

i n t r o d u c t i o n 1 3
 all pieces of ceramics, metal, bone, textile, and wood were collected. These
included a great quantity and diversity of objects that had been strewn about
when the tombs were looted. Most common were ceramic fragments, includ-
ing pieces of Moche style fineware and domestic ware — the same types of
ceramics found together in the Moche domestic architecture at Dos Cabezas
(e.g., Figs. 1.6, 1.7).
Llama and human skeletal remains were also abundant. The llama
remains were almost exclusively crania and lower legs — the parts most often
used as offerings in Moche burials. The human bone included the remains of
at least 26 adults, three adolescents, and four infants. Individuals of both sexes
were represented. A few small, badly decomposed textile fragments were
recovered, along with small pieces of copper and gilded copper that were

Figure 1.13 Removing the loose soil that resulted from the
looting of the southwest corner of Huaca Dos Cabezas.

1 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
badly corroded and broken into tiny fragments.
While exposing the piles of looters’ backdirt, we found remnants of sev-
eral burial chambers. They were all oriented north-south (Figs. 1.14, 1.15),
and varied between 250 and 300 centimeters in length, 170 and 200 cen-
timeters in width, and 100 and 120 centimeters in height. Each had been
made by digging a hole in the sandy fill, building a rectangular enclosure of
adobe walls inside the hole, and then moving the loose fill back around the
exterior of the walls. The chambers were roofed with large wood or cane
beams, and then buried with more sand.
The looted tombs were all in the sandy fill of the platform and were on
approximately the same level. Although we excavated into the fill below these
looted tombs, we found no others below them. Therefore, all of the tombs in

Figure 1.14 Remnants of looted tombs revealed when the looted area was cleaned,
looking south. Note the remains of three contiguous tomb chambers on the left.

i n t r o d u c t i o n 1 5
 Figure 1.15 Plan of the southwest corner of Huaca Dos Cabezas showing
remnants of looted tombs, as well as Tomb A and Tomb B.

the fill may well pertain to a single period in the occupation of the site.
Along the east side of the looted area we located two unlooted tombs.
They were on the same level as the tombs that had been recently looted by
grave robbers and were in the same sandy soil (Figs. 1.15, 1.16). They also
were similar in form and construction to the remnants of the looted tombs in
this area. These tombs, which are referred to as Tomb A and Tomb B, are
described in the following chapters.

1 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 1.16 East-west profile across the southwest corner of Huaca Dos
Cabezas showing the looted tomb chambers and Tomb B in the sandy fill.

i n t r o d u c t i o n 1 7
1 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Chapter 2
TOMB A
T omb A was located near the east side of the area looted by grave robbers,
together with Tomb B and the cluster of three contiguous looted tomb cham-
bers (Figs. 1.15, 2.1). Tomb A had been dug into the loose sandy fill of the
platform, and the roof was covered with approximately 60 centimeters of the
1
same sandy soil.
There were numerous objects above and around the roof of the tomb
(Figs. 2.2, 2.3). They were in two clusters, one at the south end of the tomb
(primarily in the southeast corner) and the other at the north end of the tomb
(primarily in the northeast corner). At the south end were ten ofrendas —
small, crudely made vessels that are unpainted and unburnished. There were
also five larger unpainted and unburnished ceramic jars (Fig. 2.3 C1–C5, Fig.
2.4) and a llama skull. In the southeast corner was a well-made jar that was
2
painted with a white-on-red geometric design (Fig. 2.3 C17, Fig. 2.5).

Figure 2.1 Tombs at the east side of the looted area, looking northeast.

t o m b a 1 9
 Figure 2.2 Objects above and around the roof of Tomb A.

2 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 2.3 Objects above and around the roof of Tomb A.

t o m b a 2 1
 Figure 2.4 Unpainted and unburnished ceramic jars above the south end of Tomb A.

Figure 2.5 Painted jar (C17) above the southeast corner of Tomb A (height 21 cm).

2 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 2.6 Unpainted and unburnished ceramic jars above the northeast corner of Tomb A.

Figure 2.7 Copper figure in situ. Figure 2.8 Copper figure after cleaning
and restoration (height 18.6 cm).

t o m b a 2 3
 Figure 2.9 Roof beams over the burial chamber of Tomb A.

At the north end of the tomb were ten ofrendas, three larger unpainted
and unburnished ceramic jars (Fig. 2.3 C46, C47, Fig 2.6), and a parrot skele-
ton. In the northeast corner were 30 ofrendas, one unpainted and unbur-

2 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
nished ceramic jar (Fig. 2.3 C10, Fig. 2.6), a llama skull, and a
bundle of badly decomposed textiles containing a small copper
figure lying on his back with his head to the south. The copper
figure was badly broken from the weight of the soil above it (Fig.
2.7), but it was possible to reconstruct it (Fig. 2.8).
The roof of the tomb was supported by five algarobo
beams that extended north-south over the burial chamber (Fig.
2.9). Three of these were Y-shaped posts of the type frequently
shown in Moche architecture (Fig. 2.10). Remains of caña brava
(Gynerium sagittatum), marsh grass (Phragmites communis), and cat-
tail (Typha angustifolia) were found on top of the roof beams,
apparently the remains of roofing material. Because these mate- Figure 2.10 Moche fineline
rials were extremely decomposed, it was not clear how or in painting of a structure
what sequence they had been used. Nevertheless, the roof clear- with Y-shaped posts.

ly had been substantial and was meant to create an open burial

chamber.
The burial chamber was small. Its interior measured approximately 215
centimeters north-south, 105 centimeters east-west, and 110 centimeters
deep (Fig. 2.11). All four walls of the chamber were made of adobes laid in
fairly even courses. Because the adobes were not set with mortar, however, the
pressure of the soft fill on the outside of the tomb caused portions of the walls
to move into the tomb chamber. The movement was most pronounced on the
long walls – those on the east and west – and less on the shorter north and
south walls. The chamber had no prepared floor but consisted simply of the
loose sandy soil similar to the fill of the platform.
The inside of the burial chamber had originally been an open space, pre-
sumably containing the body of one or more individuals and some associat-
ed objects. As the roofing material decomposed, loose sandy soil fell in and
completely filled the chamber. Before that occurred, however, the burial
chamber was reentered through an opening that was made at the northwest
corner. This must have occurred when the roof was still in good condition and
was supporting the material above it.
Parts of the body of an individual were found near the floor of the bur-
ial chamber (Fig. 2.11). This may have been the individual who had origi-
nally been buried in the tomb. If so, it appears that his body was removed,

t o m b a 2 5
 Figure 2.11 Inside the burial chamber of Tomb A.

2 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
along with any associated objects, and sometime later returned to the burial
chamber.
Before the body was returned, grayish white sand was carefully
smoothed over the bottom of the burial chamber. This sand was then covered
with a textile that subsequently decomposed to a red powder. Portions of this
textile extended up over the lower adobes at the northwest corner where the
burial chamber had been opened.
Assuming that the body parts were those of the individual originally
buried in the tomb, considerable time must have elapsed between when the
body was originally buried and when it was removed and subsequently
returned. The corpse had become so dry that it broke into sections when it
was moved; the legs, arms, and head separated from the torso, and portions
of the limbs broke apart. Nevertheless, enough soft tissue was still preserved
to maintain the articulation of many of the bones. Since none of the bones
had cut marks, the dismemberment must have resulted entirely from the
movement of the body after it had desiccated.
The body was returned in pieces to the burial chamber. The skull
appears to have been returned first. It was placed upright in the northeast cor-
ner of the burial chamber. The other parts of the body appear to have been
returned in no particular order. The right radius was the only missing bone
— presumably misplaced in the process of returning the corpse to the burial
chamber. A few ribs were found where the burial chamber had been opened
at the northwest corner. It is likely that there were ceramics and other objects
originally inside the burial chamber. If so, they must have been removed along
with the individual’s body, but not returned.
Analysis of the skeleton of this individual indicates that he was an adult
male, approximately 18–20 years of age at the time of his death. However, he
was considerably taller than most Moche males. He would have been 175
centimeters in height, while the majority of Moche males ranged between
147 and 167 centimeters (Verano 1997).
The reentry of this burial chamber, removal of its contents, and replace-
ment of the body must have been done by the Moche people who were occu-
pying the site at that time. It is unlikely that the tomb reentry was done clan-
destinely. None of the objects on the roof appears to have been disturbed,
even though it probably would have been easier to enter the burial chamber

t o m b a 2 7
 from above, and at the same time remove the painted jar (Fig. 2.5) and the
copper figure (Fig. 2.8). It is more likely that the reentry was sanctioned and
that the replacement of the body, on top of a textile and carefully smoothed
sand, followed known ritual procedures. The excavation of Tomb B, which is
discussed in the next chapter, provides additional evidence for the ritual
nature of tomb reentry.

NOTES
1
The original field number of this tomb is A53T2.
2
This jar is very similar in form and decoration to a jar found in Tomb 1
(Fig. 7.5).

2 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Chapter 3
TOMB B
T omb B was located near the east side of the area that had been looted by
1
grave robbers (Fig. 1.15). It was east of three contiguous tomb chambers that
they looted, and approximately 2.30 meters north of Tomb A (Fig. 3.1). All
of these tomb chambers were constructed of adobes, in holes that had been
dug into the loose sandy soil that was used as fill to create the platform (see
Chapter 1). Their roofs were all at about the same level.
There was approximately 1.40 meters of sandy fill above the roof of the
Tomb B. In that fill, approximately 1 meter above the roof, there was a young
male (Burial 1), approximately 15–18 years of age, lying on his right side
with his left leg flexed and his head to the south (Fig. 3.2). There were no
artifacts associated with him.

Figure 3.1 Tombs at the east side of the looted area, looking northeast.

t o m b b 2 9
 Approximately 1 meter southwest of this burial were the remains of an
offering consisting of burned textiles and fragments of ceramics that had been
broken over a large stone (Fig. 3.3). The stone had been placed in the soft
sand and some liquid had been poured around it, leaving a thin lamina of fine
soil. A fire was then made over and around the stone and elaborate textiles
were burned, leaving only ash remnants. At least four ceramic vessels were
subsequently broken on the stone and their pieces scattered on top of the
burned textiles. Many fragments from the broken ceramic vessels were miss-
ing, but since the offering was on the margin of the area disturbed by the
grave robbers, it is possible that all of the fragments had originally been left
in place, and some were later removed by the looters. The fragments recov-
ered were from a stirrup spout bottle portraying a seated figure (Fig. 3.4), a
plain jar whose form could not be reconstructed, and a matched pair of large
jars portraying figures chewing coca. One of the latter was complete enough
to be reconstructed (Fig. 3.5). There were also several small ofrendas.

Figure 3.2 Burial 1, partially exposed, in the fill above Tomb B.

3 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 3.3 Remains of the offering above Tomb B.

Figure 3.4 Fragments of a ceramic vessel Figure 3.5 One of two ceramic jars depicting a coca
from the offering above Tomb B. chewer, after reconstruction (height 34.7 cm). From the
offering above Tomb B.

t o m b b 3 1
 At the level of the roof beams along the east side of the tomb were two
adult males. They were lying on their backs in a fully extended position, with
their heads to the south (Figs. 3.6, 3.7). The one furthest to the east (Burial
2) was approximately 20 years of age, while the other (Burial 3) was approx-

Figure 3.6 The material above the roof beams of Tomb B. One
individual, Burial 2, is still in the side wall on the left.

3 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
imately 40 years of age. There were no artifacts associated with either of these
individuals.
Along the south side of the tomb was a female (Burial 4), approximate-
ly 50 years of age, lying extended with her head to the east. Analysis of the

Figure 3.7 Plan of the material above the roof beams of Tomb B.

t o m b b 3 3
 Figure 3.8 An oblique view, looking east, of the material above
the roof beams of Tomb B. Burial 4 is on the far right.

position of her bones indicated that her body was almost certainly curated for
some time before she was buried adjacent to this tomb. Much of her soft tis-
sue had decomposed, allowing the bones in her torso to fall out of position
(Fig. 3.9). Associated with the woman were seven spindle whorls (Fig. 3.10)
and two llama skulls — one beneath her torso and the other beneath her right
thigh.
Two human lower legs with their feet were found above the center of
the roof (Fig. 3.11), and other human bones were found near its southwest
corner (Fig. 3.12). Above the north end of the roof were more bones, includ-
ing the skull of a man about 40 years of age, and parts of a parrot (Fig. 3.13).
The roof was made with large beams extending both north-south and
east-west (Fig. 3.7). Some decomposed organic material was found above and
between the roof beams. It appears to have been cane that formed part of the

3 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 3.9 Burial 4 showing displacement of bones in the torso.

Figure 3.10 Spindle whorls

associated with Burial 4.

Figure 3.11 Human lower Figure 3.12 Human bones Figure 3.13 Parrot on
legs on the roof of Tomb B. on the roof of Tomb B. the roof of Tomb B.

t o m b b 3 5
 roof. These materials were extremely decomposed, however, and it was not
clear how they had been used. Nevertheless, the roof was clearly substantial
and was meant to create an open burial chamber.
The burial chamber was considerably larger than that of Tomb A. Its
interior measured approximately 295 centimeters north-south by 205 cen-
timeters east-west, and 110 centimeters deep. The upper portion of the cham-
ber was filled with chunks of broken adobes and loose fill, along with a few

Figure 3.14 The floor of Tomb B with its associated artifacts.

3 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
human bones, two fragments of copper, and two shell beads. This material
appears to have fallen in as the roof decomposed and collapsed.
On the floor of the burial chamber (Figs. 3.14, 3.15) were 70 ofrendas,
one stirrup spout that had broken off a bottle that was missing (Fig. 3.15 C1),
and most of another stirrup spout bottle in the form of a reclining feline (Fig.
3.15 C2, Fig. 3.16). These ceramics were resting on traces of what appeared
to be a textile that had decomposed, leaving a red and a white residue.

Figure 3.15 Plan of the floor of Tomb B.

t o m b b 3 7
 Figure 3.16 Reclining feline C2 (height 17.4 cm).

Beneath this residue was a layer (approximately 2 centimeters thick) of clean,

grayish white sand that had been carefully smoothed and leveled. Beneath the
sand was the floor of the tomb, which consisted of small chunks of clay.
The tomb did not contain either a skeleton or any additional artifacts,
suggesting that it, like Tomb A, had been reentered sometime after the burial
was completed. There was a hole in the southwest corner of the tomb wall
that would have allowed access to the burial chamber. As with Tomb A, this
could not have been made in recent years by grave robbers; it must have
occurred when the roof was still intact and able to support the material above
it. Otherwise, tunneling into the burial chamber after the roof had collapsed
would have been nearly impossible and would have disturbed the burials and
offerings that were on top of the roof.
Tombs A and B were clearly of the same type and the same time period
as the tombs that had been looted by grave robbers. Their form, construction,
and orientation were the same, and they were on approximately the same level
within the sandy fill of the platform. It is not possible to determine when
Tombs A and B were reentered, although various factors suggest that their

3 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
reentries may have occurred at about the same time: they are adjacent to one
another, both were entered through a corner on the west side of their burial
chambers, both had a thin layer of grayish white sand carefully smoothed
over the floor, and both apparently had a textile placed on this sand, with
objects placed above the textile.
Sometime after Tombs A and B were reentered, the Moche built over
them in a series of construction stages. This clearly demonstrates that the
reentry occurred during the Moche occupation of Dos Cabezas, while the
ceremonial architecture was still being modified.
The construction that covered Tombs A and B occurred along the west
face of the pyramid and consisted of solid adobe masonry. During the expan-
sion, three tombs were built into the new adobe masonry. They are clearly
later in time than Tombs A and B and will be referred to as Tombs 1, 2, and
3 in the chapters that follow.

NOTE
1
The original field number of Tomb B is A50T1.

t o m b b 3 9
4 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Chapter 4
ARCHITECTURAL
MODIFICATIONS
B efore describing the tombs found in the solid masonry construction, it is
important to understand the sequence of construction at the southwest corner of
the pyramid after Tombs A and B were reentered in Moche times. This will make
it possible to understand how Tombs 1, 2, and 3 were subsequently constructed
in the solid masonry above, and how they relate to Tombs A and B in the sand
fill below.
Although we attempted to identify, in as much detail as possible, the succes-
sive construction stages at the southwest corner of the pyramid, our efforts were
limited by four factors:
1) The extensive erosion that has occurred at this corner of the pyramid due
to the prevailing winds from the southwest, combined with periods of rainfall that
have eroded much of the pyramid’s outer surface.
2) The extensive looting in this area which demolished large portions of the
solid masonry construction.
3) The limited scope of our excavation. Every effort was made to dismantle
as little of the architecture as possible. Therefore, nothing was excavated unless
there was compelling reason to believe that it would reveal important information
about the burial patterns or architectural sequence. Some rooms, walls, and floors
extended beyond the limits of our excavation, but to expose them completely
would have required dismantling extensive portions of the pyramid. This was not
warranted, and thus the complete size of many of the rooms, walls, and floors
could not be determined.
4) The lack of absolute dates for the successive stages of construction.
Although we were able to identify the sequence of construction, we could not
determine how much time elapsed between stages, and in some cases whether two

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 4 1
 portions of the architecture were remodeled at the same time or one part was com-
pleted before the other began.
In spite of these limitations, we were able to identify 13 sequential con-
struction stages, based on evidence of successive remodeling and reuse of the
architecture. The first nine stages are discussed in this chapter in order to demon-
strate the changing use of the pyramid’s southwest corner and the chronology of
the burials that we found there.

STAGE 1

As discussed in Chapter 1, the first stage was the construction of a large rectan-
gular platform. Massive retaining walls approximately 4 meters thick and at least

Figure 4.1 Excavation of the architectural modifications at the southwest

corner of the Dos Cabezas pyramid. View looking east.

4 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
7 meters high formed its sides. The area within these retaining walls was filled
with loose sandy material.

STAGE 2

In Stage 2, the platform was used as a cemetery. Holes were dug into the loose
fill and lined with adobes to create rectangular burial chambers, which were
roofed with cane or algarrobo beams. These tombs, which were all on
approximately the same level, included Tombs A and B, as well as the burial
chambers in the sandy fill that had been recently looted by grave robbers
(Figs. 1.15, 1.16, 4.2, 4.3).

Figure 4.2 STAGE 2: Plan of the southwest corner of the platform showing the retaining
walls, the solid adobe pyramid, and the tombs that had been built into the sandy fill.

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 4 3
 Figure 4.3 STAGE 2: East-west profile as indicated in Fig. 4.2, showing the
tomb chambers in the sandy fill of the platform.

STAGE 3

After the tombs in the platform’s sandy fill had been constructed and both
Tombs A and B had been reentered, radical changes took place at the south-
west corner of Huaca Dos Cabezas. In Stage 3, a large room was built against
the west side of the solid adobe pyramid, covering both Tombs A and B (Figs.
4.4, 4.5). The room had two large walls aligned in a north-south orientation.
The wall on the east abutted the pyramid, while the one on the west was fr
standing. The two walls were very well built, smoothly plastered, and paint-
ed white. The floor was divided into rectangular bins, each measuring approx-
imately 90 centimeters by 90 centimeters, with a depth of approximately 46
centimeters. The walls that formed these bins were approximately 20 cen-
timeters thick, and were also smoothly plastered and painted white on all sur-

4 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 4.4 STAGE 3: East-west profile as indicated in Fig. 4.2, showing the room with
bins that was built over tomb chambers in the sandy fill of the platform.

faces. White paint covered the floors of the bins as well. The bins were empty
and exhibited no sign of significant wear or use.
The room had a north-south row of postholes, suggesting that it once
had a roof partially supported by Y-shaped posts (Figs. 4.4, 4.5). The posts
were located at the intersecting walls of the bins and were evenly spaced,
approximately 2 meters apart. The row of posts was not located along the
center of the room, with an equal number of bins on each side of the posts.
Instead, there were two rows of bins west of the posts and four rows east of
1
them. The entrance to this room was probably at its north or south end, but
the south end had been destroyed by grave robbers and the north end was
beyond the limit of our excavation.
It may be that the entire southwest corner of the sand-filled platform
was covered over at this time with a floor and/or additional buildings.

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 4 5
 Figure 4.5 STAGE 3: A room with white bins was constructed over
the sandy fill of the platform, covering Tombs A and B.

Alternatively, the western part of it could have remained as an open cemetery

area while only the eastern part was covered with new construction.
Unfortunately, the extensive looting in this area destroyed all evidence that
would resolve this issue.
It is possible that the white bins in the room were for storage. An area
of high-status domestic architecture at the Pyramids at Moche had two small
rooms, each divided into four bins by low walls (Pozorski and Pozorski,
2003). The floors and walls of those bins were plastered but not painted; it
is assumed that they were for storage. If the large room with white bins at Dos
Cabezas was for storage, it may have been to store prestigious commodities
— perhaps serving for the massive accumulation of wealth that was ware-
housed by the ruling elite.

4 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 4.6 STAGE 3: Plan of the southwest corner of the platform showing the retaining
walls, the solid adobe pyramid, and the room with bins that was built over Tombs A and B.

Figure 4.7 Remnants of the

bins on the floor of the room
constructed during Stage 3.

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 4 7
 Figure 4.8 STAGE 3: North-south profile as indicated in Fig. 4.6, showing the room
with bins that was built over the sandy fill of the platform.

STAGE 4

Sometime after the large room with white bins was constructed, there was
another major period of building. The solid masonry construction of the
pyramid was expanded further west, completely covering the northern por-
tion of the room with bins (Fig. 4.9). A thick (approximately 90 centimeters)
east-west wall was built, dividing what remained of the large room into a
small North Room and a larger South Room (Fig. 4.10). To build this wall,
the bins where the wall was to be located were demolished to floor level, the
wall was constructed, and the bins abutting it on both sides were repaired.
The repaired bins, as well as the sides of the new wall, were smoothly plas-
tered and painted white. The original north-south row of posts was main-
tained, and one of the posts was encapsulated by the thick east-west wall that
divided the North Room from the South Room.
The east side of the North Room was reduced by the construction of a
large solid bulk to support a high walkway along the west face of the pyra-
mid (Fig. 4.9). This walkway turned east into the pyramid, presumably giv-
ing access to an interior room.

4 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 4.9 STAGE 4: The room with bins was reduced in width and
divided into the North Room and South Room.

Figure 4.10 View look-

ing northeast showing the
remnant of the wall
between the North Room
and the South Room.

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 4 9
 A solid bulk of adobes was constructed along the east wall of the South
Room, thus reducing its width from approximately 6 meters to approximate-
ly 4 meters (Figs. 4.9, 4.11). As a result, the row of posts became centered
along the north-south axis of the room, with two rows of bins on the west
and two rows on the east. The new east wall of this room rose to a height of
approximately 2.5 meters, and then was stepped back approximately 85 cen-
timeters before extending higher. Its original height could not be determined
because of erosion.

Figure 4.11 STAGE 4: East-west profile as indicated in Fig. 4.6, showing the solid bulk
of adobes that reduced the width of the South Room.

5 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
STAGE 5

During Stage 5, a significant change occurred in the North Room. Its west
wall was dismantled, thus giving access to the room from the west (Figs. 4.12,
4.13). The white bins in the North Room were also removed, and a thin layer
of clay was applied to the floor to make it smooth. The walls of the bins that
abutted the lower part of the north, south, and east walls of the North Room
were also covered with a thin layer of clay (Fig. 4.13). The two posts in this
room remained in use, presumably to support a roof.

Figure 4.12 STAGE 5: The west wall of the North Room and the bins on its floor were dismantled.

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 5 1
 Figure 4.13 The North Room viewed looking east. Note the two postholes near the far wall.

STAGE 6

At this stage, preparation was made for the next major building phase. It
would expand the solid construction of the pyramid 2.80 meters to the west,
thus covering the remaining portions of both the North Room and the South
Room, and would extend the solid bulk of the pyramid out over the area
where Tomb A and Tomb B were located.
When Stage 6 began, all of the posts were removed from both the North
and South Rooms (Figs. 4.14, 4.15). Removal of the post that was encapsu-

5 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 4.14 STAGE 6: The west wall and the bins of the South
Room were dismantled and all of the posts were removed.

lated in the thick east-west wall separating these rooms left a deep scar in the
south side of the wall (Figs. 4.14, 4.16).
The west wall of the South Room was dismantled to approximately 30
centimeters above the floor, as were the walls of the white bins adjacent to it.
This left these bins approximately 30 centimeters deep, with the upper part
of their walls rough and irregular (Fig. 4.7). All other bins in the South Room
were dismantled to floor level, leaving squares of white where their floors had
been, surrounded by intersecting bands of unpainted clay floor (Figs. 4.14,
2
4.16).

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 5 3
 Figure 4.15 STAGE 6: East-west profile as indicated in Fig. 4.6, showing the removal
of the posts and bins in the South Room and the dismantled west wall.

5 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 4.16 View of the South Room looking north. Holes along the center
of the room indicate where posts were located, and traces of white pigment
indicate the floors of the bins that were dismantled to floor level. Note the
deep scar on the far wall where a post was removed.

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 5 5
 STAGE 7

The floors of the North and South Rooms were covered with layers of adobes.
This encapsulated the bins along the west side of the South Room, which had
been only partially demolished, and raised the floor of the North Room. The
construction involved spreading a layer of clay over a large area and, while
the clay was still moist, covering it with a layer of adobes. Dirt mixed with
broken adobe was then filled in around the edges of the adobes, and anoth-
er layer of clay was spread on top of them. Then another layer of adobes was
put in place, and more dirt with broken adobe was filled in around them. This
procedure was repeated layer by layer to create a large mass of solid adobe
masonry (Fig. 4.17).

Figure 4.17 STAGE 7: Nearly the entire North Room was filled with solid adobe masonry to the height of
the wall separating it from the South Room. The South Room was partially filled with layers of adobes.

5 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Apparently, after the first layer of adobes above Tombs A and B was in
place, the builders noticed that the area of new construction above Tomb B
was not rigid. Perhaps the roof beams spanning the large burial chamber were
sagging under the weight of the newly constructed masonry, or perhaps some
of the burials on top of its roof beams had partially decomposed and the
weight of the new masonry pressed down on them, causing the layer of
adobes to slump. In an effort to correct this, the builders placed a diagonal
row of beams on top of the first layer of adobes that had been laid above
Tomb B (Fig. 4.18) and filled the spaces between the beams with clay. These
diagonal beams helped support the weight of the additional masonry that
would be constructed above this tomb, thus preventing the adobes above the
tomb chamber from slumping. Once the diagonal beams were in place, con-
struction of the solid adobe masonry continued as before.
There were no diagonal beams above Tomb A. The builders apparently
did not feel that the masonry in this area needed to be reinforced, possibly
because the burial chamber of Tomb A was considerably smaller than that of

Figure 4.18 Wood beams were placed diagonally over the adobes above Tomb B to prevent the new construction
from slumping under the weight of the solid adobe masonry that was being added to fill the South Room.

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 5 7
 Tomb B, and the roof beams could span the distance between its walls with-
out sagging under the weight of the masonry above. Also, there were no par-
tially decomposed bodies on the roof of Tomb A that would have compressed
under the weight of the overlying masonry, causing the adobes to slump.
The newly raised floor of the North Room was given another layer of
clay, and pieces of animal bone were embedded in it along its east side. The
bones were fairly evenly spaced at intervals of approximately 65 centimeters.
Their function is unknown. Nevertheless, the new layer of clay on the North
Room floor suggests that it was in use while the South Room was being filled
with successive layers of adobes.

Figure 4.19 STAGE 7: East-West profile as indicated in Fig. 4.6,

showing the South Room partially filled with layers of adobes.

5 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
STAGE 8

While layers of adobes were being added to fill the South Room, there was a
major period of rainfall that caused severe damage to the pyramid. Two deep
erosion channels were cut into the west wall of the South Room, and as water
cascaded down them it splashed against the upper surface of the recently laid
adobes, creating two rounded concavities (Figs. 4.20, 4.21). Water that
flowed across the top course of new adobes in the South Room made the
adobes fuse with the mortar around them. When this dried, it became a much
denser and harder matrix than the adobe levels below them.

Figure 4.20 STAGE 8: East-west profile as indicated in

Fig. 4.6, showing the erosion caused by heavy rainfall.

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 5 9
 Figure 4.21 STAGE 8: Before the South Room was filled with solid adobe masonry,
a period of heavy rainfall cut two large erosion channels in the west wall of the
pyramid and created large concavities in the newly constructed masonry .

6 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 4.22 STAGE 9: Adobes were removed to enlarge the two eroded concavities in the
South Room, thus making them into the burial chambers of Tomb 2 and Tomb 3. A small
compartment at the north end of each tomb was also created by removal of adobes.

STAGE 9

After the rains stopped, Tomb 1, Tomb 2, and Tomb 3 were constructed. The
location of the burial chambers of Tombs 2 and 3 seems to have been deter-
mined by the location of the two rounded concavities that were created by
water erosion. These were simply enlarged and deepened to the desired size
and shape of burial chambers by breaking out adobes from the recently con-
structed masonry bulk (Figs. 4.22–4.24).

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 6 1
 Figure 4.23 STAGE 9: East-west profile as indicated in Fig. 4.6, showing the
enlargement of an eroded concavity to create the burial chamber of Tomb 2.

Figure 4.24 STAGE 9: North-south profile as indicated in Fig. 4.6, showing the
enlargement of eroded concavities to create the burial chambers of Tomb 2 and Tomb 3.

6 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Clearly, there were numerous successive modifications of the architecture
between the time that Tombs A and B were covered over and the time that
Tombs 1, 2, and 3 were constructed. This implies that considerable time
elapsed between the two sets of tombs. Precisely how much time is impossi-
ble to determine, but it must have been a minimum of several years (see
Chapter 8).
There is evidence that Tombs 1, 2 and 3 were all constructed within a
brief time period. The tombs are numbered in the order that we excavated
them; however, Tombs 2 and 3 appear to be slightly earlier than Tomb 1.
Therefore, they are discussed first in the chapters that follow.

NOTES

1
If the roof was flat, placing the posts along the center of the room would
have been more functional in evenly distributing the weight of the beams
and roofing material.
2
The different degree of demolition may be because they were planning to
build solid masonry to a considerable height, with considerable weight,
above the area they demolished to floor level, whereas the area where the
bins were partially left standing was simply to become a low bench, with
relatively little weight.

a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s 6 3
6 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Chapter 5
TOMB 2
T omb 2 was one of three tombs that were found in the solid adobe con-
1
struction of the pyramid. All three tombs and their adjacent compartments
were located along a north-south axis (Fig. 5.1). The burial chamber of Tomb
2 was in an eroded pocket in the adobe masonry that was created during a
period of intense rainfall, when water cascaded down the west face of the
pyramid and splashed onto the upper surface of the recently constructed addi-
tion (see Chapter 4, STAGE 9). The erosion cut into the new addition and
into the west face of the pyramid. The Moche simply enlarged this newly
eroded pocket by breaking adobes out of both the old and new construction
to create a burial chamber measuring approximately 330 centimeters north-
south, 150 centimeters east-west, and 115 centimeters deep. This left the
sides of the chamber irregular.
In contrast, the floor of the burial chamber was a smooth clay surface
with traces of white pigment. This pigment was not applied at the time the
tomb was constructed but remained from the earlier construction of the room
with white bins (see Chapter 4, STAGE 3). The builders of the tomb cham-
ber probably discovered this earlier floor accidentally and decided to use it as
the tomb floor.
Above the roof of the burial chamber were two skeletons, a human and
a llama, lying parallel to one another with their heads to the south (Figs. 5.2,
5.3). The human was a female, approximately 15 years old, lying fully
extended on her stomach with her right arm flexed so that her right hand was
beneath her right shoulder. A small copper bead was adjacent to the west side
of her neck, but it may not have been deliberately placed next to her. It may
have simply been in the fill that was put around her body at the time of bur-
ial. There were no artifacts associated with the llama.
The young female and llama were probably sacrificed, although there

t o m b 2 6 5
 was no sign of violent death. Neither had any
traces of textile or cane encasing them. They were
lying on a surface of mud bricks with additional
mud bricks around and between them, thus creat-
ing a separate enclosure for each. Once the bod-
ies were in position, the space around them was
filled with dirt and chunks of broken adobe.
The first layer of adobes beneath the female
and llama had been laid without mortar. The
adobes had been previously used, but were whole
and in good condition. Their placement was
irregular. In contrast, the second layer of adobes

Figure 5.1 Plan of the three Figure 5.2 The female and llama
tombs in the solid adobe pyramid. above the roof of Tomb 2.

6 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 5.3 Plan of the layer above the roof
of Tomb 2 showing the female and llama.

t o m b 2 6 7
 beneath the female and the llama was well ordered. It consisted of 40 adobes,
carefully positioned with 20 adobes at the north end separated by a space
from 20 more adobes at the south end (Figs. 5.4. 5.5). Each set of 20 was
arranged in four rows, with five adobes in each row.

Figure 5.4 The layer of adobes on top of the roof beams. Note the impres-
sions of the decomposed roof beams under the adobes in the foreground.

6 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 5.5 Plan of the adobes above the roof beams.

t o m b 2 6 9
 The layer of 40 adobes rested directly on top of wooden beams that
formed the roof of the burial chamber. The beams were completely decom-
posed; only a soft powder remained of what had been wood. Nevertheless,
their size and form could be reconstructed from the impressions they left in
the soil around them (Fig. 5.6). Ten large beams extended north-south, rest-
ing on the edges of the burial chamber. Under these were four transverse
beams extending east-west. The east ends of the transverse beams were insert-
ed into holes that had been cut into the west face of the pyramid, while the
west ends rested on the edge of
2
the burial chamber. One crooked
beam was found at the southwest
corner of the tomb (Fig. 5.7); its
function is not clear.
Near the south end of the
tomb there was a length of cane
extending east-west on top of the
roof beams (Fig. 5.7). It helped
support a thick layer of cane
extending north-south over the
southern one-third of the funer-
ary chamber. Although this cane
layer was badly decomposed, it
appears to have been originally
about 10 centimeters thick. This
would have created a substantial
roof over the south end of the
tom b — over the head of the
tomb’s occupant in the burial
3
chamber below.

Figure 5.6 Cleaning the impressions of the decomposed roof beams.

7 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 5.7 Plan of the roof beams.

t o m b 2 7 1
 The burial chamber was filled with tightly compacted sand that tended
to be banded horizontally or in slightly tilted layers. In some areas there were
thin laminae of fine clay among these bands. These deposits were not there
when the roof was constructed but accumulated slowly and intermittently
during subsequent centuries — presumably during periods of rainfall, when
water seeping through the pyramid’s adobe matrix would have washed sedi-
ments into the tomb chamber. At first only small amounts would have
entered, but as time passed and the roof began to decompose, greater quan-
4
tities of material were deposited. There were also some chunks of broken
adobe within the bands of sand and clay. They apparently broke off the side
walls or fell through the roof while the sand and clay were filling the cham-
ber.
The clay floor of the burial chamber had been covered with approxi-
5
mately 2 centimeters of grayish white sand. All of the contents of the cham-
ber were then placed on top of this sand. The principal individual was in the
center of the floor, wrapped in a large bundle of textiles (Figs. 5.8, 5.9). The
sides and upper portion of the bundle were then covered with a thick layer
of fine, moist clay. This clay shell had broken with the compression of mate-
rial above it as the roof decomposed. Large chunks of it were found on top of
the decomposed textiles of the funerary bundle. The clay near the floor, in
most areas, was well preserved. At the south end of the bundle the clay was
approximately 11 centimeters thick, and became thinner toward the north
end.
The clay was extremely well refined, consisiting of clay platelets with
almost no impurities. When we conducted experiments to determine its suit-
ability for making ceramic vessels, it proved to be ideal for that purpose. Even
without adding temper, it did not crack during either drying or firing.
Moreover, as it dried, its surfaces could be burnished to achieve a very glossy
appearance. Thus, encasing the funerary bundle with this clay appears to have
been a deliberate use of very high-quality material.

7 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 5.8 The floor of Tomb 2 with the funerary bundle in the center. Remnants
of the clay that had encased it can be seen around the margins of the bundle.
Ceramics and animal remains were placed near the corners of the chamber.

t o m b 2 7 3
 Figure 5.9 Floor plan of Tomb 2 showing the funerary bundle
and the objects placed near the corners of the chamber.

7 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Because the clay was still moist when it was placed over the bundle, its
inner surface retained impressions of the textile that formed the bundle’s
outer wrapping — a coarse twill weave cloth, almost certainly made of cot-
ton (Fig. 5.10). Its outer surface carried impressions of a herringbone weave
mat that had covered it (Fig. 5.11). This mat had almost entirely decomposed,
and thus its placement and dimensions could not be reconstructed. It is clear,
however, that it covered the southern half of the funerary bundle and extend-
ed over much of the floor at the south end of the burial chamber.
A great quantity and variety of objects had been wrapped inside the

Figure 5.10 Twill weave textile impression from

the interior of the moist clay that was packed
around the funerary bundle (width 11.5 cm).

Figure 5.11 Herringbone weave impression from a woven

mat that was placed over the exterior of the moist clay packed
around the funerary bundle (height 8.7 cm).

t o m b 2 7 5
 Figure 5.12 Plan of the objects in Layer 1 inside the funerary bundle.

7 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
funerary bundle, but because the textiles had decomposed to a powdery mass,
it was not possible to determine the relationship between distinct textile lay-
ers and the objects wrapped within them. Therefore, the objects were arbi-
trarily recorded in six successive layers as they were excavated, and the
description that follows is organized according to these layers.

LAYER 1

In the first layer (Fig. 5.12) there was a large copper bowl, shaped like a
gourd, with a dimple at the center of its base (Fig. 5.12 M57). It was upside
down near the south end of the bundle (Fig. 5.13). There was a small pair
of gilded copper tweezers northwest of it (Fig. 5.12 M68, Fig. 5.14) and an
axe-like copper implement over the central part of the bundle (Fig. 5.12
M46, Fig. 5.15). The latter originally had a wooden handle that fit into its
base, held in place with copper rivets.

Figure 5.13 Large copper bowl shaped like a gourd M57 (diameter 35.5 cm).

Figure 5.14 Tweezers M68 (height 3.4 cm). Figure 5.15 Axe-like copper implement M46 (height 10.4 cm).

t o m b 2 7 7
 In the powdered residue of decomposed textiles along the upper part of
the bundle, there were ten headdresses. Most were made of open-ended cylin-
ders of basketry that would fit over the head like a crown. The cylinders were
made with coils of junco grass (Juncus sp.) bound with white cotton thread
and then covered with textile. Most of them had platelets of gilded copper
attached to the textile around the periphery of the basketry cylinder (e.g.,
Figs. 5.16–5.21). The platelets were of two types: small undecorated platelets
suspended horizontally from wire rings along the top and bottom borders of
the cylinder, and large decorated platelets sewn to the central portion. Some
of the headdresses had decorated platelets only in front, while the back was
covered with columns of identical small rectangular platelets that formed
borders around the top and bottom of the cylinders (e.g., Figs. 5.16, 5.18).

Figure 5.16 Headdress M6. Left, one of the platelets (height 12.2 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

7 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 5.17 Headdress M7. Left, one of the platelets (height 4.1 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

Figure 5.18 Headdress M8. Left, one of the platelets (height 3.9 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

t o m b 2 7 9
 Figure 5.19 Headdress M9. Left, one of the platelets (height 4.1 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

Figure 5.20 Headdress M12. Left, one of the platelets (height 12 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

8 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.21 Headdress M11. Left, one of the platelets (height 3.9 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

At the time of the burial, each of the cylindrical headdresses had been
turned on its side and flattened before it was placed over the body. Although
the basketry and textile material used to construct the headdresses had almost
6
completely decomposed, the platelets were still in position (Fig. 5.22). They
were usually found spread over a distinct rectangular area, which is outlined
on the drawings of the objects inside the funerary bundle (Fig. 5.12).

Figure 5.22 Headdress platelets in situ. Headdress M6 in the center portion

of the photograph and platelets of Headdress M7 in the upper portion.

t o m b 2 8 1
 The headdresses were in a north-south row over the east side of the indi-
vidual’s body, usually with the southern edge of one headdress overlapping
the northern edge of the adjacent one (Fig. 5.12). This overlapping indicated
that the first headdress was placed over the upper part of the body, near the
head, and the others were then added sequentially toward the feet.
Each headdress was unique, and many different styles were represented.
The headdress at the north end of the funerary bundle (Fig. 5.12 M6), pre-
sumably the last placed over the body, had tall rectangular platelets in front
and columns of border platelets in back (Fig. 5.16). Each of its front platelets
depicts five Crested Animal heads. The Crested Animal is a mythical figure
that is frequently depicted in Moche art. It has a large crest that spirals back
from the top of its head and a smaller crest spiraling over its snout. In this
case, the spiral over the snout is not shown but the head is nearly identical to
two Crested Animals depicted on ceramic vessels in this tomb (e.g., Fig.
5.120), and the spiral from the bottom of each head may represent a seahorse
tail.
The next three headdresses (Fig. 5.12 M7, M8, M9) had rectangular
platelets arranged in a checkerboard fashion in three horizontal rows (Figs.
5.17–5.19). The platelets on these headdresses depict a geometric pattern
(Fig. 5.17), the Crested Animal with the lower body of a seahorse (Fig. 5.18),
and two stylized bird heads (Fig. 5.19).
The next headdress (Fig. 5.12 M11) also had tall rectangular platelets
with three sets of stylized bird heads (Fig. 5.20). The next headdress (Fig.
5.12 M11) had platelets depicting bats with their wings spread (Fig. 5.21),
sewn to the headdress in three horizontal rows, the center row having a space
between each platelet.
The next headdress (Fig. 5.12 M74) was unique among those in the
funerary bundle, since it was not made over a basketry cylinder. Although the
organic material had almost completely decomposed, the headdress appears
to have been a donut-shaped ring of junco grass that was covered with tex-
7
tile, with numerous gilded copper discs attached with wires to its exterior.
All of the remaining headdresses in this layer of objects were made on
basketry cylinders. One (Fig. 5.12 M5) had small rectangular platelets with
geometric representations of two rays, one facing up and the other facing

8 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.23 Headdress M5. Left, one of the platelets (height 4.1 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

down (Figs. 5.23, 5.24). The design is created

entirely with cutout sections instead of low
relief. The back side of the platelets had
impressions of feathers that suggest they had
been sewn to a basketry cylinder covered with
a feathered textile (Fig. 5.24).

Figure 5.24 A platelet from Headdress

M5 (height 4.1 cm) with impressions of
feathers in the surface corrosion.

t o m b 2 8 3
 The final two headdresses in this layer were not made of platelets of
gilded copper but rather of decorated bands of gilded copper that were sewn
around the exterior of basketry cylinders. The first (Fig. 5.12 M72, 73) had
two bands depicting Decapitators, anthropomorphized creatures holding
tumis (Figs. 5.25, 5.26). The two bands were found overlapping one another,
suggesting that the headdress was only two-thirds the height of the other
headdresses that had been excavated.

Figure 5.25 A portion of the band of Headdress

M72, 73 after cleaning (height 4.2 cm).

Figure 5.26 Headdress M72, 73. Left, a portion of one of the bands (height 4.2 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

8 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.27 A portion of a decorated band from Headdress M1, 2, 3 after cleaning (height 4.4 cm).

Figure 5.28 Headdress M1, 2, 3. Left, a portion of one of the decorated bands (height 4.4 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

In contrast, the bands of the second headdress (Fig. 5.12 M1, 2, 3, Fig.
5.27) were separate from one another when found, suggesting that they had
been sewn around the top and bottom of a cylinder of more typical height
(Fig. 5.28). The bands were decorated with a repeating pattern of two bird
heads. Beneath this headdress was a gilded copper headdress ornament (Fig.
5.12 M4) in the form of a plume with ten feathers (Fig. 5.29).

t o m b 2 8 5
 Figure 5.29 Gilded copper plume M4 after cleaning (height 24.9 cm).

LAYER 2

In the second layer of objects within the funerary bundle (Fig. 5.30) there
were two more headdresses. One (Fig. 5.30 M13, 14) was made with bands
decorated with a complex geometric scroll motif (Fig. 5.31). The space
between the bands when they were in situ suggests that they had been sewn
around the top and bottom of a tall basketry cylinder.
The second headdress in this layer (Fig. 5.30 M15) is unusual in having
gilded copper platelets in the form of volutes (Fig. 5.32). Though distinct
from the rectangular platelets sewn to other headdresses, the volutes were
arranged in formal vertical columns to provide a similar appearance.

8 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 5.30 Plan of the objects in Layer 2 inside the funerary bundle.

t o m b 2 8 7
 Figure 5.31 Headdress M13, 14. Left, a portion of one of the bands (height 4.1 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

Figure 5.32 Headdress M15. Left, a column of platelets (height of column 11.4 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

8 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 In addition to these headdresses, Layer 2 contained two rows of flat
trapezoidal gilded copper platelets (Fig. 5.30 M16). One was above the other,
with 16 platelets in each row (Fig. 5.33). Their size and position suggest that
they decorated the hem of a shirt approximately 72 centimeters wide. The
central portion of the shirt (Fig. 5.30 M71), which had almost entirely
decomposed, appears to have consisted of a textile covered with variously
shaped platelets sewn onto it (Fig. 5.34). Only a small portion of these
platelets appeared to be in their original position (Fig. 5.35); the others had
shifted position as the funerary bundle and its organic contents decomposed.
The platelets that were still in their original position appeared to be random- Figure 5.33 A gilded
ly placed, but they may well have been part of a larger image or pattern. copper platelet from
M16 (height 8.5 cm).
Nearly all of the platelets that decorated this shirt — the variously
shaped platelets covering its central portion, as well as the trapezoidal
platelets that decorated the hem — had traces of feathers in their surface cor-
rosion. This suggests that the shirt was made of a feathered textile.

Figure 5.34 The types of platelets Figure 5.35 The pattern of platelets in M71 that
in M71, with the number of each appeared to be in their original position.
that were recovered.

t o m b 2 8 9
 LAYER 3

In the third layer of objects within the funerary bundle (Fig. 5.36) there was
a headdress consisting of a tall cylindrical sheet of gilded copper with a row
of gilded copper discs around its upper and lower edges (Fig. 5.36 M25, Fig.
5.37). It is not clear if it had been attached to the exterior of a basketry cylin-
der.

Figure 5.36 Plan of the objects in Layer 3 inside the funerary bundle.

9 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Adjacent to the cylindrical headdress were two gilded copper
headdress ornaments. One is a large crescent flanked by male figures
with monkeys above their heads (Fig. 5.36 M24, Fig. 5.38). The
other is a feather plume of gilded copper (Fig. 5.36 M70) that is near-
ly identical to the one found directly above it in Layer 1 (Fig. 5.29).
These gilded feather plumes may have been used to adorn one or
more of the headdresses in this tomb. Because the large crescent-
shaped ornament was found between the two shaped like feather
plumes, it is also possible that the three may have been used togeth-
er, with the plumes flanking the crescent the way they are sometimes
shown in Moche art (Fig. 5.39).
Also in Layer 3 there were two circular shields covered with
platelets of gilded copper (Fig. 5.36 M18, M27). One (Fig. 5.40) has

Figure 5.37 Headdress M25

(height 16.5 cm). Its original
appearance.

Figure 5.38 Headdress ornament of gilded

copper M24 (height 14.7 cm).

Figure 5.39 Moche fineline painting of a

warrior wearing a headdress with plumes
flanking a crescent-shaped ornament.

t o m b 2 9 1
 rectangular platelets, while the other (Fig. 5.41) has triangular platelets.
Although nearly all of the organic material used in their construction had
decomposed, it was clear that they were made of a cane framework that was
covered with a textile. The gilded copper platelets were then sewn on the tex-
tile, covering the front side of the shield.
Positioned between the shields were two small birds made of gilded
copper (Fig. 5.36 M17, Fig. 5.42). Although their function is not clear, per-
forations along their edges suggest that they were to be sewn to a textile.

Figure 5.40 Shield with rectangular platelets

M18 (diameter 32.3 cm). Right, after cleaning.

Figure 5.41 Shield with triangular Figure 5.42 Two small gilded copper
platelets M27 (diameter 32.6 cm). birds M17(height of upper 6.6 cm).

9 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
LAYER 4

The fourth layer of objects within the funerary bundle (Fig. 5.43) included
another cylindrical headdress with three bands of gilded copper (Fig. 5.43

Fig. 5.43 Plan of the objects in Layer 4 inside the funerary bundle.

t o m b 2 9 3
 M22, 23, Figs. 5.44, 5.45). The center band is plain, while the upper and
lower bands are decorated with Decapitators similar to those on the banded
headdress found in the first layer of objects within the funerary bundle (Figs.
5.25, 5.26). The Decapitators in that headdress, however, are low-relief
designs accentuated with cut-out sections. In this headdress the Decapitators
are created exclusively in low relief .
Beneath the banded headdress was another crescent-shaped headdress
ornament of gilded copper (Fig. 5.43 M69, Fig. 5.46). It is about the same

Figure 5.44 A portion of the band of Headdress M22, 23 after cleaning (height 5.3 cm).

Figure 5.45 Headdress M22, 23. Left, a portion of one of the bands (height 5.3 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

9 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
size as the one found in the third layer (Fig. 5.38), but it is not flanked
by human figures.
North of this headdress ornament was a group of small rectangu-
lar copper platelets (Fig. 5.43 M19). Each platelet was approximately 2
by 2.4 centimeters, and together they covered an area approximately 8
centimeters north-south by 15 centimeters east-west. The function of
these platelets is not clear, but they may have been part of a banner sim-
8
ilar to those that are sometimes depicted in Moche art (Fig. 5.47).
The individual inside the funerary bundle was an adult male lying
Figure 5.46 Headdress ornament
on his back in an extended position with his arms at his sides and his M69 (height 32.4 cm).
head to the south. The large copper bowl found in Layer 1 in the upper
part of the funerary bundle (Fig. 5.12 M57, Fig. 5.13) had been turned
upside down over his head.
Beneath the bowl, and directly over the face of the individual was
a metal burial mask (Fig. 5.43 M58, Figs. 5.48–5.53). Along the upper
left side of the mask were numerous small platelets of gilded copper
(Figs. 5.48. 5.49) that had originally been attached with wire loops to a
textile, possibly a head cloth or turban. As the textile decomposed, the
platelets fell out of position and cascaded down around the mask.

Figure 5.47 Moche depiction of a war-

rior holding a banner in his right hand.

Figure 5.49 The types of gilded copper platelets

Figire 5.48 Burial mask M58 in situ. Note the platelets of found adjacent to the mask, with the number of each
gilded copper above and around the upper part of the mask. that were recovered.

t o m b 2 9 5
 Figure 5.50 The burial mask M58 after cleaning (height 27.5 cm).

9 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 The mask is almost lifesize and has a gilded
copper nose ornament. The eyes are inlaid with
white shell and dark violet-colored stones repre-
senting the pupils of the eyes. Small discs of gild-
ed copper, each suspended from a wire projecting
out from the lower part of the face, appear to rep-
resent a beard. A separate band of gilded copper
covering the eyebrows and the bridge of the nose
is incised with a geometric design of interlocking
rays. Across the forehead is another gilded copper
band with a repetitive diamond shape, incised with
a chevron pattern. Both of these bands are attached
with tabs.

Figure 5.51 Front of the burial mask

M58 after cleaning, with the nose
ornament removed (height 27.5 cm).

Figure 5.52 Detail of the eye of the burial mask Fig. 5.53 Nose ornamrnt
(M58), the staple used to attach the eye band, and from the burial mask M58
the discs suspended from wire loops . (height 5.4 cm).

t o m b 2 9 7
 Figure 5.54 The face of the individual. There Figure 5.55 Nose ornament that was nearest the indi-
were two ornaments below his nose and one vidual’s face (width 7.5 cm). Above, front after cleaning.
along the left side of his face. Below, back before cleaning, with red pigment.

Immediately beneath the burial mask was the individual’s skull, which
had been broken by the weight of material above it (Fig. 5.54). There were
three ornaments in the area of his mouth (Figs. 5.55–5.57). One was a nose
ornament consisting of a semirectangular sheet of gold surrounded by a geo-
metric step design of silver (Fig. 5.55). It was found adjacent to the individ-
ual’s face and may have been worn by him at the time of burial. Its inside sur-
face had traces of red pigment, as did some of the bones of his face. This
suggests that his face was painted red, possibly with cinnabar, when he was
buried, and some of the pigment transferred to the inside of the nose orna-
ment as his body decomposed.
The second nose ornament had fallen down along the left side of his
face. It is crafted of gold in the form of an X, with a monkey head in the cen-
ter flanked by Crested Animals (Fig. 5.56). Above the monkey head are two
serpents. The left eye of the monkey is inlaid with black stone. The inlay from
the right eye is missing.

9 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.56 Gold nose ornament with the head Figure 5.57 Gold disc with wire
of a monkey (width 9 cm). loop (diameter 3.8 cm).

The third ornament, which was found over his lower face, was a gold
disc with a loop of gold wire (Fig. 5.57). One side of the disc is plated with
white gold, giving it a silvery appearance that contrasted with the yellow gold
of the other side. It may have been one of a pair of ear ornaments, similar to
those frequently depicted in Moche art (Fig. 5.58). Alternatively, it could have
been another nose ornament, since there was only one in the tomb, and it was
found over the face rather than in the area of the ears. Moreover, a human
head looted from the Moche tomb at La Mina (Narvaez 1994) wears a nose
ornament consisting of a gold disc suspended from a wire loop (Fig. 5.59).

Figure 5.58 Moche portrait vessel showing Figure 5.59 Moche metal object depicting
an individual wearing disc ear ornaments an individual wearing a disc nose ornament
with wire loops. Not from Dos Cabezas. with wire loop. Not from Dos Cabezas.

t o m b 2 9 9
 Figure 5.60 The five gold objects that were
in the individual’s mouth, as found.

There were five gold objects in the individual’s mouth — four nose
9
ornaments and a piece of thin gold foil. All appear to have been deliberate-
ly folded or misshapen (Fig. 5.60). A gold, oval-shaped nose ornament was
folded in half. Another gold nose ornament, in the form of an owl head, was
compressed inward from the sides and its beak was bent out of position. Two
other gold nose ornaments, hinged so the lower part could swing freely, had
been dented, and one had a corner bent at a right angle. The piece of gold
foil was crumpled into a small lump.
These objects were later cleaned and restored to their original shape.
The oval nose ornament (Fig.5.61) had a slightly concave cross section. The
owl nose ornament (Fig. 5.62) consists of flattened bands of gold. The eyes
had been inlaid, but only the mastic remained. The beak, which projects for-
ward from the face, is crafted of white gold — thus contrasting subtly with
the yellowish gold used to create the rest of the owl’s head. The two hinged
nose ornaments (Figs. 5.63, 5.64) would have shimmered when worn as the
platelets moved and reflected light. The lump of foil had been carefully cut
into a long oval shape, with tab-like elements projecting from its ends (Fig.
5.65). Its function remains an enigma.

1 0 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.61 The oval nose ornament, Figure 5.62 The owl nose ornament,
cleaned and unfolded (width 5.6 cm). cleaned and straighted (width 5 cm).

Figure 5.63 The large hinged nose ornament, Figure 5. 64 The small hinged nose ornament,
cleaned and unfolded (width 3.7 cm). cleaned and unfolded (width 3.4 cm).

Figure 5.65 The lump of foil, cleaned and

unfolded (length 6.5cm).

t o m b 2 1 0 1
 At this stage in the excavation, the
pieces of the individual’s skull were
removed and reconstructed and the skull
was put back in position so it could be seen
in photographs as the excavation contin-
ued (Fig. 5.66). The green discoloration on
the upper face had been caused by corro-
sion of the burial mask.
Near the individual’s neck there were
40 rock crystal beads from a necklace that
he was wearing at the time of burial (Fig.
5.67). Each bead is biconically drilled and
Figure 5.66 The individual was buried wearing a polished, so it is transparent. The beads are
quartz crystal necklace and a beaded pectoral.
in graded sizes, varying from 1.16 to 2.02
centimeters in diameter. Some are extreme-
ly round, smooth, and well polished while
others are less well polished and have
somewhat irregular surfaces.
In addition to the rock crystal neck-
lace, the individual was buried wearing a
pectoral — a large bib-like ornament that
covered the upper part of his chest and
shoulders and was tied at the back of the
Figure 5.67 Quartz crystal beads
(diameter of largest bead 2.02 cm). neck. It consisted of white tubular shell
beads strung in rows that were kept paral-
lel with spacer bars made of bone (Fig.
5.68). There were two lengths of spacer
bars: four short ones (6.2 centimeters long
with ten holes) and four long ones (11.6
centimeters long with 20 holes). Although
some of the beads and spacer bars had par-
tially decomposed and were not in their
original position, the pectoral’s original
form could be inferred by counting and
Figure 5.68 The original appearance of
the beaded pectoral (height 23.9cm). measuring what remained (Fig. 5.68).

1 0 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
LAYER 5

In the fifth layer of objects inside the funerary bundle (Fig. 5.69) there were
small metal hands on each side of the individual’s skull (Fig. 5.69 M31E,

Figure 5.69 Plan of the objects in Layer 5 inside the funerary bundle.

t o m b 2 1 0 3
 M31W, Fig. 5.70, 5.72) and to the north and northwest of the skull were
small metal feet (Figs. 5.69 M32E, M32W, Fig. 5.71). These were made of
copper gilded with yellow gold. Their fingernails and toenails, which were
made separately and attached with tabs, were made of copper gilded with
white gold (Fig. 5.72).
Beneath the individual’s neck was a small masklike head of gold and
copper, facing down. Its eyes were inlaid with Spondylus shell. Although it
was heavily corroded and shattered in many pieces when it was found, much
of it was subsequently reconstructed (Fig. 5.73). The head, hands, and feet
were probably sewn to a textile or leather panel that was cut in the form of a
human with the arms and legs spread (Fig. 5.74). In Moche ceramics, this
accessory is sometimes portrayed being worn on the backs of warriors (Fig.
10
5.75).

Figure 5.70 Gilded copper hands. Left, M31W (height 5.1 cm). Right, M31E (height 5.2 cm).

Figure 5.71 Gilded copper feet. Left, M32E (height 5.4 cm). Right, M32W (height 5.4 cm).

1 0 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.72 Gilded copper hand after cleaning M31W Figure 5.73 Head with Spondylus
(height 6.2 cm). Left, exterior. Right, interior. Note the eyes M38 (height 9.5 cm).
attachment of the fingernails, with tabs inserted from the
exterior and spread on the interior.

Figure. 5.74 The hands, feet, and head Figure 5.75 Drawing of a Moche ceramic ves-
combined to form an accessory worn on sel depicting a warrior wearing an accessory on
the back, as shown in Fig. 5.75. his back that combines hands, feet, and a head.

t o m b 2 1 0 5
 Figure 5.76 Large crescent-shaped headdress ornament M39 in situ.

Over the individual’s lower torso was another crescent-shaped headdress

ornament (Fig. 5.69 M43, Figs. 5.76, 5.77). It was similar to the one in the
level above but was considerably larger. Moreover, one half was made of cop-
per gilded with yellow gold and the other of copper gilded with white gold.
They were joined with tabs on one half that were inserted into slits on the
other half. The Moche frequently paired gold and silver, which appears to
have had a symbolic meaning. It almost always involved exhibiting gold on
the proper right side of the individual and silver on the proper left side, just
11
as was found in the funerary bundle.
On the western edge of this headdress ornament were three more nose
ornaments (Fig. 5.69 M36, M33, M34.). One, which was made of silver, was
broken in two, apparently by having been folded and opened repeatedly (Fig.
5.78). It is very similar in size and form to the oval gold nose ornament that
had been folded in half and placed in the individual’s mouth (Fig. 5.61). The
other two nose ornaments are nearly identical to one another. One half is gold
and the other half silver, with a lizard depicted in low relief on each half (Fig.
5.69 M34, Fig. 5.79). The eyes of the lizards are inlaid with black stone.
These nose ornaments exhibit no evidence of folding or denting, but the sil-
ver portion of each is heavily corroded and partially missing.

1 0 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.78 Silver nose ornament
M36 after cleaning and joining the
two halves (height 5.8 cm).

Figure 5.77 Large crescent-shaped headdress

ornament M39 after cleaning (height 37 cm).

Beneath the eastern edge of the crescent-shaped headdress ornament

was a gold nose ornament in the form of a bat (Fig. 5.69 M43, Fig. 5.80).
When found, the left foot was folded back underneath. It could not be deter-
mined whether it had been bent deliberately.

Figure 5.79 One of two lizard nose ornaments of Figure 5.80 Bat nose ornament of gold
gold and silver M33 after cleaning (width 7 cm). M43 after cleaning (width 9.3 cm).

t o m b 2 1 0 7
 Figure 5.81 One of the
Figure 5.82 Moche painting of a warrior wearing a conical
trapezoidal platelets of
helmet with triangular elements on the chinstrap.
gilded copper M39
(height 7.9 cm).

Beneath the east side of the crescent-shaped headdress ornament there

was a line of trapezoidal platelets of gilded copper (Fig. 5.69 M39, Fig. 5.81).
These are similar to the ones in Layer 2 that ornamented the hem of a shirt
(Fig. 5.33), but they are smaller and there were fewer of them. Although they
may have ornamented the hem of a smaller shirt, it is also possible that they
were attached to the chin strap of a helmet. Similar chin straps are frequent-

Figure 5.83 Headdress ornament Figure 5.84 Headdress ornament

M20 (height 16.5 cm). M20 (height 16.2 cm).

1 0 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
ly portrayed in Moche art (Fig.
5.82).
Immediately east of the
trapezoidal platelets was a stack
of eight plumelike objects of
gilded copper (Fig. 5.69 M20).
Four were in the form of human
heads wearing ear ornaments
and elaborate headdresses (Fig.
5.83), while the other four were
triangular, with discs suspended
inside circular cutouts (Fig.
5.84). Both types are probably
headdress ornaments and may
have been used to adorn the
headdresses in this tomb.
Beneath the east edge of
the large crescent-shaped head-
dress ornament was a spear
thrower (Fig. 5.69 M40, Figs.
5.85–5.87). The upper end of
the spear thrower was capped
with gilded copper, and the shaft
was further elaborated with
bands of gilded copper. Its
engaging spur was cast in the Figure 5.85 The central and upper part of the individual’s body.
form of a lizard, whose eyes Note the spear thrower along the right arm and the shield over the
upper legs, with two copper spear points resting on top of it.
were inlaid with black stones
(Fig. 5.87).
The lower end of the spear thrower was resting on another shield (Fig.
5.69 M37). The front of this shield was covered with small gilded copper
platelets. Although many of the platelets had completely decomposed from
corrosion, it was possible to reconstruct the shield’s original size and form
(Fig. 5.88).

t o m b 2 1 0 9
 Figure 5.86 Spear thrower M40. Upper, after cleaning. Lower, its original appearance (length 49.2 cm).

Figure 5.87 Engaging

spur of spear thrower
M40 (height 8.2 cm).

Figure 5.88 Shield M37 (diameter 30 cm).

Two barbed copper spear points were also lying on the

shield (Fig. 5.69 M29, Figs. 5.85, 5.89). One end of these points
showed evidence of having been wrapped with string, probably to
facilitate being socketed into a length of cane that would have
served as the spear shaft.
When the objects in Layer 5 were removed, the skeleton of
the deceased could be fully exposed (Fig. 5.90). He was an adult
male between 18 and 20 years of age. His height is estimated to
have been 181 centimeters — even taller than the individual in
Tomb A, and clearly another individual of great stature compared
to most Moche males. There were no indications of the cause of
death. There was also no evidence that he was wearing garments,
Figure 5.89 One of the barbed
spear points M29 (height 32.5 foot coverings, or head coverings at the time of burial, but these
cm). Left, after cleaning. Right, could have been made of organic materials that decomposed.
drawn with cross sections.

1 1 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 5.90 The individual with a war club and a scepter along
the inside of his right arm and three tumi knives over his torso.

t o m b 2 1 1 1
 LAYER 6

In the individual’s right hand were four small metal chisels (Figs. 5.92 M44,
Fig. 5.93a-d), and in his left hand was another metal chisel (Fig. 5.92 M52,

Figure 5.91 Plan of the skeleton in Layer 6 Figure 5.92 Plan of the objects in Layer 6
inside the funerary bundle. inside the funerary bundle.

1 1 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 12
Fig.5.93e). The four in his right hand are
almost pure copper (more than 98%), while
the one in his left hand is an alloy of approx-
imately 52% copper, 29% gold, 18% silver,
and 2% arsenic. These chisels are of a size and
form that could have been used in working
sheet metal — cutting, incising, or creating
low-relief décor. No chisels have ever before
been excavated in the hands in Moche burials.
Why they were in his hands, what they signi-
fied, and whether they were his or belonged
to someone else are questions that cannot be
answered on the basis of available informa- Figure 5.93 Small chisels. a-d. M44
tion. in right hand. e. M52 in left hand
Southeast of the individual’s skull was a (height of longest chisel 12.7 cm).

small human figure, portrayed in profile (Fig.

5.92 M26E), and a mirror image of this figure
was found northwest of the skull (Fig. 5.92
M26W). Each figure consists of two legs, one
arm, a head, a club, and a shield (Fig. 5.94).
The lower face and chin of each head are
recessed, and a series of holes around the
depressed portion suggests that something
was attached there. It may have been some-
thing of perishable material, possibly repre-
senting a beard. The function of these metal
figures is not clear, but each of their metal
parts is perforated at the edge, suggesting that
they were to be sewn to a textile. Strangely,
their torsos and headdresses are missing; per-
haps they were made of perishable material.

Figure 5.94 Small human figures. Left, M26E.

Right, M26W (height 17.4 cm).

t o m b 2 1 1 3
 Figure 5.95 Tumis a. M51 (height 6 cm). b.
M41 (height 9.5 cm). c. M42 (height 15 cm).

Beneath the individual’s torso were three tumis (Fig. 5.92 M41, M42,
M51). All three were made of copper, but each was unique in size and form
(Fig. 5.95). They all had a hole at the upper part of the handle through which
a cord would have been strung. The upper end of one tumi was on top of a
13
large copper chisel (Fig. 5.92 M54, Fig. 5.96).
Beneath the individual’s upper right leg and pelvis was another spear
thrower (Fig. 5.92 M45, Fig. 5.97). It was much simpler than the one in Layer
5 (Fig. 5.86). Its engaging spur was a plain hook (Fig. 5.98), and there were
no gilded copper elements elaborating its wood shaft.
Parallel to this spear thrower and slightly to the west was the longest of
four metal points (Fig. 5.92 M67, Fig. 5.99b). The second longest point (Fig.
5.92 M50, Fig. 5.99c) was beneath the individual’s right wrist. The third
longest (Fig. 5.92 M53, Fig. 5.99a) was beneath his lower right femur, and
the shortest (Fig 5.92 M28, Fig. 5.99c) was near his left hand. All four points
Figure 5.96 Chisel have deep sockets in their bases to facilitate hafting to wooden shafts. Wood
M54 (height 44.2 cm).
residue was found in the socket of each, but beyond the base of the points the
wood had completely decomposed. Although the length of the wooden

1 1 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.97 Spear thrower M45 (length 51.2 cm).

Figure 5.98 Engaging

spur of spear thrower
M45 (height 3.5 cm).

Figure 5.100 Detail

of the base of the spears
showing the use of nails
Figure 5.99 Spear points. a M53 (length 18.2 cm). b. M67 (length and rivets for attach-
39.6 cm). c. M50 (length 28 cm). d. M28 (length 12.4 cm). ment to the wood shaft.

t o m b 2 1 1 5
 shafts could not be determined, it is likely that they were long and that the
implements were spears with copper points. The points were attached to the
wooden shafts with nails and/or rivets (Fig. 5.100).
Two other objects also had deep sockets at their bases and contained
residue of decomposed wood held in place with nails or rivets. One, which
was between the individual’s legs, had a curved, spatula-like blade (Fig. 5.92
M49, Fig. 5.101). The other, which was beneath the left hand, had a solid
sphere at one end (Fig. 5.92 M55, Fig. 5.102). Unfortunately, because the
handles had decomposed, it was impossible to determine their original
length. Nothing like these implements has been found in excavations nor
identified in Moche art, and their functions remain an enigma.
Under the right shoulder were the remains of a large war club (Fig.5.92
M48), identical to those depicted in Moche art (Figs. 5.39, 5.82). It appeared
to have been carved from a single piece of wood, and had a band of copper

Figure 5.101 Curved spatula Figure 5.102 Shaft with solid

M49. (height 15.2 cm.) sphere M55. (height 18.9 cm.)

1 1 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
around the equator of the club head. Unfortunately, most of the
wood had decomposed, and thus it was not possible to determine
its original length. Adjacent to it was what appeared to be a small-
er war club (Fig. 5.92 M47). It had decorative bands of gilded cop-
per around the shaft (Figs. 5.103, 5.104). The copper portion that
looks like a club head is hollow and contains three hollow copper
spheres that would have rattled when the implement was shaken.
Perhaps it is a scepter or a symbolic war club for ceremonial use. Its
lower end had entirely decomposed and thus it was not possible to
determine its original length.
There was a cluster of small rectangular metal objects west of
the individual’s left leg (Fig. 5.92 M56) and two small pieces of
wood east of his right foot (Fig. 5.92 W1, W3). These were parts
of objects whose function could not be determined, although one

Figure 5.103 The upper parts of the

scepter in the form of a war club M47.

Figure 5.104 Assembly of

the scepter in the form of a
war club M47. Note how the
upper portion of copper fits
over the wooden portion to
encase metal spheres, thus cre-
ating a rattle (height of copper
portion when top and bottom
are joined 9.4 cm).

t o m b 2 1 1 7
 Figure 5.105 Wood and clay object Figure 5.106 Moche ceramic vessel
depicting a head on a drum-shaped depicting a head on a drum-shaped
base W2 (height 5.2 cm). base. Not from Dos Cabezas.

of the wood pieces (Fig. 5.92 W1) may be the pointed end of the war club
(Fig. 5.92 M48) and the other (Fig. 5.92 W3) may be the pointed end of the
scepter (Fig. 5.92 M47).
West of his right hand was a small piece of carved wood depicting a
head on a drum-shaped base (Fig. 5.92 W2, Fig. 5.105). The hair was creat-
ed with a gray clay-like material. Moche ceramics sometimes depict a human
head on top of a drum (Fig. 5.106), but what it symbolizes is not known.
Unfortunately, the numerous textiles that had been wrapped around the
individual’s body, forming the large funerary bundle, had decomposed into a
thick mass of brown, black, red, and gray powder. In only a few instances,
where they were adjacent to copper objects, were any traces of them pre-
served. These are enough, however, to demonstrate that the textiles were very
elaborate and colorful, utilizing both wool and cotton yarns in complex
weaves. It is likely that many of the textiles carried elaborate iconography.
There were two kinds of plant remains inside the funerary bundle: esp-
ingo seeds (Nectandra sp.) and ulluchus. Espingo seeds are frequently depicted
in Moche art, where they appear to be drilled and strung on long cords. They
are still sold this way in herb markets on the north coast of Peru. They have
a strong and distinct odor and are used by folk healers to treat a variety of
symptoms (Montoya 1999). All of the espingo seeds found in Tomb 2 were

1 1 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
perforated (Fig. 5.107).
Ulluchus are also frequently depicted in Moche art, but
they are not used in contemporary folk healing and are not
available in modern Peruvian herb markets (Fig. 5.108). In fact,
although extensive effort has been made to identify the plant
from which they come, it still remains an enigma (McClelland,
ms.). Their presence in Tomb 2 is very unusual, for they have
only been excavated in one other Moche context — in a royal
tomb at Sipán, where they were sewn onto banners beneath
gilded copper platelets that had been embossed to depict
ulluchus (Alva and Donnan 1993:189; Alva 1994:184).
The espingo seeds and ulluchus were found scattered
Figure 5.107 Two of the espingos excavat-
within the funerary bundle. Many may have moved from their
ed in Tomb 2. Exterior above, interior
original position as the textiles decomposed. Most were found below (length of the one below 2.3 cm).
adjacent to the body of the deceased, and their locations were
recorded accordingly (Fig. 5.109). Others were found beneath
the small metal hands and feet of the human-like object worn
over the individual’s back (Fig. 5.74). Perhaps they had been
placed between the metal hands and feet and the panel on
which they were sewn. It is also possible, however, that their
location beneath the hand and feet was spurious — no botan-
ical remains were noted beneath one of the metal feet (Fig. 5.71
M32E). Figure 5.108 One of the ulluchus
excavated in Tomb 2 (length 2.9 cm).

Figure 5.109 The location of espingos and ulluchus inside the funerary bundle.

t o m b 2 1 1 9
 OUTSIDE THE FUNERARY BUNDLE

Outside the funerary bundle there were numerous objects on the tomb floor
(Figs. 5.8, 5.9). In the southeast corner (Fig. 5.110) a llama skull, a parrot
skeleton, five ofrendas (C25-C29), and three stirrup spout bottles (C15–C17)
were recovered. One of the latter (Fig. 5.110 C17) portrays a seated figure
wearing a cylindrical headdress with an elaborate frontlet consisting of octo-
pus tentacles and an owl head (Fig. 5.111). The cylindrical headdress is sim-
ilar in appearance to one found inside the funerary bundle in this tomb (Fig.
5.26). He also wears bracelets and a necklace of large beads in the form of
14
animal heads.
The other two stirrup spout bottles portray the Crested Animal. One
(Fig 5.110 C15) has four legs (Fig. 5.112); the other (Fig. 5.110 C16) has
two front legs and the lower body like that of a seahorse (Fig. 5.113). Both
vessels were damaged before they were placed in the tomb, and portions of
them were missing.

Figure 5.110 Objects in the southeast corner of the burial chamber.

1 2 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.111 Seated figure C17. Left, oblique view. Right, top view (height 20 cm).

Figure 5.112 Crested Animal with Figure 5.113 Crested Animal with a lower body
four legs C15 (height 20 cm). like that of a seahorse C16 (height 17.4 cm).

t o m b 2 1 2 1
 In the southwest corner of the burial chamber there were ten ceramic
vessels, four of which were ofrendas (Figs. 5.114-C10, C12–C14). The other
six consisted of three jars, one olla, and two stirrup spout bottles (Fig. 5.114
C1–C5, C11). One of the jars (Fig. 5.115) was small — about the size of an
ofrenda but well made and slip painted with a white-on-red geometric design.
The other two jars were well made and slip painted (Figs. 5.116, 5.117). The

Figure 5.114 Objects in the southwest corner of the burial chamber.

Figure 5.15 Miniature jar C11 (height 6.9 cm). Figure 5.116 Jar C4 (height 13.5 cm).

1 2 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 5.117 Jar C5 (height 15.3 cm). Figure 5.118 Olla C3 (height 14.2 cm).

Figure 5.119 Bat C2 (height 18.2 cm). Figure 5.120 Crested Animal with the lower body
like that of a seahorse C1 (height 20 cm).

t o m b 2 1 2 3
 olla, which was made of coarse clay and was not slip painted, had an owl face
15
depicted on its chamber (Fig. 5.118).
One of the stirrup spout bottles in the tomb’s southwest corner depicts
a bat (Fig. 5.114 C2, Fig. 5.119). Though made of white clay, red slip paint
accentuates the nose, the hooks on the wings, and the narrow tongue that
extends along the floor of the bat’s open mouth. Its upper left fang had bro-
ken off before it was placed in the tomb. The other stirrup spout bottle por-
trays the Crested Animal (Fig. 5.114 C1, Fig. 5.120). It is nearly identical to

Figure 5.121 Objects in the northwest corner of the burial chamber.

Figure 5.122 Double chambered whistling bottle with sea lion C6 (height 15.6 cm).

1 2 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
the one with a seahorse body found in the tomb’s southeast corner (Fig.
5.113) and may have been made by the same potter. This bottle, however,
was complete when it was placed in the tomb.
In the northwest corner of the burial chamber there were five ofrendas
(Fig. 5.12 C30–C34) and a double-chambered whistling bottle with a sea
lion sculpted on one of the chambers (Fig. 5.121 C6, Fig. 5.122).
Finally, in the northeast corner of the burial chamber were six ofrendas
(Fig. 5.123 C9, C20–C24), two dippers, and two stirrup spout bottles. The

Figure 5.123 Objects in the northeast corner of the burial chamber.

t o m b 2 1 2 5
 Figure 5.124 Blackware dipper C18 (length 22 cm).

Figure 5.125 Redware dipper C19 (length 26.5 cm).

dippers, one of which was blackware (Fig. 5.123 C18, Fig. 5.124) and the
other redware (Fig.5.123 C19, Fig. 5.125), were leaning against the east side
of the tomb chamber with their handles crossed.
One of the stirrup spout bottles (Fig. 5.112 C27, Fig. 5.126) depicts a
condor. The other (Fig. 5.123 C8, Fig. 5.127) depicts a nude male lying on
his side, supporting himself with his right arm. His face, with inlaid shell
eyes, is vertically divided in half — the left half is normal, while the right half
16
is contorted. Beneath his torso is a shallow container with round objects.
The shell inlay depicting the left pupil was missing when this bottle was
placed in the tomb, but otherwise the vessel is intact.
There were five other objects on the floor of the tomb. One, located near

1 2 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.126 Condor C27 (height 20.1 cm).

Figure 5.127 Reclining figure C8 (height 18.7 cm).

t o m b 2 1 2 7
 the center of the north wall, was a parrot skeleton (Fig. 5.9). The other three,
located near the center of the south wall, were fragments of a stirrup spout
bottle (Figs. 5.9, 5.128). All three fragments had the same paste, color, and
texture and thus were almost certainly from the same vessel. They are nearly
identical to portions of the Crested Animal in Figure 5.112, which was found
in the southeast corner of the burial chamber. The spiral fragment (Fig.
5.128b) matches the spiral portion of the tail of that Crested Animal, while
the long fragment with red spots (Fig. 5.128c) matches the straight horizon-
tal base of its tail. Furthermore, the stirrup spout fragment (Fig. 5.126a) is
almost certainly a match for the stirrup spout that is missing from the Crested
Animal in Figure 5.112, but since it does not fit on that bottle, it must be from
another one. These three fragments are from a vessel that was probably made
by the same potter that made the Crested Animal in Figure 5.112, just as the
vessels illustrated in Figures 5.113 and 5.120 were probably made by the
same potter. It is not known why these three fragments were placed on the
floor of the funerary chamber.

Figure 5.128 Vessel C15 found in the southeast corner of the burial chamber
and three ceramic fragments from a similar vessel found nearby. a. stirrup
spout fragment. b. curve of the tail. c. fragment of the base of the tail.

1 2 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
SUB-FLOOR BURIAL

There was a large oval area of soft soil on the floor of the burial chamber,
directly beneath the funerary bundle. The clay floor was broken in this area,
and the solid adobe masonry beneath it had been removed to create an oval
burial chamber measuring approximately 200 centimeters north-south, 85
centimeters east-west, and 38 centimeters deep. The walls and floor of the
chamber were irregular. On the floor was the skeleton of an adult male lying
on his back in an extended position with his head to the south (Fig. 5.129).

Figure 5.129 Sub-floor burial directly beneath the funerary

bundle of the principal individual in Tomb 2.

t o m b 2 1 2 9
 Near his lower legs there had been two stacks of gourd bowls, all meas-
uring between 12 and 14 centimeters in diameter (Fig. 5.129). Three were
stacked over the individual’s right leg and two others were stacked near his
17
left knee.
The only other object associated with this burial was a small piece of
sheet copper near the individual’s mouth. It was heavily corroded and shat-
tered into so many pieces that its original form could not be determined. It
may have been a copper nose ornament, and if so, he was probably wearing
it at the time he was buried. There was no evidence that he had been dressed
in garments or wrapped in a funerary bundle, but these may have decom-
posed. He was approximately 18 years old at the time he died. There was no
evidence of the cause of death. His stature is estimated to have been 165–167
centimeters — within the normal range for adult Moche males.
Once the individual and associated burial offerings were placed on the
floor of this chamber, it was filled with dirt and chunks of broken adobe —
presumably the material that was broken out of the pyramid’s solid adobe
masonry when the chamber was created.

COMPARTMENT 2

Approximately 38 centimeters north of Tomb 2 there was a rectangular com-

partment that measured approximately 87 centimeters north-south, 84 cen-
18
timeters east-west, and 62 centimeters deep. It had been formed by break-
ing adobes out of the pyramid’s solid adobe masonry, and thus all four walls
and the floor were irregular. Its upper edge was on the same level as the upper
edge of the burial chamber of Tomb 2.
The compartment was filled to its upper edge with dirt and chunks of
broken adobe. Approximately 6 centimeters below its upper edge, there were
ofrendas and llama offerings (Fig. 5.130). The ofrendas were arranged in two
groups of ten, one forming a line near the south side of the compartment (Fig.
5.130-C1–C10) and the other forming a line along the north side (Fig. 5.130
C15–C24). One of the latter, C16, is unique among all of the ofrendas in the
tombs because it was painted with red slip before it was fired (Fig 5.131).

1 3 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.130 The upper layer of objects inside Compartment 2.

Between the two rows of ofrendas were three llama offerings. The one
in the southwest corner of the compartment consisted of only the skull,
whereas the other two, at the north end and southeast corner, consisted of the
skull, legs, and toes. The ofrendas and llama offerings in this upper level were
placed in fill consisting of dirt and chunks of broken adobes.
Approximately 17 centimeters below the upper edge of the compart-
ment the fill changed abruptly to clean grayish white sand — similar in color
and texture to the sand that had been spread over the floors of Tomb A, Tomb
B, and Tomb 2. In the upper part of this fill were four ceramic bottles that
had been broken by compression of the soil above them (Fig. 5.132). Along
the east side of the compartment was a blackware stirrup spout bottle in the Figure 5.131 Ofrenda
form of a reclining feline (Fig. 5.132 C1, Fig. 5.133), nearly identical to the C16 with traces of red slip
paint (height 6.3 cm).
partial feline bottle found in Tomb B (Fig. 3.16). Adjacent to it was a black-
ware double-chambered whistling bottle in the form of a parrot (Fig. 5.132
C2, Fig. 5.134).

t o m b 2 1 3 1
 Figure 5.132 Second layer of objects inside Compartment 2.

Figure 5.133 Feline C1 (height 17.2 cm). Figure 5.134 Parrot C2 (height 16 cm).

1 3 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.135 Condor C3 (height 20.3 cm). Figure 5.136 Sea lion C4 (height 19 cm).

Along the west side of the compartment was a stirrup spout bottle in the
form of a condor (Fig. 5.132 C3, Fig. 5.135). It is very similar to the one
found in the northeast corner of Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.126) but is painted red on
white rather than white on red. Adjacent to it was a blackware stirrup spout
bottle in the form of a sea lion with its front flippers extending out to the
sides (Fig. 5.132 C4, Fig. 5.136).
Approximately 34 centimeters below the upper edge of the compart-
ment there was a stack of four small plumelike objects of gilded copper (Fig.
5.132 M149). They are identical in size and form to four others found inside
the funerary bundle in Tomb 2 (Figs. 5.83, 5.84).
Beneath the plumelike objects were two headdresses. Both were made as
cylinders, like most of the headdresses in Tomb 2. The center headdress (Fig.
5.132 M105) appeared to have been turned on its side and flattened like the
headdresses in Tomb 2. It was then wrapped in a plain, open-weave cotton

t o m b 2 1 3 3
 Figure 5.137 Headdress M105. Left, one of the platelets (height 4 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

textile. It has rectangular platelets with four abstract bird heads (Fig. 5.137).
The other headdress (Fig. 5.132 M103, M104) consists simply of two
decorated bands found parallel to one another, one on the north side and one
on the south side of the previous headdress. The bands were so far apart in
the compartment that they probably had not been assembled into a headdress,
but in form and decoration they are so similar to bands used in other head-
dresses found in Tomb 2 that there is little doubt of their function. They may
have been intended for a headdress with the two bands adjacent to one
another (Figs. 5.138, 5.139), or they may have had a space between them,
like the headdresses illustrated in Figures 5.28 and 5.31. The bands were dec-
19
orated in low relief with what appear be Crested Animals.

1 3 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 5.138 A portion of a decorated band from Headdress M103, M104 after cleaning (height 4.8 cm).

Figure 5.139 Headdress M103, M104. Left, a portion of one of the decorated bands (height 4.8 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

t o m b 2 1 3 5
 In the third layer of objects inside the compartment there were three
more headdresses (Fig. 5.140). One consisted of two rows of small rectangu-
lar platelets decorated with human faces (Fig. 5.140 M106, Fig. 5.141).
Another had tall vertical platelets depicting human figures holding staffs and
wearing headdresses with an animal or animal pelt (Fig. 5.140 M101, Fig.
5.142). The third headdress (Fig. 5.140 M102) is badly decomposed but
appears to have been a donut-shaped ring, similar to the donut-shaped head
ring found in Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.12 M74). This one, however, had a feline head,
feline claws, and metal discs attached to it. The claws, ears, and pelt of the
feline are made of sheet metal, while the eyes are of shell. Although this head-
dress was too decomposed to reconstruct, it appears to have been similar to
the feline head rings depicted in Moche art (Fig. 5.143).

Figure 5.140 Third layer of objects inside Compartment 2.

1 3 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 5.141 Headdress M106. Left, one of the platelets (height 3.7 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

Figure 5.142 Headdress M101. Left, one of the platelets

(height 12 cm). Right, original appearance of the headdress.

t o m b 2 1 3 7
 On the floor of the compartment was a bundle of decom-
posed textiles. Inside it was a small human figure of sheet metal
that was very similar in size and form to the one found on top of
the roof of Tomb A (Figs. 2.3, 2.7, 2.8). And like that one, it was
lying on its back with its head to the south (Figs. 5.144, 5.145).
This one, however, was associated with numerous miniature
objects, nearly all of which were tiny versions of the objects inside
the funerary bundle of Tomb 2.

Figure 5.143 Moche ceramic vessel

depicting a feline headdress, appar-
ently similar to Headdress M102.
Not from Dos Cabezas.

Figure 5.144 Copper figure and associated objects

on the floor of Compartment 2.

1 3 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Above the body of the copper figure were two miniature shields. The
one placed over the feet had rectangular platelets (Fig. 5.145 M116, Fig.
5.146a), while the one over the torso had triangular platelets (Fig. 5.145
M115, Fig. 5.146b). They were very similar to two of the shields found in
Tomb 2 (Figs. 5.40, 5.41). There were also two miniature war clubs: one of
wood along his left side (Fig. 5.145 W101, Fig. 5.146c,) and the other of
wood and copper along his right side (Fig. 5.145 M121, Fig. 5.146d). The
latter had a hollow club head, made of sheet copper, like the scepter in Tomb
2 that rattled (Figs. 5.103, 104).

Figure 5.145 Copper figure and associated objects

on the floor of Compartment 2.

t o m b 2 1 3 9
 Figure 5.146 Miniature objects associated with the
copper figure on the floor of Compartment 2.

1 4 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 South of the copper figure was a round cup-like object (Fig. 5.145
M113, Fig. 5.146g), probably the counterpart of the large copper bowl that
was turned upside down over the head of the deceased in Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.13).
Over his face was a miniature burial mask (Fig. 5.145 M114, Fig. 5.146h) —
the counterpart of the burial mask over the face of the individual in Tomb 2
(Figs. 5.48–5.52). Above the head of the copper figure were numerous circu-
lar and elliptical platelets that may have been attached to a head cloth (Fig.
5.145 M140, Fig. 5.147) — miniatures of the ones that were apparently on
a head cloth above the burial mask in Tomb 2 (Figs. 5.48, 5.49).
Above each hand of the copper figure was a miniature oval nose orna-
20
ment of gilded copper (Fig. 5.145 M117, M118, Fig. 5.146e, f ). Another
miniature nose ornament was over the upper part of his right leg (Fig. 145
M131).
Over the figure’s forehead was a miniature headdress made of a single
band of gilded copper (Fig. 5.145 M128, Fig. 5.146i). It would have been
similar to the full-sized headdress that was closest to the head of the individ-
ual in Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.37, but it did not have discs around the upper and lower
edges. Another miniature headdress, made of separate platelets of copper, was
adjacent to the figure’s right arm (Fig. 5.145 M129, Fig. 5.146j). It was pre-
Figure 5.147 The types of
sumably meant to be a miniature of a full-sized headdress with platelets like gilded copper platelets
one of those in the Tomb 2. found above the head of the
copper figure (Fig. 5.145
As some of these objects were removed, additional objects were revealed M140), with the number of
(Figs 5.148, 5.149). South of the figure’s head was another miniature head- each that were recovered.
dress made of separate platelets of gilded copper (Fig. 5.149 M130, Fig.
5.150a). It still had remnants of a miniature basketry cylinder that the
platelets had been sewn to — the counterpart of the full-sized basketry cylin-
ders that were used in constructing the headdresses in Tomb 2. Over his lower
torso was a miniature shirt with triangular elements along its hem (Fig. 5.149
M134, Fig. 5.150b) — the counterpart of the shirt with triangular elements
forming the hem in Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.30 M71).
Beneath the left shoulder was a mask, very similar to the one over the
individual’s face (Fig. 5.149 M112, Fig. 5.150c). In this instance, however, it
was facing down. Perhaps it was meant to be the counterpart of the one found
under the neck of the deceased in Tomb 2 (Figs. 5.73, 5.74). We did not find

t o m b 2 1 4 1
 Figure 5.148 Copper figure and associated
objects on the floor of Compartment 2.

the metal hands and feet that would have been associated if it was the coun-
terpart of the accessory worn on the back, but it is possible that they were
made of perishable material and had decomposed.
On the west side of the copper figure, adjacent to the wooden war club,
was a miniature spear consisting of a long wooden shaft and a copper spear
point (Fig. 5.149 M125, Fig. 5.150d). In addition, there were three similar
copper points (Fig. 5.150e), like the full-sized copper points found in Tomb

1 4 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 5.149 Copper figure and associated
objects on the floor of Compartment 2.

2 (Fig. 5.99). Near the right foot of the figure were five wooden darts (Fig.
5.149 W103, Fig. 5.150f ), miniatures of the dart points found in Tomb 2
(Fig. 5.89). Adjacent to his left arm was a long wooden staff with its upper
end carved in the form of an owl (Fig. 5.149 W102, Fig. 5.150g).
Partially under the figure’s body was a large rectangular object of cop-
per (Fig. 5.149 M111). It may represent the cane or wooden frame that is
sometimes placed beneath the body of the deceased in Moche burials to keep

t o m b 2 1 4 3
 Figure 5.150 Miniature objects associated with the
copper figure on the floor of Compartment 2.

1 4 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
the body rigid (Donnan 1995:125–134). There may have
been a frame under the body of the deceased in Tomb 2,
but nearly all of the organic material in that burial had
decomposed, and no evidence for a frame was recovered.
In addition to these objects, there were other diminu-
tive versions of objects found in Tomb 2. These included
a miniature axe-like implement (Fig. 5.150h) like the one
in Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.15), a miniature chisel (Fig. 5.150i) like
the one in Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.96), and three miniature head-
dress ornaments (Fig. 5.150j–l) like those in Tomb 2 (Fig. Figure 5.151 Wooden object depicting a
5.29). There was a miniature spear thrower (Fig. 5.150m) head on a drum-shaped base (height 2.6 cm).
like the one with gilded copper bands in Tomb 2 (Fig.
5.86), a miniature implement with a sphere at one end
(Fig. 5.150n) similar to the one in Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.102),
and a tiny wooden object carved in the form of a human
head on top of a drum (Figs. 5.150o, 5.151). The latter
was similar to the larger version found in Tomb 2 (Fig.
5.105).
Finally, there were additional triangular elements,
presumably from a shirt (Fig. 5.150p), that may have been
from a second shirt like the one found over the figure’s
torso (Fig. 5.150b), but made of textile rather than metal.
The two sizes of triangular elements parallels the two sizes
of triangular elements found in Tomb 2 (see Fig. 5.33).
The copper figure, like the one found on the roof of
Tomb A, had neither clothing nor headdress (Fig. 5.152).
One nipple and his naval are represented by gilded cop-
per discs, and his genitals are represented with another
sheet of gilded copper. He had been wrapped, along with
his associated miniature objects, in textiles to form a
miniature funerary bundle. Clearly, he was meant to be a
miniature of the individual buried in Tomb 2, with a very
similar inventory of associated miniature objects.

Figure 5.152 The copper figure in

Compartment 2 (height 19.6 cm).

t o m b 2 1 4 5
 NOTES
1
The original field number of this tomb is A53T1.
2
The transverse beams were approximately 10 centimeters higher on the
west side of the tomb than they were on the east side, and thus the roof
would have sloped down slightly to the east.
3
Moche burials often exhibit special care in encasing and/or protecting the
head of the deceased. This is reflected in the greater quantity of rope used
to wrap the head end of a cane coffin compared to that used to wrap the
other parts (Donnan and Barreto 1997:260).
4
The transverse beam at the north end of the tomb may have broken before
the space beneath it was filled with soil. As a result, that portion of the roof
collapsed into the burial chamber, breaking some of the adobes that were
above the roof beams. The other roof beams appear to have decomposed
when the area beneath them had already filled with soil, thereby preventing
a collapse similar to that which occurred at the north end.
5
This sand is similar to the sand found on the floors of Tomb A and Tomb
B.
6
There was, however, nothing holding them together. Moreover, because
they were made of gilded copper they were badly oxidized and extremely
fragile. Many had shattered into small pieces.
7
One Moche headdress, made over a donut-shaped ring of junco grass cov-
ered with textile, was excavated in the Viru Valley (Strong and Evans 1952:
159; Donnan 2004: 62)
8
The only Moche banners that have been found previously were in the
royal tombs of Sipán (Alva and Donnan 1993:64–67).
9
The Moche often placed metal objects in the mouth of the deceased
before they were buried –- most often a copper ingot or part of a broken
copper implement (Donnan 1995:147).
10
A pair of sheet metal warriors was found at Loma Negra, one wearing the
human accessory and the other a feline accessory (The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York, catalogue numbers 1981.459.31 and
1981.459.32).
11
This is consistent with beliefs and practices of the native people of Peru
at the time of European contact. Early Colonial Period accounts state that
the native people believed in the duality and complementarity of right and
left halves. They associated gold with masculinity and the right side and sil-
ver with femininity and the left side. Placement by the Moche of gold on
the right and silver on the left strongly suggests that these metal and gender
associations were also part of their culture.

1 4 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
12
In Moche funerary practice, metal objects were often placed in the mouth
and hands of the deceased (Donnan 1995:147).
13
The chisel weighs 859 grams and is one of the heaviest Moche metal
objects ever reported.
14
These beads are remarkably similar to beads that were looted from a
tomb at Sipán (Alva and Donnan 1993:Figs. 24, 25).
15
This style of ceramics has often been seen as Viru (or Gallinazo), but we
now realize it is a style of domestic ware that was made and used by the
Moche.
16
There are other Moche ceramics depicting figures similar to this one. The
figures usually have a contorted face, a shallow container with round
objects beneath their torsos, and similar round objects on their body. They
are thought to portray individuals who are suffering from an illness that
causes sores on the body.
17
These appeared as two voids that had been formed when the gourd ves-
sels decomposed, leaving their impressions in the soil around them.
Therefore, the voids were cast with plaster before the soil around them was
excavated.
18
The original field number of this compartment is A53RN.
19
The lower part of their body is serrated like the lower body of a sea-
horse, similar to the way the Crested Animal is depicted in Figure 5.120.
Although they do not have crests on their heads, their ears, eyes, and snouts
are similar to those of Crested Animals.
20
The individual in Tomb 2 did not have nose ornaments on or under his
hands, but the individual in Tomb 1 (see Chapter 7) had an oval copper
nose ornament under each hand.

t o m b 2 1 4 7
1 4 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Chapter 6
TOMB 3
T he burial chamber of Tomb 3 was located approximately 240 centimeters
1
north of Compartment 2 (Fig. 6.1). It had a roof supported by wood beams,
with a layer of adobes on top. Above these adobes, at the north end of the
tomb, was a person approximately 11 years of age who was lying face up with
feet to the west and head to the east (Figs. 6.2, 6.3). Although the sex of the
individual could not be determined from the skeletal remains, it seems likely
that it was a female, analogous to the young female on top of Tomb 2.
Moreover, a spindle whorl (Fig. 6.4) was found next to one of the individual’s
finger bones, and spindle whorls in Moche burials are almost invariably found
with females (Donnan 1995:150).
When the roof beams decomposed and fell inside the burial chamber,
the layer of adobes above them also fell, along with the individual. This left
the adobes so broken and out of position that their original placement could
not be reconstructed (Fig. 6.5). Therefore it is not possible to determine
whether they had been arranged in sets like the adobes above the roof of
Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.5).
The roof of Tomb 3 was constructed in a different way than the roof of
Tomb 2. There were ten roof beams, all of which extended east-west. Their
west ends rested on the upper edge of the burial chamber and their east ends
were supported by a post-and-beam frame. This frame had one post in the
southeast corner, one in the northeast corner, and a beam extending north-
south on top of them. The lower half of the burial chamber appears to have
been deliberately filled with soil and broken adobes before the roof was con-
structed; the posts of the frame rested on this fill rather than on the tomb
floor. The frame was kept upright by simply leaning it against the east wall of
the burial chamber. At the time that the roof was constructed, the upper half
of the burial chamber was empty.

t o m b 3 1 4 9
 Figure 6.2 View looking north at the individual whose body fell
into the tomb chamber when the roof collapsed.

Figure 6.1 Plan of the three tombs Figure 6.3 View looking north showing the individual’s
in the solid adobe pyramid. position relative to the burial chamber.

1 5 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 6.4 Spindle whorl (diameter 1.7 cm)
associated with the individual whose body fell
into the burial chamber when the roof collapsed.

The upper edge of the burial chamber was

on the same level as the upper edge of the bur-
ial chamber of Tomb 2. It measured approxi-
mately 300 centimeters north-south by 132
centimeters east-west, and 87 centimeters deep.
Like the burial chamber of Tomb 2, it was
located where water had eroded a pocket into
the west wall of the pyramid where it adjoined
the top of the solid adobe matrix that was
being constructed to expand the pyramid and
create a new west face (Fig. 4.22). The burial
chamber was made by enlarging this eroded
pocket – breaking out adobes from both the
old and the new construction. As a result, its
walls and floor were irregular.
There were two individuals on the floor of
the burial chamber. One was a child, approxi-
mately nine years of age, whose sex could not
Figure 6.5 Plan of the adobes and the individual whose
be determined. It was on the east side of the body fell into the burial chamber when the roof collapsed.
floor, lying fully extended on its back with the
head to the south (Figs. 6.6, 6.7). There was
only a small fragment of textile associated with this individual; the body
may not have been dressed or wrapped in a shroud when it was buried. The
other individual was an adult male who was wrapped in many layers of tex-
tiles, forming a large funerary bundle that was placed near the center of the
floor.

t o m b 3 1 5 1
 Figure 6.6 The floor of Tomb 3.

1 5 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 6.7 Plan of the floor of Tomb 3.

t o m b 3 1 5 3
 Figure 6.8 Dipper C1 (length 24.5 cm).

Figure 6.9 Bird C3 (height 17 cm). Figure 6.10 Lizards C2 (height 18.8 cm).

1 5 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 6.11 Copper points M15 (height of longest 11.4 cm).

Various objects were on the burial chamber floor. There was a

parrot skeleton in the northeast corner, a llama skull in the southwest
corner, a dipper along the west wall (Fig. 6.7 C1, Fig. 6.8), and two
stirrup spout bottles. One, near the southeast corner, was blackware,
sculpted in the form of a bird (Fig. 6.7 C3, Fig. 6.9). The other, near
the east wall, was made of white clay, with the chamber depicting
four lizards (Fig. 6.7 C2). It was shattered from the compression of
the soil above the tomb but could be reconstructed (Fig. 6.10). There
Figure 6.12 Engaging spur
were also two clusters of ofrendas: eleven at the north end of the of spear thrower M11, with
burial chamber and eight at the south end. residue of the wooden shaft.
There was a small gourd bowl near the southeast corner (Fig.
2
6.7 G1). Near the left shoulder of the child was a cluster of nine
copper points (Fig. 6.7 M15, Fig. 6.11), probably for spears that
were thrown with a spear thrower. They had a residue of string
wrapped around their bases, which probably served to fit them snug-
ly into cane shafts. They may have had shafts when they were put
into the grave; if so, the shafts had decomposed. On the west side of
the bundle there was a spear thrower with a simple copper engaging
Figure 6.13 Engaging
spur (Fig. 6.7-M11, Figs. 6.12, 6.13). It is similar to the one on the spur of spear thrower
plain spear thrower found in Tomb 2 (Figs. 5.97, 5.98). M11 (height 2.7 cm.).

t o m b 3 1 5 5
 Figure 6.14 The floor of Tomb 3 with the interior of
the funerary bundle exposed.

1 5 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 6.15 Plan of the upper level inside the funerary bundle.

The textiles that formed the funerary bundle of the adult male had
almost entirely decomposed to a powdery mass. Many objects had been
placed within them when they were wrapped around the body, but due to the
decomposition of the textiles, it was not possible to determine their original
placement within the bundle.
Over the individual’s body was a large rectangular object consisting of
12 square platelets of gilded copper, each measuring approximately 15 by 18
centimeters (Fig. 6.14, Fig. 6.15 M19). It covered the lower part of his torso,
pelvis, and upper legs. Its function is not clear.

t o m b 3 1 5 7
 Figure 6.16 Plan of the second level
inside the funerary bundle.

Under the object composed of rectangular platelets were fragments of at

least two gilded copper birds (Fig. 6.16 M13, Fig. 6.17). They were badly
decomposed but appeared to have been sewn to a textile, each with a rectan-
gular frame consisting of a gilded copper band.
Beneath the birds were three headdresses. All were open-ended cylinders
like those found in Tomb 2. One, which was over his chest, consisted of two
undecorated bands of gilded copper (Fig. 6.16 M11, Fig. 6.18). The other

1 5 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 6.17 Gilded copper
bird M13 (height 4.2 cm).

two, which were over his torso, were made with rectan-
gular platelets of gilded copper. One had platelets
Figure 6.18 Original appear-
depicting the Crested Animal (Fig. 6.16 M10, Fig. 6.19).
ance of Headdress M11.
The other had platelets depicting a condor eating a
human head (Fig. 6.16 M12, Fig. 6.20).

Figure 6.19 Headdress M10. Left, one of the platelets (height 3.9 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

t o m b 3 1 5 9
 Figure 6.20 Headdress M12. Left, one of the platelets (height 11.6 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

The adult male was buried wearing

a beaded pectoral (Fig. 6.21). It is similar
to the one excavated in Tomb 2 (Fig.
5.68) but smaller and with fewer beads
and spacer bars. The tubular beads were
made of shell, while the spacer bars were
made of bone. Because both the beads
and the spacer bars in this pectoral were
better preserved than those in Tomb 2, it
was possible to reconstruct its original
form (Fig. 6.22). It is remarkably similar
to a pectoral portrayed on a Moche
ceramic vessel (Fig. 6.23).
There were nine nose ornaments in
Figure 6.21 The principal individual wearing a beaded pectoral.

1 6 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 6.22 Beaded pectoral (height 27 cm). Figure 6.23 A Moche ceramic vessel showing
an individual wearing a beaded pectoral. Not
from Dos Cabezas.

the funerary bundle (Fig. 6.24). Two gold

nose ornaments (Figs. 6.24a, c, 6.26) were
over the individual’s mouth and may have
been worn by him when he was buried. In
his mouth were two silver nose ornaments
(Fig. 6.24g, i) and two small droplets of
metal, one gold and the other silver. Beneath
his chin were five more nose ornaments: four
of gilded copper (Figs. 6.24b, d, f, h, 6.27)
and one of silver (Figs. 6.24e, 6.25). The lat-
ter was elaborately decorated with represen-
tations of the Crested Animal; their eyes had
been inlaid with black stones.

Figure 6.24 The nine nose ornaments found in Tomb 3.

t o m b 3 1 6 1
 Figure 6.25 Silver nose ornament Figure 6.26 Gold nose ornament
shown in Fig. 6.24e (height 4.3 cm). shown in Fig. 6.24c (height 4.3 cm).

Figure 6.27 Gilded copper nose

ornament shown in Fig. 6.24b
(height 2.5 cm).

The adult male was buried fully extended,

lying on his back with his head to the south (Fig.
6.28). He was between 18 and 22 years of age. Like
the individuals in Tomb A and Tomb 2, he was
much taller than most Moche males; his height was
approximately 175 centimeters.

Figure 6.28 The principal individual fully exposed.

1 6 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
COMPARTMENT 3

Like Tomb 2, Tomb 3 had a rectangular compartment. It was located approx-

imately 45 centimeters north of Tomb 3 (Fig. 6.1) and was approximately 85
3
centimeters north-south, 68 centimeters east-west, and 40 centimeters deep.
It was created by breaking adobes out of the pyramid’s solid masonry con-
struction, leaving the walls and floor irregular. Its upper edge was on the same
level as the upper edge of Tomb 3. It had been filled with dirt and chunks of
broken adobes, presumably material that had been broken out of the com-
partment during its construction.
On the floor of the compartment were two sets of ten ofrendas (Figs.
6.29–6.31): one set in southwest corner (Fig. 6.31 C1–C10) and another in
the northwest corner (Fig. 6.31 C11–C20). There was also a llama skull near
the center of the south wall (Fig. 6.31 L1).

Figure 6.29 The floor of Compartment 3.

t o m b 3 1 6 3
 Figure 6.30 The floor of Compartment 3 Figure 6.31 Plan of the floor
with the copper figure exposed. of Compartment 3.

Figure 6.32 The copper figure Figure 6.33 The copper figure M101
of Compartment 2 in situ. (height 18.3 cm) after cleaning.

1 6 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 In the center of the floor was a bundle of decomposed textiles. Inside it
was a copper figure lying on his back with his head to the south (Figs. 6.30,
6.31 M101, 6.32, 6.33). It was very similar in size and form to the copper
figures excavated in Tomb A (Fig. 2.8), and Compartment 2 (Fig. 5.152).
Clearly, Compartment 3 was meant to be a miniature of Tomb 3. The
copper figure, wrapped in multiple layers of textiles and lying fully extended
with its head to the south, was meant to be a miniature of the principal indi-
vidual in Tomb 3.
For a variety of reasons that will be discussed in Chapter 8, Tomb 2 and
Tomb 3 must have been contemporaty with one another and completed at
about the same time. Soon after their funerary rituals were completed, con-
struction began again on the expansion of the west side of the pyramid. This
is identified as Stage 10 in the construction sequence (Fig. 6.34). As the con-
struction resumed, a layer of clay was spread over a large area, and while the

Figure 6.34 STAGE 10: Layers of adobes were added that covered Tombs 2 and 3 and their compartments.

t o m b 3 1 6 5
 clay was still moist it was covered with a layer of adobes. Dirt mixed with
broken adobe was then filled in around the edges of the adobes, and anoth-
er layer of clay was spread on top of them. Then another layer of adobes was
put in place, and more dirt and broken adobes was filled in around them. This
procedure was repeated to raise the height of the solid adobe masonry in the
South Room while at the same time filling in the deep erosion channels that
had been cut into the old west face of the pyramid.

Figure 6.35 STAGE 9: North-south profile as indicated in Fig. 4.6,

showing the burial chambers of Tomb 2 and Tomb 3 covered by layers
of adobes that were added after their funeral rituals were completed.

1 6 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 When the construction reached the height of approximately 1 meter
above the upper edges of the burial chambers of Tombs 2 and 3, the con-
struction was temporarily halted. The burial chamber of Tomb 1 and its asso-
ciated compartment were then constructed (Fig. 6.35). That tomb and com-
partment are discussed in the following chapter.

Figure 6.35 STAGE 10: North-south profile as indicated in Fig. 4.6, showing the burial
chamber of Tomb 1 and its associated compartment, which were created after layers of
adobes had been constructed above Tombs 2 and 3 and their associated compartments.

t o m b 3 1 6 7
 NOTES
1
The original field number of this tomb is A54T1.
2 The gourd bowl had completely decomposed, but its impression was cast
with plaster with the same procedure used in the sub-floor burial of Tomb
2 (see Chapter 5, Note 17).
3
The original field number of this compartment is A54RN.

1 6 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Chapter 7
TOMB 1
T 1
he burial chamber of Tomb 1 was located approximately 285 centimeters
south of Tomb 2 (Figs 7.1, 7.2). There was no significant erosion in this area, so
the burial chamber of Tomb 1 was not made by expanding an eroded pocket, as
was done to create the burial chambers of Tomb 2 and Tomb 3. Instead, it was
made entirely by breaking adobes out of the recently constructed masonry.
Because the tomb was located adjacent to an earlier face of the pyramid, this face
became the east wall of the burial chamber, and was smooth and straight. In con-
trast, the other three sides and floor were irregular.
The burial chamber measured approximately 290 centimeters north-south by
135 centimeters east-west and 140 centimeters deep. Unlike the burial chambers
of Tombs A, B, 2, and 3, this burial chamber was not roofed with large beams. It
was completely filled with dirt and chunks of broken adobes at the time of the
burial. There were two layers of whole adobes, laid without mortar, inside the bur-
ial chamber that served to seal it at the top. They were more irregular and more
widely spaced than the adobes in the solid masonry and exhibited signs of prior
use; it is likely that they had been removed as whole, or nearly whole, adobes
when the chamber was created. When we first exposed the tomb, these adobes
slumped slightly relative to those around them (Fig. 7.2), but exhibited no delib-
erate placement like the adobes above Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.5).
Beneath the two layers of adobes inside the burial chamber was a fill con-
sisting of dirt and broken adobes — material that probably also was broken out
when the burial chamber was created. In this fill, approximately 70 centimeters
below the upper edge of the burial chamber, were two clusters of five ofrendas
(Fig. 7.3): one near the northeast corner (Fig. 7.4 C2-C6) and one near the north-
west corner (Fig. 7.4 C7–C11). A llama skull, the remains of a textile, and a small
jar painted with a white-on-red geometric pattern were also found (Fig. 7.4 C6,
2
Fig. 7.5). Beneath these objects there were more dirt and chunks of broken
adobe.

t o m b 1 1 6 9
 Figure 7.1 STAGE 11: When the successive layers of adobes in the newly constructed masonry reached a
height of 1 meter above Tombs 2 and 3, the burial chamber of Tomb 1 and Compartment 1 were constructed.

Figure 7.2 Adobes slumping above

the burial chamber of Tomb 1.

1 7 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 7.3 Objects (pedestaled)
in the fill of the burial chamber.

Figure 7.4 Plan of Tomb 1 showing the objects

found in the fill of the burial chamber.

Figure 7.5 Jar C6 (height 12.5 cm).

t o m b 1 1 7 1
 On the floor of the burial chamber were two individuals: a male lying
in an extended position with his head to the south and a female lying cross-
wise at his feet (Figs. 7.6, 7.7). She was approximately 15 when she died and
appeared to have been in good health and of normal stature. There were no

Figure 7.6 The floor of

Tomb 1 with its contents.

1 7 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
signs of violent death. There was no evidence that she had been dressed at
the time of burial, or wrapped in textiles or matting. The only artifacts asso-
ciated with her were two spindle whorls in front of her left hand (Fig. 7.8).
In contrast, the male had been wrapped, first in multiple layers of tex-

Figure 7.8 Spindle whorls

associated with the female
Figure 7.7 Plan of the floor
in Tomb 1.
of Tomb 1 with its contents.

t o m b 1 1 7 3
 3 4 5
tiles, then with a mat, and finally in a tube made of lengths of cane. The
textiles, matting, and cane had almost completely decomposed, but the traces
that remained clearly indicated that the man had been buried in a large funer-
ary bundle, which was placed on the center of the floor.
As in the other two tombs, many objects had been wrapped inside the
bundle. Wool yarn was wound multiple times around both of the man’s wrists.
His palms were down, and each was resting on a copper nose ornament (Fig.
7.7 M1, M2, Fig. 7.9). These nose ornaments appeared to be the same in size
and form, although the one under his right hand was badly corroded and had
shattered into many pieces. The one under his left hand was also corroded,
but it was possible to remove it intact. It was oval shaped and slightly round-

Figure 7.10 Copper nose orna-

ment M1 (height 4.5 cm).

Figure 7.9 Copper nose

ornament (M1) under the
individual’s left hand. Note Figure 7.11 Copper engaging spur for
the traces of wool yarn adja- a spear thrower M9 (height 2.7cm).
cent to the wrist.

1 7 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
ed in cross section (Fig. 7.10). Both nose ornaments were lying front side up
and positioned so that the portion that is put through the nose was oriented
in the direction of the individual’s head.
There was a spear thrower under his left arm (Fig. 7.7 M3), recogniza-
ble from the copper engaging spur (Fig. 7.11) and the impression in the soil
of what was probably a wooden shaft that measured approximately 42 cen-
Figure 7.12 Tweezers
timeters in length and 2 centimeters in diameter. On the right side of his chest M4 (height 2.9 cm).
were small copper tweezers (Fig. 7.7 M4, Fig. 7.12). Along the left side of
6
his body was a large copper chisel (Fig. 7.7 M5, Figs. 7.13, 7.14). In the
individual’s mouth was piece of sheet metal that had blue oxidation, suggest-
ing that it contained silver.

Figure 7.13 Torso of the individual showing the Figure 7.14 Chisel
tweezers (M4, upper left), and the chisel (M5, right). M5 (height 22.5 cm).

t o m b 1 1 7 5
 Figure 7.15 Gold nose ornament
M7 (height 3.1 cm).

Figure 7.16 The individual with a gold nose orna-

ment (M7) and a gilded copper headdress (M8).
Note the red pigment on the bones of the face.

There was a gold nose ornament in front of

the man’s face (Fig. 7.7 M7, Fig. 7.15) which he
appeared to have been wearing at the time of his
burial (Fig. 7.16). He was also wearing an elab-
orate headdress similar to many that were found
in Tomb 2 and Tomb 3 (Figs. 7.16–7.18). It was
made of a basketry cylinder covered with textile,
to which gilded copper platelets were sewn. All
the decorated platelets had the same design —
the head of a supernatural creature resting
Figure 7.17 Reconstructed platelet directly on a pair of legs (Figs. 7.17, 7.18). The
from Headdress M8, after cleaning creature appears to be a Crested Animal, identi-
(height 12.3 cm).

1 7 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 7.18 Headdress M8. Left, one of the platelets (height 12.3 cm).
Right, original appearance of the headdress.

fiable by its distinctive large crest spiraling back

from the top of its head and a smaller crest spi-
raling over its snout. This design, bordered with
a rectangular frame, was repeated in an upper
and lower register on each of the vertical
platelets.
Rolled up under the cylindrical headdress
was a large crescent-shaped headdress ornament
of gilded copper (Fig. 7.19). It did not have any
holes for attaching it to a headdress or a pin sim-
ilar to those on the crescent-shaped headdress
ornaments in Tomb 2 (Figs. 5.38, 5.46), and thus Figure 7.19 Crescent-shaped headdress
ornament M9 (height 24 cm).
it does not appear to have been functional.

t o m b 1 1 7 7
 Figure 7.20 The south end of Tomb 1.

Figure 7.21 Dipper C4 (length 26.7 cm).

1 7 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Outside the funerary bundle were many objects that had been placed
near the walls at the south end of the tomb, surrounding the man’s head and
torso (Figs. 7.6, 7.7, 7.20). Near the west wall were a large boulder of coral,
a ceramic dipper (Fig. 7.7 C4, Fig. 7.21), and a sculpted and painted stirrup
spout bottle with an undulating serpent modeled in low relief on its chamber
(Fig. 7.7 C1, Fig. 7.22). Along the south wall were the skull and lower legs
of a llama, and two more sculpted and painted stirrup spout bottles depicting
birds (Fig. 7.7 C2, C3, Figs. 7.23, 7.24). Also near the south wall was a clus-
ter of 20 ofrendas, positioned in two groups of ten (Fig. 7.7 C7–C26).
Finally, along the east wall were two more ceramic dippers (Fig. 7.7 C5, C6,
Figs. 7.25, 7.26).
The male in this tomb was approximately 21 when he died. He had

Figure 7.22 Undulating serpent C1 (height 19 cm). Figure 7.23 Bird C2 (height 21.5 cm).

t o m b 1 1 7 9
 Figure 7.24 Bird C3 (height 18.9 cm).

Figure 7.25 Dipper C5 (length 26.5 cm).

1 8 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure 7.26 Dipper C6 (length 28.2 cm).

extensive arthritic lipping along his vertebral column and at the ends of his
7
long bones. He also had extraordinarily long legs and long arms, big hands,
and a massive skull. His stature, calculated from the length of his long bones,
was approximately 183 centimeters. Like the individuals in Tombs A, 2, and
3, he was extremely tall relative to other Moche males.

t o m b 1 1 8 1
 COMPARTMENT 1

Approximately 20 centimeters south of the burial chamber of Tomb 1 there

8
was a small rectangular compartment filled with dirt and broken adobe, sim-
ilar to the compartments adjacent to Tomb 2 and Tomb 3 (Figs. 5.130, 6.31).
It was approximately 112 centimeters north-south, 71 centimeters east-west,
and 30 centimeters deep (Figs 7.27, 7.28). Since it had been created by
breaking out adobes from the solid masonry construction of the pyramid, its

Figure 7.27 The floor

of Compartment 1.

1 8 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
interior walls and floor were irregular. Its upper edge was at the same level as
the upper edge of Tomb 1.
Near the floor of the compartment was a blackware ceramic vessel (Fig.
7.28 C1). It had been broken by the compression of the soil above it, but it
could be reconstructed (Fig. 7.29). It is a double-chambered whistling bottle
with a sea lion on one of the chambers. The eyes of the sea lion are inlaid
9
with Spondylus shell. Traces of organic material overlapped the north cham-
ber of this vessel and spread over about half of the compartment. It was light
ochre color and may have been the remains of decomposed skin or leather.

Figure 7.28 Plan of the

floor of Compartment 1.

t o m b 1 1 8 3
 Figure 7.29 Double-chambered whistling
bottle with a sea lion C1 (height 17 cm).

Figure 7.30 Copper figure M101 in situ.

1 8 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 On the floor of the compartment there were ten ofrendas along its north
side, arranged in two clusters of five (Fig. 7.28 C12–C16 and C17–C21).
Along its south side, and partially beneath the double-chambered whistling
bottle, was another cluster of ten ofrendas (Fig. 7.28 C2–C11).
There was a bundle of badly decomposed textiles near the center of the
compartment. Inside it was a copper figure made of sheet metal, very similar
to the copper figures found on the roof of Tomb A and in the compartments
of Tombs 2 and 3. Like the copper figures in those compartments, the figure
was lying on its back with its head to the south (Fig. 7.28 M101, Fig. 7.30).
A dark organic liquid had been poured over the upper part of nearly the
entire compartment, flowing down around the ceramic vessels and between
chunks of clay in the fill. It had puddled on the floor in some places.
Like the compartments associated with Tombs 2 and 3, Compartment 1
was almost certainly created as a miniature version of Tomb 1, and the small
copper figure in Compartment 1 (Fig. 7.30, 7.31) appeared to be a miniature
version of the tomb’s principal occupant.

Figure 7.31 Copper figure M101 after

cleaning (height 17.9 cm).

t o m b 1 1 8 5
 When the funerary ritual of Tomb 1 and Compartment 1 was complet-
ed, the Moche people once again resumed construction on the west face of
the pyramid. This is Stage 12 (Fig. 7.32) in our construction sequence. It

Adobes Covering Tomb 3

and Compartment 3

Adobes Covering Tomb 2

and Compartment 2

Adobes Covering Tomb 1

and Compartment 1

Wall
ng
ta ini
Re
uth
So

Figure 7.32 STAGE 12 (early): Successive layers of adobes were

added above the three tombs and their compartments.

1 8 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
began by adding successive layers of adobes above the three tombs and their
compartments, meanwhile filling the deep erosion channels that had been cut
into the pyramid during Stage 8 (Fig. 4.21).

Figure 7.33 STAGE 12 (early): North-south profile as indicated in Fig. 4.6, showing
successive layers of adobes that were added above the three tombs and their compartments.

t o m b 1 1 8 7
 Layers of adobes were added above the tombs and compartments until
the new construction achieved a height of at least 10 meters. Then it was
coated with clay plaster (Fig 7.33).
During the final stage of construction, Stage 13, adobes were added to
raise the height of the low bench that extended along the base of the west
face of the pyramid (Fig. 7.34). This encapsulated the two low pillars that
were on top of the bench and created a new west face for the pyramid that

Figure 7.33 STAGE 12 (late): The new construction reached a height of at

least 10 meters and then was plastered with clay.

1 8 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
had a high step-back. This new construction was subsequently plastered with
clay.
Tombs 1, 2, and 3 and their associated compartments were thus sealed
within the solid adobe masonry that formed the bulk of the pyramid. Since
this masonry was built out over the earlier sand-filled platform, it effectively
sealed the earlier tombs that had been built in the sandy fill, including both
Tombs A and B.

Figure 7.34 STAGE 13: Adobes were added to raise the height of the low bench
along the west face of the pyramid and convert it into a high step-back.

t o m b 1 1 8 9
 NOTES

1
The original field number of this tomb is A52T1.
2
This jar is very similar in form and decoration to the jar found on the roof
of Tomb A (Fig. 2.5), but it is smaller and the chamber is flask-shaped.
3
At least two of the textiles were plain weave, with single warps and wefts.
The inner one was finer than the outer one.
4
The mat was made of junco grass (Juncus sp.), with a herringbone twill
pattern.
5
The cane used appears to have been cana brava (Gynerium saggittatum).
Wrapping the body in a cane tube is a type of Moche burial practice that is
described in Donnan and McClelland, 1997.
6
It is similar to the large copper chisel found in Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.96) but is
smaller and weighs 443 grams rather than 859 grams.
7
Since this normally occurs with Moche individuals who are more than 40
years of age, we first suspected that he must have been at least that old at
the time of his death. Only later did we realize that he was much younger.
8
The original field number of this compartment is A52R1.
9
This vessel is very similar to the double-chambered whistling bottle found
in the northeast corner of Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.122), but the eyes on that vessel
are not inlaid with Spondylus shell.

1 9 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Chapter 8
OBSERVATIONS
AND
CONCLUSIONS

T he five tombs at the southwest corner of Huaca Dos Cabezas were cre-
ated in two distinct time periods, which will be referred to as Early Period
and Late Period. Tomb A and Tomb B pertain to the Early Period, when
tombs were dug into the sandy fill of the platform, beneath the solid adobe
masonry that was constructed at a later date to extend the west face of the
pyramid. Their burial chambers were constructed in the same way as the other
Early Period burial chambers that had been looted in this area before 1994
and are almost certainly contemporary with them. It is not possible, howev-
er, to seriate the tombs in this area or to determine whether Tomb A is earli-
er or later than Tomb B. Nor is it possible to determine whether the Early
Period cemetery was in use over a short or long period of time.
Most, if not all, of the material we collected while cleaning around the
the remains of looted Early Period tombs probably came from those tombs. It
is possible, however, that the looters found some Late Period tombs in the
solid adobe pyramid that was built on top of the sand-filled platform, and that
some of material from the Late Period tombs was mixed with the material
looted from the Early Period tombs.
Sometime before Tomb A and Tomb B were covered over by the con-
struction of the large room with bins (before Stage 3 in the construction
sequence; see Chapter 4), they were reentered through a hole in their west
perimeter walls. Their contents were removed and partially replaced without

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s 1 9 1
 disturbing the material on their roofs. This reentry appears to have been cer-
emonial in nature.
Unfortunately, we could not determine in most cases whether other
Early Period tombs were also reentered. However, the perimeter wall of one
looted tombs was complete, with no sign of reentry. Therefore, if the tombs
were consistently reentered by opening a hole in their perimeter wall, this
tomb was not reentered.
The three Late Period Tombs, Tombs 1, 2, and 3, were in the solid
adobe masonry of the pyramid. Of the three, Tomb 2 contained a much high-
er quantity of associated objects than Tomb 1 and Tomb 3 — in fact, high-
er than the quantity of objects in both of these tombs combined. The com-
partment of Tomb 2 also had a higher quantity of associated material than
the compartments of Tomb 1 and Tomb 3 combined. It is not known why
Tomb 2 was so much richer than the other two tombs; however, it is note-
worthy that Tomb 2 is positioned between the other two, as though it was
the most important and Tomb 1 and Tomb 3 were lesser tombs placed to
flank it. It is interesting that Compartment 1 was at the south end of Tomb
1, while Compartment 3 was at the north end of Tomb 3. Perhaps this was
to locate the burial chambers of Tombs 1 and 3 on the inside of the cluster,
close to Tomb 2, and locate their compartments on the outside of the cluster.
The alignment of the three tombs along a north-south axis was proba-
bly deliberate, although to some extent it was due to circumstances of the
new construction to expand the west face of the pyramid. The pockets of ero-
sion that resulted from heavy rainfall during Stage 8 in the construction
sequence (Figs. 4.20, 4.21) appear to have dictated the positions of Tombs 2
and 3, whose burial chambers were made by simply enlarging the erosion
pockets.
Tomb 1, however, was made entirely by breaking adobes out of the
recently constructed masonry. Thus it could have been located almost any-
where in the new masonry — even west of either Tomb 2 or Tomb 3. Yet it
was located along the same north-south axis as the other tombs, again sug-
gesting that the three tombs were intended to form a single set, with Tomb 3
flanking Tomb 2 on the north and Tomb 1 flanking Tomb 2 on the south.

1 9 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
DIFFERENCES IN THE LATE PERIOD TOMBS

Although Tombs 1, 2, and 3 have many features in common, they also have
significant differences. Among the most important are the extent to which the
tomb chambers were filled and the presence or absence of roof beams. The
burial chamber of Tomb 1 was almost completely filled with dirt and chunks
of adobes and then sealed with two layers of adobes. It had no roof beams
and was left with no open space inside the chamber. Tomb 2 was roofed with
wooden beams and had no fill. Thus its entire burial chamber would have
been open space. Tomb 3 was roofed with wooden beams but its burial cham-
ber was filled halfway to the roof, thus leaving only half of the chamber open.
The roof beams are different in Tombs 2 and 3. In Tomb 2, ten large
beams extended north-south, with their ends resting on the upper edge of the
funerary chamber. There were also four east-west beams, with their west ends
resting on the upper edge of the funerary chamber and their east ends sock-
eted into holes cut into the old west face of the pyramid.
In contrast, Tomb 3 did not have beams extending north-south; all ten
beams extended east-west. Furthermore, although the west ends of the beams
were resting on the upper edge of the funerary chamber, the east ends were
supported by a beam resting on two posts instead of being socketed into
holes cut into the old west face of the pyramid.
The differences in the quantity of fill in the three tombs and in the way
the roof beams were used in Tomb 1 and Tomb 2 suggest that each of the
three tombs was built independently and not by the same individuals. There
may even have been a deliberate effort to make each tomb unique.

LATE PERIOD COMPARTMENTS MIMIC ASSOCIATED TOMBS

The selection of objects in the compartments as well as their quantity and

quality closely reflect the contents of their associated tomb chambers. Tomb
2, for example, contained the highest number of elaborately sculpted ceram-
ic vessels (eight), and its compartment also contained the highest number
(four). Tomb 1 contained the second highest number of elaborately sculpted

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s 1 9 3
 ceramic vessels (three), and its compartment contained the second highest
(one). Tomb 3 contained the lowest number of elaborately sculpted ceramic
vessels (two), and there were none in its compartment.
The same occurred with headdresses. Tomb 2 had the highest number
of headdresses in its burial chamber (14), and its compartment also had the
highest number (four full-sized and two miniature). Tomb 3 had the second
highest number of headdresses in its funerary chamber (3) and the second
highest number in its compartment (one miniature). Tomb 1 had the lowest
number of headdresses (one), and there were no headdresses in its compart-
ment.
The same occurred with nose ornaments. Tomb 2 and Tomb 3 had
numerous nose ornaments in their burial chambers and several miniature nose
ornaments associated with the copper figures in their compartments. Tomb 1,
however, had fewer nose ornaments in its burial chamber, and only one nose
ornament associated with the copper figure in its compartment.
The fact that the number of elaborate ceramic vessels, headdresses, and
nose ornaments in the three burial chambers is roughly proportional to the
number of these objects in the associated compartments suggests that the
compartments were intended to be miniature versions of their adjacent burial
chambers. This is most clearly demonstrated by the number and variety of
objects in the burial chamber and compartment of Tomb 2 compared with the
number and variety of objects in the burial chambers and compartments of
Tombs 1 and 3.

DELIBERATE SIZING OF THE TOMBS AND COMPARTMENTS

The size of the funerary chambers and the compartments appears to have
been determined by the quantity of material that was to be placed inside
them. The funerary chamber of Tomb 2 was made larger than the funerary
chambers of Tombs 1 and 3, probably to accommodate the more elaborate
funerary bundle of Tomb 2, with its numerous objects inside, as well as the
greater number of ceramics and animal remains inside the burial chamber. It
may also be that Tomb 2 was made larger because the Moche were already
planning to encase the funerary bundle in clay, which would require more

1 9 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
space within the burial chamber.
Similarly, Compartment 2 was made much deeper than either
Compartments 1 or 3, seemingly because the objects that were to be placed
inside would require greater volume. Compartment 2 was 62 centimeters
deep, compared with 30 centimeters for Compartment 1 and 40 centimeters
for Compartment 3. With greater depth, the contents of Compartment 2
could be arranged in multiple layers rather than in one layer as in
Compartments 1 and 3. This suggests that the people who created the burial
chambers and the compartments had a clear idea not only of what they would
ultimately contain but also of how the contents were going to be placed, and
they created the chambers and compartments accordingly.

CONTEMPORANEITY OF THE LATE PERIOD TOMBS

The sequence of architectural remodeling at the southwest corner of Huaca

Dos Cabezas provides evidence that Tombs 1, 2, and 3 were all made during
a brief period, with Tombs 2 and 3 made first. All three tombs were built in
the solid adobe masonry that was constructed to create a new west face of the
pyramid. Since the burial chambers of Tombs 2 and 3, as well as their com-
partments, were all cut from the same level of adobes, they must have been
made at the same time, when construction of the solid masonry had reached
that height. Moreover, the construction would have continued almost imme-
diately after the funerary rituals for Tombs 2 and 3 ended, or else the female
above the roof of Tomb 3 and the female and llama above Tomb 2 would
have been left exposed and amost certainly would have been disturbed by
vultures and scavaging animals. The fact that their skeletons showed no evi-
dence of disturbance indicates that construction of additional layers of adobes
above them must have resumed shortly after the funerary rituals of Tombs 2
and 3 were completed.
Tomb 1 appears to have been created somewhat later than Tombs 2 and
3. The upper edge of its burial chamber is approximately 1 meter higher than
the upper edge of Tombs 2 and 3 and could not have been created until the
construction of the solid adobe masonry reached that height. How much time
would have elapsed to raise the level of the masonry by 1 meter is difficult to

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s 1 9 5
 assess. Depending on how many people were working on the construction
and the availability of adobes and mortar, it could have been as short as a
week. But it seems unlikely that it would have been longer than two months.
Thus it is likely that Tombs 1, 2, and 3, and their adjacent compartments,
were all created within a period of two months or less.
The contemporaneity of these three tombs is also indicated by various
characteristics they had in common. All of the burial chambers and their
adjacent compartments had been formed by removal of adobes from the solid
adobe masonry of the pyramid. In each tomb the principal individual was
lying on his back oriented north-south, with his head toward the south. Each
of the three individuals was wrapped in a funerary bundle that contained a
variety of objects of gold, silver, and copper. There were ceramics and camelid
remains in the corners of each of the burial chambers, mostly at the south end
around the head and torso of the principal individual. All three tombs had a
compartment at one end, with a copper figure lying on his back with his head
to the south.
The similarity of headdresses found in the tombs and their compart-
ments also suggests contemporaneity. Each of the tombs contained at least
one cylindrical headdress made with gilded copper platelets — a very unusu-
al type of Moche headdress that had not been previously excavated.
The ceramics from the three Late Period tombs are very similar, again
suggesting contemporaneity (see below). This is particularly clear with the
double-chambered whistling bottles with sea lions that were found in
Compartment 1 (Fig. 7.29) and Tomb 2 (Fig. 5.122). Although the bottle
from Compartment 1 has Spondylus eyes, the two vessels are nearly identical
in all other respects.
Some of the metal objects in the three Late Period tombs also suggest
contemporaneity. Each tomb contained a large copper chisel and a spear
thrower with a copper engaging spur. The copper figures from the compart-
ments of the three tombs were also very similar in size and form (see below).
A major implication of the contemporaneity of Tombs 1, 2, and 3 is that
their principal individuals died at about the same time. One alternative expla-
nation would be that one or two of them died first, and their bodies were kept
until the death of the third so the three could be buried together. There is evi-
dence that the Moche sometimes kept corpses for long periods of time before

1 9 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
they were finally buried. In these cases, the soft tissue holding the bones in
place decomposed, allowing the bones to fall out of anatomical position
when the bodies were moved during burial (Alva and Donnan 1993: 123-
125; Nelson 1998). This appears to have been the case with Burial 4 above
Tomb B (Fig. 3.9). However, the bones of the principal individuals in Tombs
1, 2, and 3 were not out of anatomical position; thus there is no evidence that
they had been kept for any extensive period of time before being placed in
their tombs. If the three principal individuals in these tombs died at about the
same time, it is not known how or why this occurred.

ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY

Five radiocarbon dates were processed from the Dos Cabezas tombs. Three of
these were from Early Period tombs: two from Tomb A (Samples 1 and 2) and
one from Tomb B (Sample 3). The other two (Samples 4 and 5) were from
Tomb 2, a Late Period tomb.
The two radiocarbon samples from Tomb A used fragments of textiles
that were wrapped around the copper figure on top of the roof beams. The
results are as follows:
Sample 1: Beta-219770
Conventional radiocarbon age: 1570 ± 40 BP
2 Sigma (95% probability): Calibrated AD 410–580
Sample 2: Beta-219771
Conventional radiocarbon age: 1660 ± 40 BP
2 Sigma (95% probability): Calibrated AD 260–290
and AD320–450
The one radiocarbon date from Tomb B was from the burned textiles in
the offering above the roof of the tomb. The results are as follows:
Sample 3: Beta-89550
Conventional radiocarbon age: 1540 ± 50 BP
2 Sigma (95% probability): Calibrated AD 420–635
One of the radiocarbon samples from Tomb 2 (Sample 4) was from
part of the dessicated brain found in the cranial vault of the principal indi-
vidual. The other (Sample 5) was from a fragment of textile from the funer-

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s 1 9 7
 ary bundle. The results are as follows:
Sample 4: Beta-129542
Conventional radiocarbon age: 1530 ± 60 BP
2 Sigma (95% probability): Calibrated AD 410–645
Sample 5: Beta-129543
Conventional radiocarbon age: 1580 ± 50 BP
2 Sigma (95% probability): Calibrated AD 390–600
Sample 2, because it crosses the calibration curve at two different points,
could be either AD 260–290 or AD 320–450. It seems most likely that the
latter date is valid since it corresponds most closely to the other four dates
from these tombs. Moreover, it corresponds to six other radiocarbon dates
that have been run on Moche material from Dos Cabezas, all of which are
between AD 340 and 665.
The radiocarbon samples from Tomb A (Samples 1 and 2) suggest that
it was built between AD 320 and 580, while the one from Tomb B (Sample
3) suggests that it was built between AD 420 and 645. Presumably this
would also be the date range of the other Early Period tombs in the sandy fill
that were looted prior to 1994.
The radiocarbon samples from Tomb 2 (Samples 4 and 5) suggest that
it dates between AD 390 and 645. Presumably this would also be the date
range of the other Late Period tombs (1 and 3) in the adobe pyramid.
The dates for the Early Period tombs (AD 310–635) overlap but seem
somewhat earlier than those from the Late Period tombs (AD 390–645). At
this portion of the radiocarbon calibration curve, however, there are some
inversions, which makes it difficult to compare radiocarbon dates across this
time interval. Therefore, we cannot accurately assess how much time elapsed
between the Early Period tombs (A and B) and the Late Period tombs (1, 2,
and 3). However, given all the construction phases that took place between
Early Period and Late Period (see Chapter 4), it must have been several years.
My own thoughts are that the Early Period tombs probably date
between AD 475 and 500 and that the Late Period tombs probably date
between AD 525 and 550 — a separation of no less than 25 years and no
more than 75 years.

1 9 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
CERAMICS

The fineware ceramic vessels associated with these tombs would clearly be
assigned to Phase 1 of the chronology of Larco (Larco 1948) and be expect-
ed to date between approximately AD 100 and 250. Thus, the date of AD
310–645 based on radiocarbon is surprising. Nevertheless, it correlates with
the six other radiocarbon dates run on Moche material from Dos Cabezas,
which are between AD 420 and 610 (calibrated). These dates indicate that
the ceramic style that looks like Phase 1 of Larco’s chronology continued
until after AD 400 at Dos Cabezas — contemporary with Phase 4 of Larco’s
chronology. It is increasingly apparent that Larco’s chronology, which is valid
for the Southern Moche Region (south of the Pampa de Paijan), cannot be
used effectively in the Northern Moche Region (north of the Pampa de
Paijan). In the Northern Moche Region, a different ceramic chronology must
be developed (Castillo and Donnan 1994).
The most characteristic feature of the elaborate Moche ceramics from
Dos Cabezas is the representation of animals, birds, mythical figures, and
humans in three-dimensional sculpture and low-relief modeling. This, com-
bined with their well-prepared clays and slips and skillfully controlled firing,
reflects remarkable artistic and technological sophistication. Since the Moche
ceramic style seen at Dos Cabezas was first excavated archaeologically at the
site of La Mina (Narvaez 1994), it is appropriate to name it the La Mina sub-
style of Moche ceramics. In addition to Dos Cabezas and La Mina, it has been
found in the Jequetepeque Valley at the site of Masanca (Donnan 2006b; Fig.
1.2).

DELIBERATE USE OF NUMBERS AND NUMBER SETS

The types, numbers, and locations of objects in the Dos Cabezas tombs pro-
vide evidence that the Moche were deliberately clustering objects in sets of 5,
10, 20, and 40. The tombs also contained some objects that appear to have
been deliberately made using these numbers. This evidence for the deliberate
and repetitive use of specific numbers implies that the Moche considered
these numbers to be significant, perhaps carrying some symbolic importance,

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s 1 9 9
 and also appreciated how the numbers could be combined and divided into
sets.
In the burial chamber of Tomb 1, approximately 70 centimeters below
its upper edge, there were two clusters of five ofrendas — one near the north-
east corner of the burial chamber and one near the northwest corner (Fig.
7.4). On the floor of the burial chamber was a cluster of 20 ofrendas that had
been arranged in two groups of ten (Fig. 7.7).
On the floor of Compartment 1 there were 20 ofrendas — ten at the
south side and ten more at the north side (Fig. 7.28). Those at the north side
had been arranged in two clusters of five.
In Tomb 2, immediately above the roof beams, there were 40 adobes,
carefully positioned with twenty at the north end separated by a space from
20 at the south end (Figs. 5.4, 5.5 ). Each set of 20 was arranged in four rows,
with five adobes in each — ample indication that the Moche were creating
sets of 5, 10, 20, and even 40, and that they appreciated how these sets could
be divided into subsets of these numbers.
The layer of 40 adobes rested directly on top of wooden beams that
formed the roof of the burial chamber (Figs. 5.6, 5.7). Ten large beams
extended north-south. Beneath them were four transverse beams that extend-
ed east-west. There was also a short, crooked beam at the southwest corner
that seemingly had no structural purpose but may have been placed there to
create a total of five east-west beams (Fig. 5.7).
Among the many objects wrapped inside the funerary bundle in Tomb
2 was the necklace of quartz crystal beads. The beads varied in size and form,
and may even have been produced by two or more different individuals, yet
they had been assembled into a necklace of 40 beads (Fig. 5.67).
The principal individual in Tomb 2 had five gold objects in his mouth
(Fig. 5.60). Four of these were nose ornaments, while the fifth was a piece of
thin gold foil. It is curious that the four nose ornaments, each of which was
beautifully crafted of sheet gold, were put together with a rather unimpres-
sive piece of gold foil. This suggests that having a total of five objects was
more important than having all the objects be similar. Among the many
objects of gilded copper inside the funerary bundle were two nearly identical
headdress ornaments, each consisting of ten plumes (Fig. 5.29).
The objects placed in the corners of the burial chamber of Tomb 2 also

2 0 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
are in sets of 5, 10, and 20. In the northwest corner there was a double-cham-
bered whistling bottle and a cluster of five ofrendas (Fig. 5.121). In the north-
east corner there was another cluster five ofrendas, along with five other
ceramic vessels — two stirrup spout bottles, two dippers, and another ofren-
da (Fig. 5.123). The latter was placed between the stirrup spout bottles and
the dippers, apparently in a deliberate effort to make another set of five so
that the total number of ceramic vessels in that corner would be ten.
In the southwest corner four ofrendas were clustered with a small ofren-
da-size painted jar to make one set of five (Fig. 5.114). A second set of five
consisted of two painted jars and two stirrup spout bottles that were com-
bined with a cooking olla. The latter seems out of place in this context, but
it serves to complete the second set of five.
In the southeast corner, the cluster of ofrendas again made one set of five
(Fig. 110). In addition, there were three ceramic vessels, a llama skull, and a
parrot skeleton. If the intent of the people who selected and placed these
objects in the southeast corner was indeed to create two sets of five, then the
llama head and parrot must have been considered appropriate surrogates for
ceramic vessels.
In the upper layer of Compartment 2 there were 20 ofrendas arranged
in two groups of ten , one group arranged in a line along the south side of
the compartment and the other arranged in a line near the north side (Fig.
5.130).
In Tomb 3, the roof was made of ten beams that extended east-west, just
as there were ten beams extending north-south in the roof of Tomb 2. This
suggests that this number of beams was deliberately chosen in both cases.
Inside the funerary chamber, however, there was a surprising lack of the
use of five, ten, and twenty. Although there were numerous metal objects,
including headdresses, nose ornaments, ingots, and a banner, none of these
were clustered in sets of these numbers, nor were these numbers used in the
way they were used in Tomb 2. There were, for example, nine nose ornaments
with this individual, two of which were in the mouth. Also in the mouth were
two ingots, thus making a set of four objects rather than five. There were also
two clusters of ofrendas, but the cluster near the north end of the burial cham-
ber contained 11, while the cluster near the south contained eight (Fig. 6.7).
This is surprising, since the ofrendas in Tombs 1 and 2, as well as the ofren-

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s 2 0 1
 das in their associated compartments, were consistently in sets of 5, 10, and
20. These numbers do occur, however, in Compartment 3. On its floor there
was one set of ten ofrendas near the south wall, and another set of ten ofren-
das near the north wall (Figs. 6.29–6.31).
The use of five and ten can also be seen in Tomb A. Above the roof,
there were ten ofrendas at the south end of the tomb and five larger unbur-
nished and unpainted jars, while at the north end there were another ten
ofrendas (Fig. 2.3). Furthermore, the roof of the tomb was constructed with
five large beams (Fig. 2.9).
These four tombs and their associated compartments provide ample evi-
dence for the deliberate grouping of objects into sets of 5, 10, 20, and 40.
They also suggest that the Moche appreciated how sets could be divided into
subsets — ten divided into two sets of five, 20 divided into two sets of ten
or four sets of five, and 40 divided into two sets of 20 or eight sets of five.
These numbers and number sets were most frequently expressed with ofren-
das, perhaps because numerous ofrendas were put into the tombs and com-
partments, while other kinds of objects were often represented by three exam-
ples or less.
Other than at Dos Cabezas, the deliberate use of numbers and number
sets by the Moche has been observed only in the tombs at Sipán and Loma
Negra (Donnan ms.a). No Moche burials from other sites exhibit any attempt
to cluster objects in this way. The tombs where such clustering has been found
are among the richest Moche tombs ever excavated archaeologically. Perhaps
the use of these numbers and number sets was restricted to the upper echelon
of Moche society.
The frequent use of 5, 10, 20, and 40 in the Dos Cabezas tombs sug-
gest that these numbers had an important symbolic meaning and were an
important way of both perceiving the world and organizing it in a meaning-
ful way.

PRINCIPAL INDIVIDUALS IN THE TOMBS

The principal individual in each of the three Late Period tombs and the indi-
vidual in Tomb A were all adult males between 18 and 22 years of age who

2 0 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
were unusually tall. While the range of height for Moche males is between
148 and 168 centimeters, with an average of 158 centimeters (Verano
1997:193), these three individuals were between 175 and 180 centimeters,
with an average of 177 centimeters (Cordy-Collins 2003). The unusual
height of these individuals suggests that they may have been genetically relat-
ed.
Alana Cordy-Collins has conducted an extensive study of the skeletons
of the individuals and has observed they all exhibit skeletal abnormalities ,
some shared and others unique. Bones that are longer, larger, or lighter in one
individual are not necessarily ones that are longer, larger, or lighter in the oth-
ers. Moreover, there is little bilateral symmetry of the weight of any single
individual’s paired bones.
Her analysis further indicates that during their development, all of the
principal individuals in these tombs suffered periods of stress; radiographs
and direct observations reveal several Harris lines in the long bones, especial-
ly in the tibiae. There are many possible causes for Harris lines, and it is not
possible to identify the cause of a given line or the duration of the condition
that caused it. Nevertheless, because Harris lines disappear with age, their
presence suggests that these individuals were in a period of growth when they
died, and that the lines had been laid down recently. The bones of all of the
individuals appear to have been growing, aging, and deteriorating rapidly.
Analysis of the skeletons of other Moche people living at Dos Cabezas
indicates that the agents responsible for the tall stature and bone abnormali-
ties of the principal individuals in these tombs were not shared with the pop-
ulation at large. The fact that the abnormalities are present in one of the Early
Period tombs (Tomb A) as well as in the Late Period tombs strongly suggests
that it was a hereditary condition.

COPPER FIGURES

Very few Moche sheet metal figures had been found before these tombs were
excavated at Dos Cabezas. Two were looted from the site of Loma Negra in
the Piura Valley in the 1960s. These two are only about 9 centimeters high.
Each is fully dressed and has an elaborate headdress. Each apparently had a

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s 2 0 3
 Figure 9.1 Copper figures from the tombs: A from Tomb
A, 1 from Tomb 1, 2 from Tomb 2, and 3 from Tomb 3.

shield strapped to the left wrist and a war club in the right hand. A large hook
on their backs suggests that they were meant to be suspended.
Three other sheet metal figures were excavated in the royal tombs at
Sipán. Two of these were parts of elaborate gold and turquoise ear ornaments
(Alva and Donnan 1993:Figs. 86, 87), while the third was part of a nose
ornament (ibid:Fig. 219). All three of these figures are between 6 and 8 cen-
timeters high, and, like the Loma Negra figures, are fully dressed and have
elaborate headdresses. Each has a shield on one wrist and holds a war club in
the other hand.
The metal figures in the tombs at Dos Cabezas are considerably larger
than those from Loma Negra and Sipán: they range between 15 and 18 cen-
timeters in height (Figs. 9.1–9.5). Moreover, they are not parts of nose or ear
ornaments, nor were they suspended from a hook. They do not wear cloth-
ing; what appears to be a loincloth on two of them is actually a sheet of gild-
ed copper shaped to represent the genitals. They are essentially nude, but at
the time they were put into their compartments they may have been wearing
clothing made of perishable material.
Although the four copper figures are very similar in size and form, care-

2 0 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
Figure 9.2 Copper figure A, from Tomb A (height 15.7 cm).

Figure 9.3 Copper figure 1, from Tomb 1 (height 16.1 cm).

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s 2 0 5
 Figure 9.4 Copper figure 2, from Tomb 2 (height 19.5 cm).

Figure 9.5 Copper figure 3, from Tomb 3 (height 18.5 cm).

2 0 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
ful study of their manufacture and details of their accoutrements reveals
important differences between them. In the discussion that follows, they are
referred to simply by their tomb designation: the one from Tomb A as A, the
one from Tomb 1 as 1, etc.
Of the four copper figures, 3 is the most distinctive. Several features of
its construction set it apart from A, 1, and 2 (Figs. 9.2–9.5). Most noticeable
is that the head and torso were made as one part and the legs were made sep-
arately. The legs were then joined to the torso with copper straps. In contrast,
the head, torso, and legs of A, 1, and 2 were made as one part. Copper fig-
ure 3 is also distinct from the others because the arms consist of an inner side
and an outer side; on the other three figures the arms consist of a front side
and a back side. In addition, the feet of 3 are attached by the lower part of
the legs socketing downward into the feet, while the feet of the other three
are attached by socketing up into the lower part of the legs. On 3, the cop-
per sheet at the top of the head overlaps and curves downward around the
entire circumference of the head; on the other three it fits behind the piece
that forms the front and sides of the head, and only overlaps and curves
downward at the back of the head. The overall posture of 3 also sets it apart
from the other three; it is much fuller in the abdomen, hips, and upper thighs.
This might suggest that copper figure 3 is outside the tradition of the
other three, but so many other features are shared by the copper figures that
such a conclusion seems unwarranted. Figure 3 is similar to 1 in wearing a
nose ornament and headband — the only copper figures that have either of
these features. It is also similar to 1 in not having the toes delineated. On the
other hand, 3 is similar to 2 in having a gilded navel covering, and it is sim-
ilar to A in not having the genitals shown.
One could argue that A is, in fact, the most distinctive because it is the
only one wearing a necklace and holding nose ornaments in its hands. It is
also the only one that has the bottom of the feet attached with resin. Each
copper figure has some features that are unique and some features that are
shared with one or more of the others.
There is so much variation in the copper figures that they probably were
not made by the same craftsman. Certainly there was no effort to make them
appear the same. On the contrary, although there was a general concept of the
appropriate size and form of a copper figure, there may have been a deliber-

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s 2 0 7
 ate attempt to avoid duplication and instead to make each one unique.
One final but enigmatic feature of the copper figures is that each con-
tained something inside it. Figure A contained small pieces of broken
Spondylus shell. Figure 1 contained small pieces of broken bone, and figure
2 contained small pieces of quartz and shell. These were loose inside the fig-
ure and would have caused a rattling sound if the figure was shaken. Thus,
one might conclude that the contents were to make the copper figures serve
as rattles, But figure 3 contained a small piece of a plain twill weave cotton
textile that had been carefully folded. Since this textile could not have rattled,
the contents of the copper figures must have been purely symbolic. That the
contents of each were different from the others underscores the implication
that each was meant to be unique.

WHY THE COPPER FIGURES?

The copper figures could have been made prior to the deaths of the individ-
uals in these tombs, since it would have taken considerable time to manufac-
ture them as well as to create the miniature objects associated with the cop-
per figure in Compartment 2. Moreover, the close correspondence between
those miniature objects and their full-sized counterparts in Tomb 2 suggests
that there was prior knowledge of the objects to be buried in the tomb, and
a deliberate effort to create miniatures of them for the adjacent compartment.
This implies considerable preplanning. It is possible that the principal indi-
viduals in the tombs saw or had access to the copper figures during their life-
time. They even may have been instrumental in having the copper figures and
miniature objects made.
The copper figure that was wrapped in textiles and placed on the roof
of Tomb A is very intriguing. It is similar to the copper figures found in the
compartments of Tombs 1, 2, and 3. Like those figures, it was wrapped in tex-
tiles and placed outside the burial chamber on its back with its head to the
south. Each of the copper figures in Compartments 1, 2, and 3 was meant to
represent the deceased in the adjacent full-sized tomb. Therefore, it seems
likely that the copper figure above Tomb A was also a miniature representa-
tion of the person buried in the tomb below. These are the only Moche tombs

2 0 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
ever excavated that have a miniature of the deceased buried along with the
full-sized tomb. What could have been the reason for this practice?
It is not possible to know why there were copper figures associated with
Tombs A, 1, 2, and 3, but one explanation can be suggested. Each of the four
tombs that contained a miniature copper figure had, as the principal individ-
ual in the funerary chamber, a person of unusually tall stature. These individ-
uals would have stood out in their community in the same way that unusual-
ly tall people stand out in communities today. Perhaps there was a connection
between the height of the men in the tombs and the presence of the copper
figures that represented them in miniature.
In the past four decades of working with Moche art and archaeology, I
have become convinced that two basic tenets of their worldview were duali-
ty and balance. One observes numerous examples of their deliberate combi-
nation of opposites: gold and silver, light and dark, male and female, young
and old, sea and land, etc. The Moche appreciated the balance and comple-
mentarity of opposites, and they attempted to maintain balance between two
extremes.
The occurrence of “giant” men in the local population may well have
seemed out of balance, and in need of an opposite to renew the balance that
was not there. When a “giant” died, the local people may have thought they
could restore the balance by burying that individual in his tomb with a minia-
ture version of him in the form of a small copper figure.
When Tomb A was created, this may have been achieved by simply
wrapping the copper figure in elaborate textiles to form a funerary bundle
and placing it on top of the roof with the figure extended, lying on its back
with its head to the south, like the individual who was presumably wrapped
in his funerary bundle on the floor of the tomb below. Later, when Tombs 1,
2, and 3 were created, the practice of burying the miniature copper figure was
more elaborate. Instead of simply placing it above the roof of the tomb, a
miniature funerary chamber was created. The copper figure, wrapped in its
funerary bundle, was placed on the floor of the miniature burial chamber —
on its back with its head to the south, just like the principal figure in the adja-
cent tomb. Additional offerings were placed inside the miniature burial cham-
ber, reflecting in quantity and variety the objects that were placed in the adja-
cent tomb. The most elaborate manifestation of this practice was Tomb 2,

o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s 2 0 9
 where the extraordinary quantity and variety of associated grave goods close-
ly paralleled the inventory of miniature objects placed in the adjacent com-
partment.
Admittedly, suggesting balance as the motivation for creating a minia-
ture burial on the occasion of the burial of a “giant” is speculative. It is also
based on a very limited sample. As more archaeological excavation of Moche
burials is conducted, it will be interesting to see if small copper figures con-
tinue to be found associated with burials of individuals of unusually tall
stature, or in any other burial context.
Meanwhile, we are left with the intriguing set of tombs from Dos
Cabezas. They provide a wealth of new information about the nature of
Moche funerary practice, and they clearly demonstrate the extraordinary
artistic and technological sophistication that characterized Moche ceramics
and metalworking at the time they were created. They also provide some fas-
cinating answers and many intriguing questions about the Moche people,
who developed one of the most remarkable civilizations of the ancient world.

2 1 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Appendix
VERTEBRATE
FAUNAL
REMAINS
Thomas A. Wake

A lthough many different kinds of animals are depicted in Moche iconog-

raphy, the variety of those included in Moche tombs was limited to only a few
species. This analysis assesses the animal remains included in the five exca-
vated tombs at Dos Cabezas.
The few animal species recovered previously from Moche burials
include llamas (Lama glama), dogs (Canis familiaris), cuy (Cavia porcellus), par-
rots (Amazona sp.), macaws (Ara cf. militaris, et al.), conch shells (Strombus sp.)
and spiny oyster shells (Spondylus princeps) (Castillo 2003; Donnan 1995,
2003; Donnan and Mackey 1978; Donnan and McClelland 1997; Tello et al.
2003). Of these, llamas are the most common.
Llamas are usually represented in Moche tombs by heads and/or feet
(Bawden 1996:155, 242, 322; Alva and Donnan 1993; Castillo 2003;
Donnan 2003; Donnan and Mackey 1978; Donnan and McClelland 1997;
Tello et al. 2003). Only rarely are complete individuals encountered, most
often in the highest status tombs (e.g., Alva and Donnan 1992; Castillo 2003;
Donnan 2003). The heads are typically removed from the body at the atlas
or first vertebra and are usually isolated and not associated with any of the
remaining vertebrae. The feet, representing both fore- and hind limbs, are
typically disarticulated at the wrist or ankle. Cut marks are often found on the
exterior surfaces of the wrist and ankle bones, indicating purposeful disartic-
ulation. The meatier, high-utility parts such as the upper limbs, rib cage, and
vertebrae are usually not included.

v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a l r e m a i n s 2 1 1
 METHODS OF ANALYSIS

The Dos Cabezas animal offerings were analyzed one context (Tomb or
Compartment) at a time. All specimens were cleaned with dry brushes and
water where necessary to allow assessment of cut marks and/or pathologies.
Most of the animal bone from the five tombs and three associated compart-
ments was well-preserved. However, there were various indications that water
entered the tombs, and the leeching effects of the water accelerated the degra-
dation of the organic component (collagen) of the bones. This left the bone
generally brittle and easily broken.
Specimens broken during recovery or curation, as indicated during lab-
oratory analysis by clean, bright, broken surfaces free of any sediment, were
reconstructed with water-soluble adhesive to facilitate measurement and pro-
vide accurate representation of the number of individual animals included as
offerings. All specimens were photographed using a digital camera. Where
necessary, photographs taken of the skeletal remains were compared to refer-
ence materials in various comparative collections in the United States, since
the tomb offerings could not be readily transported out of Peru.
The specimens were measured using digital calipers with a computer
interface and/or an osteometric board. All specimens were cataloged into a
computer database.
The vertebrate faunal remains from the five Moche tombs at Dos
Cabezas included camelids, macaws, and parrots (Table A1). The camelids
were identified using comparative skeletal specimens, published diagnostic
aids and statistical techniques (Pacheco et al. 1986; Von den Driesch 1976;
Webb 1965). The incisors were of particular importance in identifying the
camelid specimens to species. Wheeler (1982:12–13) states that llama and
guanaco incisors are spatulate, have enamel covering all surfaces of the crown,
and are clearly rooted. The vicuña has incisors that are rootless, nonspatulate
and have enamel only on the labial surface (Wheeler 1982:12-13). Alpacas
have nonspatulate incisors, enamel only on the labial surface, and become
rooted with age (Wheeler 1982:13). Measurements of the proximal first pha-
lange dimensions were also compared to averages for the four extant
American camelid species. Based on the characteristics of the dentition and

2 1 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Table A1 Faunal Remains in the Dos Cabezas Tombs

the first phalange dimensions, all of the camelid specimens in the Dos
Cabezas tombs are llama.
Sex was determined by the presence of large “fighting” canines present
in adult males (Wheeler 1982:13–14) and/or enlarged suspensory ligament
scars on the pubic bone that support the male sex organs (cf. Pacheco et al.
1986). Age was determined primarily by tooth eruption sequences and wear
patterns (Wheeler 1982) and secondarily by degree and location of epiphy-
seal fusion. Wheeler’s (1982:17) corresponding age and tooth wear patterns
were given ordinal wear stage designations (Table A2).

Table A2 Llama Remains in the Dos Cabezas Tombs

v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a l r e m a i n s 2 1 3
 There were many cut marks on the llama remains (Table A3). These are
consistently straight, deep, and V-shaped and have no accessory striations
within them. All of these characteristics indicate that metal tools were used to
dissect the llamas (Walker and Long 1977).

Table A3 Cut Llama Bones in the Dos Cabezas Tombs

TOMB 1

One complete llama skull, two disarticulated lower forelimbs, and one disar-
ticulated lower hind limb were recovered from Tomb 1 (Fig. 7.7). The llama
head includes the complete hyoid skeleton (Fig. A.1). The hyoid apparatus is
essentially the skeleton of the tongue, providing support in the throat for
tongue movement. In undisturbed skeletal form, the hyoid lies between the
mandibles. The presence of the hyoid skeleton associated with this skull indi-
cates that the head had been decapitated, complete with tongue and proba-
bly skin and fur.
All the teeth are fully erupted, fairly well worn, and covered with den-
tal calculus (Figs. A.2, A.3). The incisors are consistent with the L. glama inci-

2 1 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure A.1 Tomb 1 Llama 2, skull.

Figure A.2 Tomb 1 Llama 2, mandibular occlusal view with lamoid incisors and fighting canine.

Figure A.3 Tomb 1 Llama 2, dental calculus.

v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a l r e m a i n s 2 1 5
 sor enamel pattern. All four canines (one per side, upper and lower) are pres-
ent and of large size. This strongly suggests the male sex. The level of occlusal
attrition on the molars of the llama cranium corresponds to wear stages
36–40 or 11–13 years of age (Wheeler 1982:17).
Both of the camelid forelimbs, one left and one right, were disarculated
at the wrist. These forelimbs have the same general proportions, similar ten-
dinal insertion scars, and appear to be of the same age. Both forelimbs were
most likely derived from the same individual, perhaps the llama represented
by the skull.
Cut marks are visible on several carpal bones from both forelimbs (Table
A3, Fig. A.4). The left cuneiform and scaphoid both bear deep angled cut
marks on their respective anterior and medial surfaces. The right cuneiform,
lunar, and scaphoid also bear deep, angled cut marks on their respective ante-
rior and medial surfaces. The characteristics of the cut marks indicate that
metal tools were used to dissect the forelimbs (Walker and Long 1977).
The hind limb was disarticulated at the ankle and may belong to the
same individual as the head and/or the forelimbs. The epiphyses of the limb
bones are completely fused, indicating that growth had ceased. The carpals
are well ossified and in some cases appear mildly arthritic, exhibiting zones
of active bone redeposition at the margins of interelemental cartilage.
Cut marks are visible on the larger tarsal bones from the hind limb. The
astragalus and calcaneus both bear deep, angled cut marks on their respective

Figure A.4 Tomb 1 Llama, cut marks on wrist.

2 1 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
superior, anterior, and medial surfaces, thus indicating metal tool use (Walker
and Long 1977).
Based on the complete suffusion of all observed epiphyses and indica-
tions of mild arthritis, all three feet are most likely from a single older adult,
possibly the individual represented by the skull. The size of the first pha-
langes of these three feet is slightly below average for llamas described in the
available literature (Kent 1982; Miller and Burger 1995:431). Sex-based size
dimorphism is noted in llamas, but unfortunately the differences in the distal
skeletal elements have yet to be adequately determined. Therefore sex could
not be assigned to the Llama 2 feet.

COMPARTMENT 1

No animal offerings were found in Compartment 1.

TOMB 2

The remains of two llamas, one complete individual (Llama 1) and one com-
plete head (Llama 2), were recovered from Tomb 2. Llama 1 was found above
the tomb chamber, separated by a layer of adobes and the original chamber
roof beams (Figs. 5.2, 5.3). All of the major skeletal elements of the complete
llama were fragmented. It should be noted that the length measurements for
the major bones of this specimen were recorded from reconstructed elements.
Unfortunately the cranium of the complete llama skeleton was pulverized and
could not be reconstructed with the materials available.
All of the epiphyses are fully fused but still evident, indicating that
growth had stopped and suggesting a young adult condition. The size of the
first phalanges of the feet from the two fore- and hind limbs lie close to but
below average for llamas as described in the available literature (Kent 1982;
Miller and Burger 1995:431). Unfortunately the skull was highly fragment-
ed, as were the sexually dimorphic canines. The incisors are consistent with
the L. glama incisor enamel pattern. The third mandibular molars, which were
complete, have wear patterns corresponding to wear stages 16–18, or

v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a l r e m a i n s 2 1 7
 between 4 and 4½ years of age (Wheeler 1982:17).
The llama skull (Llama 2) found inside the burial chamber of Tomb 2
(Fig. 5.9) was fragmented, but the presence of the hyoid skeleton indicates
that it was complete with tongue and probably skin and fur. The teeth in the
cranium and mandibles are nearly fully erupted and only slightly worn. The
incisors are consistent with the L. glama incisor enamel pattern. All four
canines (one per side, upper and lower) are present and of small size, strong-
ly suggesting the female sex. The canines of this specimen represent adult
dentition. No replacement teeth are evident in the canine alveoli. The level of
occlusal attrition on the molars corresponds to wear stage 12 or three years
of age (Wheeler 1982:17).
A single cut mark is visible on the inferior surface of the Llama 2 left
occipital condyle (Fig. A.5). The cut mark runs transverse to the length of the
skull along the long axis of the condyle, consistent with action that would
remove the head from the body.
Skeletal remains of two birds were recovered from the chamber of Tomb
2. They are clearly macaws (Ara sp.). Both individuals are fully mature, based
on the large size and complete ossification of the limb bones.
One specimen (Bird 1) was found near the head of the primary individ-

Figure A.5 Tomb 2 Llama 2, cut marks on the left occipital condyle.

2 1 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
ual (Figs. 5.9, 5.110). It is incomplete, and most of the recovered elements are
fragmented. Only a few scraps of the cranial region were recovered, making
identification possible only to the generic level (Ara sp. indet.). None of the
characteristics suggestive of osteoarthritis (seen in other Dos Cabezas bird
remains) are exhibited on this specimen.
The other specimen (Bird 2) was found lying near the feet of the tomb
occupant at the other end of the chamber (Fig. 5.9). It is virtually complete
and most closely approximates a military macaw (Ara cf. militaris) based on
size comparisons with other macaw species and fine basicranial morphologi-
cal distinctions. Bird 2 was excavated from a soil matrix that had infiltrated
the feather-covered shin of the bird and then solidified. Impressions of the
surface of the macaw’s skin with many feather insertions were visible on sev-
eral portions of the soil containing the Bird 2 bones.
Mild osteoarthritis is evident in the knee and shoulder joints of Bird 2.
The joint most severely afflicted with osteoarthritis is the right mandibular
articulation. The articular facet of the mandible is almost completely
reworked with active bone, and where it is not burnished, the surface is
roughened (Fig. A.6). The corresponding distal surface of the right quadrate
is burnished and exhibits active bone redeposited around the edges of the
articulation (Fig. A.7).

Figure A.6 Tomb 2 Bird 2, arthritic Figure A.7 Tomb 2 Bird 2, arthritic
mandibular articulation. quadrate.

v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a l r e m a i n s 2 1 9
 COMPARTMENT 2

Three concentrations of llama bones were found in the upper level of

Compartment 2 (Fig. 5.130). These are designated Llama 1, Llama 2, and
Llama 3. Llama 1 consists of an isolated skull with L. glama incisor enamel
pattern and tiny canine alveoli, indicating that it is most likely a female. The
cheek teeth are not yet fully erupted and have little wear on the molars, cor-
responding to wear stage 12 or roughly three years of age (Wheeler
1982:17). The hyoid skeleton was found between the mandibles of this spec-
imen.
The Llama 2 concentration included a skull as well as the left and right
metacarpals and the left and right metatarsals. The skull has incisors with the
L. glama incisor enamel pattern and large canines, indicating a male llama. The
cheek teeth are fully erupted and quite worn, corresponding to wear stages
36–40 or 11–13 years of age (Wheeler 1982:17).
Two fore- and two hind limbs, one left and one right, respectively, were
associated with Llama 2. The forelimbs were disarticulated at the wrist. Cut
marks are visible on several carpal bones from both forelimbs (Fig. A.8). The
left trapezoid bears deep, angled cut marks on the exterior and medial sur-
faces. The right cuneiform, pisiform, and scaphoid also bear deep, angled cut
marks on their respective anterior and medial surfaces. All of the cut marks
have characteristics of metal tool use (Walker and Long 1977).
The Llama 2 forelimbs have the same general proportions, similar tend-
inal insertion scars, appear to be the same age, and generally match each
other. They most likely were derived from the same individual, probably the
llama represented by the skull.
The hind limbs were disarticulated at the ankle and may belong to the
same individual as the head and/or forelimbs. The epiphyses of the limb
bones are completely fused, indicating growth had ceased. The carpals are
well ossified and in some cases appear mildly arthritic, exhibiting zones of
active bone redeposition at the margins of interelemental cartilage.
Cut marks are visible on the larger tarsal bones from the Llama 2 hind
limbs (Fig. A.8). The right astragalus and metatarsal both bear deep, angled
cut marks on their respective superior, anterior, proximal, and medial surfaces.

2 2 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure A.8 Compartment 2 Llama 2, cut marks
on the right astragalus and left calcaneus.

The left calcaneus and metatarsal also bear bold cut marks on their superior,
anterior, and medial surfaces. These cut marks have characteristics of metal
tool use (Walker and Long 1977).
The size of the first phalanges of the feet from the two pairs of fore- and
hind limbs are slightly below average for llamas as described in the available
literature (Kent 1982; Miller and Burger 1995:431). Sex-based size dimor-
phism is noted in llamas, but unfortunately, the differences in the distal skele-
tal elements have yet to be adequately determined. Therefore a sex could not
be assigned to the Llama 2 feet.
The Llama 3 concentration in Compartment 2 included a skull as well
as the left and right metacarpals and the left and right metatarsals with the
associated phalanges, carpals, and tarsals. The Llama 3 skull has incisors with
the L. glama incisor enamel pattern and large canines, indicating a male llama.
Dental abcesses are present in both the mandible and maxila (Figs. A.9, A.10).
The cheek teeth are fully erupted and quite worn, corresponding to wear
stages 38–42 or 12–14 years of age (Wheeler 1982:17).
Two forelimbs and two hind limbs, one left and one right, respectively,
were associated with Llama 3. The forelimb feet were disarticulated in a fash-
ion that left no visible cut marks. The carpals are well ossified and in some
cases appear mildly arthritic, exhibiting zones of active bone redeposition at
the margins of interelemental cartilage. The forelimbs have the same general

v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a l r e m a i n s 2 2 1
 Figure A.9 Compartment 2 Llama 3, maxillary dental abcess.

Figure A.10 Compartment 2 Llama 3, mandibular dental abcess.

proportions, similar tendinal insertion scars, appear to be the same age, and
generally match each other. Thus they were most likely derived from the same
individual.
The Llama 3 hind limbs were disarticulated at the ankle, leaving no vis-
ible cut marks. They may belong to the same individual as the forelimbs of
Llama 3. The epiphyses (growth plates) of the hind limb bones are completely
fused, indicating growth had ceased.
The size of the first phalanges of the feet from the two pairs of fore- and
hind limbs are slightly below average for llamas (Table A2) as described in the
available literature (Kent 1982; Miller and Burger 1995:431). A sex could not
be assigned to the Llama 3 feet. It is possible that the Llama 3 fore- and hind

2 2 2 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
limbs are from the same individual as the Llama 3 skull.
TOMB 3

A single llama skull was recovered from Tomb 3 (Fig. 6.7). It included the
hyoid skeleton, which indicates that the head, complete with tongue, was
included as an offering. The teeth are all fully erupted and well worn. The
incisors are consistent with the L. glama enamel pattern. All four canines are
present and of large size. Their size strongly suggests the male sex. The level
of occlusal attrition on the molars corresponds to wear stages 36–40 or
11–13 years of age (Wheeler 1982:17).
In addition to the llama skull, the complete skeleton of one bird was
recovered from Tomb 3 (Fig. 6.7). It is identified as a macaw, most likely the
military macaw (Ara cf. militaris), based on size comparisons with other
macaw species and fine basicranial morphological distinctions. This individ-
ual is fully mature and, based on the condition of some of the bones at the
joints, of an advanced age.
Several of the epiphyses of the major limb bones exhibit varying degrees
of bony lipping and redeposition characteristic of mild arthritis, a condition
usually found in older adult vertebrates. The distal articular surfaces of both
coracoids and humeri and the corresponding proximal articular surfaces of
both ulnae (which form the elbow joint in a bird’s wing) have bony lipping
and redeposition around the margins of the now decomposed articular carti-
lage (Fig. A.11). Similar bony redeposition is evident around the margins of
the proximal articular surfaces of both tibiotasri, or lower leg bones.

Figure A.11 Tomb 3 Bird 1, mild arthritis on the coracoid.

v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a l r e m a i n s 2 2 3
 COMPARTMENT 3

The remains of a single llama skull were recovered from Compartment 3 (Figs.
6.29–6.31). These remains are well preserved and include the hyoid skeleton.
The teeth are all fully erupted and fairly well worn. The incisors are consis-
tent with the L. glama enamel pattern. All four canines are present and medi-
um sized. The size of the canines suggests the male sex, but perhaps a
neutered male. The level of occlusal attrition on the molars corresponds to a
wear stage greater than 42 or probably in excess of 14 years of age (Wheeler
1982:17).

TOMB A

Two llama skulls (Llama 1 and Llama 2) were recovered from Tomb A (Fig.
2.3). They are well preserved and complete, and both have the hyoid skele-
ton. The teeth in Llama 1 are all fully erupted but only somewhat worn. The
incisors are consistent with the L. glama enamel pattern. All four canines are
present and of large size, strongly indicative of a male. The level of occlusal
attrition on the molars of the Llama 1 cranium corresponds to wear stages
18–19 or 4½ to 4¾ years of age (Wheeler 1982:17).
The teeth in Llama 2 are all fully erupted and well worn, and exhibit
mandibular periostitis (Fig. A.12). The incisors are consistent with the L. glama
enamel pattern. All four canines are present and of medium size. The size of
the Llama 2 canines suggests the male sex, but perhaps a neutered male. The

Figure A.12 Tomb A Llama 2, mandibular periostitis.

2 2 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
level of occlusal attrition on the molars of the Llama 2 cranium corresponds
to a wear stage greater than 42 or probably in excess of 14 years of age
(Wheeler 1982:17).
Skeletal remains of two different birds were recovered from the north
end of Tomb A: one macaw and one parrot (Fig. 2.3). Both specimens are
fragmented and relatively incomplete. The macaw specimen most closely
resembles a military macaw (Ara cf. militaris), based on size comparisons with
other macaw species and fine morphological distinctions. The parrot most
closely resembles the larger species of Amazon parrots (Amazona sp.), possibly
the mealy Amazon (A. farinosa) or the yellow-lored Amazon (A. ochrocephala).
Both individuals are fully mature and, based on the condition of some of the
bones at the joints, of advanced age. Elements of each of the specimens exhib-
it varying degrees of bony lipping and redeposition characteristic of mild
arthritis, a condition usually found in older adult vertebrates.
The left mandibular articulation of the macaw exhibits evidence of
mild osteoarthritis (bony lipping and redeposition around the margins of the
articular cartilages). The remaining bones are all cranial elements plus the first
two vertebrae. Other than the atlas and axis, no postcranial elements were
recovered, leading to the possibility that only the head was included in Tomb
A as an offering.
The Tomb A parrot, while not a skeletally complete specimen,
includes both cranial and postcranial bones, indicating the inclusion of the
whole animal in the tomb chamber. Skeletal pathology in the parrot is limit-
ed to osteoarthritis. The distal left coracoid (Fig. A.13) exhibits obvious bony
redeposition on the scapular and humeral articular facets, as well as in the
zones surrounding the distal end.

Figure A.13 Tomb A Parrot, severe arthritis on the coracoid.

v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a l r e m a i n s 2 2 5
 TOMB B

Two llama skulls (Llama 1 and Llama 2) were recovered from Tomb B (Fig.
3.7). Both are with their respective hyoid skeletons. Llama 1 consists of an
isolated head with the L. glama incisor enamel pattern and tiny canine alveoli,
suggesting that it is a female. The cheek teeth are not yet fully erupted and
have little wear on the molars, corresponding to wear stage 12 or roughly
three years of age (Wheeler 1982:17).
Llama 2 is poorly preserved and heavily fragmented. The cranial and
mandibular teeth are all well worn. The incisors were not recovered, so the
presence of the L. glama incisor enamel pattern could not be confirmed. The
canines are present but highly fragmented, and the mandibular and maxillary
regions bearing their alveoli could not be reconstructed. Thus sex could not
be determined. The level of occlusal attrition on the molars of Llama 2 cor-
responds to a wear stage greater than 42 or probably in excess of 14 years of
age (Wheeler 1982:17).
Skeletal remains of a parrot were recovered from the burial chamber of
Tomb B (Fig. 3.7). It is represented by a nearly complete skeleton and is vir-
tually indistinguishable from the parrot in Tomb A. As with the parrot in
Tomb A, its large size suggests that it may represent one of the larger Amazona
species such as the mealy or yellow-lored Amazon.
The parrot exhibits two types of skeletal pathology: arthritis and
healed traumatic injury. Bony lipping and redeposition associated with
osteoarthritis are seen in most of the main wing joints as well as in the knees.
Eburnative osteoarthritis is evident in two areas: the right shoulder joint
where the scapula, coracoid, and humerus intersect and the articular surface
of the right mandible and coracoid (both distal and proximal). Both of these
areas are associated with healed fractures, suggesting the osteoarthritis devel-
oped as a result of post-fracture-related displacement or realignment of the
joints in question.
Two skeletal elements, the right mandible and the right scapula,
exhibit characteristics associated with healed fractures. The right side of the
mandible (Fig. A.14) exhibits evidence of a single break, mild displacement,
and subsequent rehealing. The fracture crosses the midsection of the hori-
zontal ramus just posterior to the thickened anterior region that supports the

2 2 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 Figure A.14 Tomb B Parrot, healed mandibular fracture.

lower bill covering. The fracture occurred at the thinnest part of the horizon-
tal ramus, probably the area of the most susceptible to traumatic injury. The
fracture resulted in a noticeable lingual displacement of the horizontal ramus.
The displacement of the horizontal ramus almost certainly resulted in mis-
alignment of the mandibular/quadratic joint and caused the eburnative
arthritis visible on the articular surface of the right mandible as well as on the
distal surface of the right quadrate. The added stress on the quadrate also
resulted in an arthritic condition on the proximal surface where it articulates
with the temporal bone. The fractures are well healed and occurred well
before the death of the parrot.
The parrot’s right scapula (Fig. A.15) exhibits evidence of a fracture
at the proximal end of the scapular shaft, just distal to the area surrounded by
ligaments associated with the shoulder joint. The fracture was displaced and
healed out of correct alignment. The healing is complete, but the margins of
the healed area are somewhat roughened. The misaligned healing of the frac-
ture almost certainly contributed to the eburnative osteoarthritis of the right
shoulder joint. It is possible that the parrot could have flown subsequent to
healing, but development of osteoarthritis in the shoulder joint could have
limited its flight capabilities.

v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a l r e m a i n s 2 2 7
 Figure A.15 Tomb B Parrot, healed scapular fracture.

TREATMENT OF THE ANIMAL CONTENTS

Cut marks are visible on several of the llama head, wrist, and ankle bones.
Most of the isolated fore- and hind limb units bear cut marks on one or more
of the respective tarsal or carpal bones (Table A1). Most of the tarsal and
carpal bones that have cut marks bear multiple individual cuts, indicating
repeated individual cutting motions. One llama skull (Fig. A.5) bears a single
bold transverse cut mark on its left occipital condyle. All of the identified cut
marks exhibit characteristics consistent with the use of relatively broad-edged
sharp metal cutting implements. The one complete llama skeleton that was
found in the tombs at Dos Cabezas, the one above the roof of Tomb 2, bears
no cut marks.
Llama heads (including the tongue), forelimbs, and hind limbs are the
primary offerings placed in the tombs and their compartments. No isolated
higher utility skeletal elements or parts such as ribs, lumbar vertebrae, or
upper limb bones were recovered. Therefore, meat was probably not the pri-
mary purpose of the llama offerings (see Aldenderfer 1998:105).

LLAMA PATHOLOGIES

Pathologies visible on the Dos Cabezas llama heads are limited to tooth wear
and various dental pathologies. No signs of malnutrition or anemias such as

2 2 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
cribria orbitalia and ectocranial thickening or dental hypoplasias were evi-
dent. All the llama heads had teeth bearing varying degrees of dental calcu-
lus (Fig. A.3). The dental calculus probably contains opal phytoliths and
starch grains of the plant foods that the llamas were fed. Detailed analysis of
selected calculus samples could shed light on Moche herd management prac-
tices, at least in terms of whether the llamas present in the tombs were fed a
generalized fodder or received food supplements in the form of grain (maize)
or exotic plant materials.
Abscesses are evident in several of the individual llamas (Figs. A.9,
A.10). Most of these appear to be due to encapsulated infections associated
with molariform tooth roots, often with some degree of active bony re-
growth on the wound margins. One abscess (Fig. A.12) appears to have been
particularly pervasive. The original tooth-associated abscess appears to have
spread into the marrow cavity of the jaw as well as in the periosteal space. A
layer of active porous bony regrowth on the horizontal ramus indicates infec-
tion-related periostitis.

BIRD PATHOLOGIES

Pathologies observed on the bird remains are limited to arthritis and healed
bone fractures. All the individual parrots found in Tombs A and B bear
indications of some level of arthritis on at least some of their respective
skeletal elements. Arthritic lipping to varying degrees was observed usually
on elements of the shoulder girdle (Figs. A.11, A.13), some leg bones, and
in the mandibular articulation (Figs. A.6, A.7).
Eburnative arthritic lesions were observed only on the Tomb B parrot
mandibular articulation (Fig. A.6), most likely associated with the healed,
slightly displaced, traumatic fracture it received. This parrot also shows signs
of a healed fracture on the midshaft of the right scapula (Fig. A.15). With a
broken scapula, flight would likely be compromised or at least painful and
difficult. A broken mandible is even more life-threatening.
Parrots use their bills to feed, preen, and interact socially. Both the upper
and lower portions of the bill are mobile in both parrots and macaws, which
adds to the general dexterity of the group. A working jaw is absolutely imper-

v e r t e b r a t e f a u n a l r e m a i n s 2 2 9
 ative to a parrot’s well-being. A parrot simply could not eat or take care of
itself without one. Parrots typically use the mandible to hold a food item
while the sharp upper jaw excises a chunk of fruit or nut covering. A parrot
with a broken jaw would not be able hold on to food items or consume them
— at least not without a considerable amount of pain. The fact that the par-
rot in Tomb B recovered from two fractures is testament to a certain level of
care and nurturing provided to that bird. There was certainly a period of time
when the parrot received nutrients from a source that could prepare suitable
food for a parrot with a broken jaw, such as mashed fruit or ground seeds;
almost certainly a human captor/caregiver. Close association of humans and
parrots is clearly portrayed in Moche art (Fig. A.16), and it is likely that this
resulted in affectionate bonding.

Figure A.16 Moche fineline painting of humans interacting with parrots.

2 3 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
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Donnan, Christopher B. and Daisy Barreto C.
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Donnan, Christopher B. and Donna McClelland
1997 Moche Burials at Pacatnamu. In The Pacatnamu Papers, Volume 2: The
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1999 Plovos de Espingo. Revista Arqueológica Sian 8. Trujillo.
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the Peruvian North Coast, edited by Steve Bourget. University of Texas
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Narvaez, Alfredo
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1998 Wandering Bones: Archaeology, Forensic Science and Moche Burial
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Pacheco, Victor R., Alfredo Altamirano and Erma Guerra
1986 Osteology of the South American Camelids, translated by Elsie
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Pozorski, Shelia and Thomas Pozorski
2003 La Arquitectura Residential y la Subsistencia de los Habitantes del
Sitio de Moche: Evidencia Recuperada por el Proyecto Chan
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Segundo Coloquio Sobre la Cultura Moche, edited by Santiago Uceda and
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Sokal, Robert R. and F. James Rohlf
1981 Biometry. W.H. Freeman and Co., New York.
Strong, William D. and Clifford Evans, Jr.
1952 Cultural Stratigraphy in the Virú Valley, Nothern Peru: The
Formative and Florescent Epoch. Columbia Studies in Archaeology and
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Segundo Coloquio Sobre la Cultura Moche, edited by Santiago Uceda and
Elías Mujica. Universidad Nacional de La Libertad, Trujillo.
Verano, John W.
1997 Physical Characteristics and Skeletal Biology of the Moche
Population at Pacatnamu. In The Pacatnamu Papers, Volume 2: The
Moche Occupation, edited by Christopher B. Donnan and Guillermo
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Von Den Driesch, Angela
1976 A Guide to the Measurement of Animal Bones from Archaeological
Sites. Peabody Museum Bulletin 1. Peabody Museum of Archaeology
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Walker, Philip L. and John C. Long
1977 An Experimental Study of the Morphological Characteristics of Tool
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Webb, S. David
1965 The Osteology of Camelops. Bulletin of the Los Angeles County Museum
of Science, No.1.
Wheeler, Jane C.
1982 Aging Llamas and Alpacas by Their Teeth. Llama World 1(2):
1995 Evolution and Present Situation of the South American Camelidae.
Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 54.

2 3 4 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 INDEX
animal bone, 58, 102, 208
animal pelt, 136

basketry, 78, 81, 83, 84

bat, 81, 82, 107, 123, 124
beads. See Moche bead work
bench. See Huaca dos Cabezas pyramid
bin. See Huaca dos Cabezas pyramid
bird. See macaw, Moche metal work, parrot
bowl
copper, 77, 95, 141
gourd, 130, 147, 155, 168
burial chambers. See Huaca dos Cabezas pyramid Tombs A, B, 1, 2, and 3
looted. See Huaca dos Cabezas looting
re-entry, 27, 28,

cane, 173, 174

coffin, 146, 190
frame, 145
roofing, 25, 43, 70
shaft, 110, 155
cat tail, 25
chisel. See Moche metal work
chronology, 197–198
conch shell, 211
condor, 126, 127, 132, 133, 159
copper. See Moche metal work
copper figures. See miniature copper figures
coral, 173, 179
cotton. See Moche textiles
Crested Animal, 82, 98, 120, 121, 123, 124, 128, 134, 135, 147, 159, 161, 176,
177
curated burial, 30, 196
cuy, 211

Decapitator, 84, 94
dog, 211
Dos Cabezas site, 2–7, 202
ancient population, 6
Chimu occupation, 7
Chimu-Inca occupation, 7
colonial occupation, 7
domestic architecture, 9
Huaca dos Cabezas. See Huaca dos Cabezas pyramid
Lambayeque occupation, 7
location, 5
Moche occupation, 6, 7, 8, 9

2 3 5
 pre-ceramic occupation, 6
present occupation, 6
size, 5
drum, drum-shaped figure, 118, 145

engaging spur. See Moche metal work

erosion. See Huaca dos Cabezas pyramid
espingo, 118, 119

feathered textiles. See Moche textiles

feline, 38, 131, 132, 136, 138, 146
funerary bundles, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 81, 86, 87, 89, 90, 93, 95, 103, 112, 118,
119, 129, 133, 138, 145, 151, 152, 153, 156, 157, 158, 161, 174, 179,
194, 196, 200
clay encased, 72, 73, 74, 75

Gallinazo style, 9, 147

gilded copper. See Moche metal work

head cloth. See Moche textiles

headdress. See Moche headdress
helmet, 108
Huaca dos Cabezas pyramid, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13
adobe wall, 10, 11, 42, 47, 166, 167
architectural modification—southwest corner, 41, 195
Stage 1, 42
Stage 2, 43–44
Stage 3, 44–47
Stage 4, 48–50
Stage 5, 51–52
Stage 6, 53–54
Stage 7, 56–58
Stage 8, 59–60
Stage 9, 61–62
Stage 10, 165–166
Stage 11, 167, 170
Stage 12 early, 186
Stage 12 late, 187–188
Stage 13, 189
bench, 63, 188, 189
bin, plastered and painted, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 65,
191
erosion, 13, 41, 50, 59, 60, 61, 65, 151, 166, 169, 187
floor
clay 65
sand-covered, 27, 36, 38, 39, 72, 131
looting, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 30, 38, 41, 43, 45, 46, 191
painted wall, 44
patio, 11
platform, 10, 45, 188, 189
plastered wall, 44
retaining wall, 12, 17, 46, 48, 49, 51, 56, 60, 61, 62

2 3 6 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 sandy fill, 13, 15, 16, 19, 29, 43, 45, 48, 166, 167, 189, 191
southwest corner, 12, 13, 14, 191, 195
Tomb A, 16, 19, 20, 21, 52, 57, 63, 190, 191, 197, 198, 201, 202, 203, 208,
209, 224, 225, 229
construction, 20, 21, 25, 57
location, 16, 19
measurements, 25
occupants, 25, 27, 181
re-entry, 25, 26, 27, 38, 39, 44, 191
Tomb B, 16, 29, 52, 63, 191, 197, 198, 226, 227, 229, 230
construction, 33, 34, 36, 37, 57
location, 16, 29
measurements, 36
occupants, 29, 30, 32, 33
re-entry, 38, 39, 44, 191
Tomb 1, 61, 63, 65, 66, 167, 169, 192, 193, 194, 198, 199, 201, 209,
214–216
compartment, 65, 66, 167, 170, 183, 190, 194, 195, 208, 217
construction, 169, 195, 196
location, 167, 169, 170, 186, 187, 199
measurements, 169, 194
occupants, 169, 172, 173, 176, 177
Tomb 2, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 73, 74, 147, 166, 167, 169, 192, 193, 194, 196,
197, 198, 200, 201, 217, 218, 219
compartment, 61, 62, 65, 66, 130, 131, 132, 138, 139, 166, 167, 170,
177, 190, 193, 194, 195, 201, 208, 209, 220, 221
construction, 65, 195, 196
location, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 170, 186, 187
measurements, 65, 129, 194
occupants, 65, 66, 102, 109, 110, 129, 181
sub-floor burial, 129
Tomb 3, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 149, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170, 192, 193, 194,
195, 198, 209, 223
compartment, 61, 62, 65, 66, 163, 165, 166, 167, 201, 208, 224
construction, 149, 150, 195, 196
location, 149, 150, 165, 170, 186, 187
measurements, 151, 194
occupants, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 160, 162, 181

jar. See Moche ceramics

Jequetepeque River, 2, 4, 5
Jequetepeque Valley, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7
junco grass, 78, 82, 146, 190

La Mina, 99
lapis lazuli, 3
leather, 104, 183
lizard, 106, 107, 109, 110, 154, 155
llama, 14, 19, 21, 25, 33, 34, 65, 66, 120, 130, 131, 153, 163, 164, 169, 171,
179, 195, 201, 211–229
Loma Negra, 202, 203, 204
looting. See Huaca dos Cabezas looting

i n d e x 2 3 7
 macaw, 21, 211, 218, 219, 223
marsh grass, 25
mask. See Moche metal work
matting, 75, 173, 174, 190
miniature copper figures, 194, 203–210
Tomb A, 21, 23, 204, 207
Compartment 1, 182, 183, 184, 185, 192, 196, 205, 207
Compartment 2, 113, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 165, 196,
206, 207
Compartment 3, 164, 165, 192, 196, 206, 207
Moche
area, 1, 2, 3
artistic excellence, 1
craft specialists, 1
diet, 3
domestic architecture, 9
systems of distribution, 3, 4
technology, 4, 199, 210
trade, 3, 4
Moche bead work. See beads
beaded pectoral, 102, 160, 161
copper, 65
on seated figure 120
quartz, 102, 200, 208
shell, 37, 160, 208
Moche ceramics, 8, 9, 14, 193, 194, 196, 198, 199
blackware, 38, 124, 126, 127, 131, 132, 133, 154, 184
dipper, 125, 126, 153, 154, 155, 178, 179, 180, 181, 200
double-chambered whistling bottle, 125, 131, 183, 184, 185, 190, 196, 200
jar, 8, 22, 23, 30, 31, 122, 123, 169, 171, 190, 201, 203
ofrenda, 19, 24, 30, 36, 37, 120, 125, 130, 131, 155, 163, 185, 200, 201,
202
olla, 122, 123, 124, 201
reclining figure, 126, 127,
redware, 22, 99, 122, 123, 126, 154, 161, 171, 178, 179, 180, 181
seated figure, 121
stirrup spout bottle, 8, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128,
131, 132, 133, 138, 154, 161, 171, 179, 180, 184, 200, 201
Moche feather work, 83, 89
Moche headdresses, 193, 194
band, 84, 85, 88, 93, 134, 135, 141, 145
basket cylinder framework, 78, 81, 83, 84, 121, 133, 134, 136, 137, 141,
145, 159, 160, 176
grass ring framework, 82, 136, 138, 146
platelets. See Moche metal work
Moche metal work
axe, 77, 145
beads, 65
bowl, 77, 95
chisel, 112, 113, 114, 145, 147, 190, 196
copper, 14, 37, 77, 95, 110, 112, 114, 115, 116, 130, 139, 143, 146, 164,
165, 174, 185, 194, 196, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209
copper figures. See miniature copper figures

2 3 8 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
 crescent shaped ornament, 91, 95, 106, 177
disc, 82, 90, 96, 99
ear ornament, 99, 109
engaging spur, 109, 110, 114, 115, 155, 174, 196
foil, 100, 101, 200
gilded copper, 14, 77, 78, 82, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 104,
108, 109, 117, 119, 133, 138, 139, 141, 145, 146, 155, 158, 162,
176, 177, 196, 200
gold, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 161, 162, 176, 196, 200
headdress ornament, 85, 86, 91, 108, 109, 133, 200, 201
ingot, 201
mask, 96, 97, 98, 102, 141
nail, 115, 116
nose ornament, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106, 107, 130, 141, 147, 160, 161,
162, 174, 176, 194, 200, 201
pairing of gold and silver, 98, 99, 106, 107, 146, 209
platelets, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 86, 88, 89, 92, 96, 97, 108, 109, 119, 134,
136, 137, 139, 141, 145, 157, 158, 159, 160, 176, 177, 196
rivet, 77, 115, 116
scepter, 111, 117, 118, 139
silver, 98, 99, 107, 161, 162, 175, 196
spear point, 110, 114, 116, 142, 155
tweezers, 175
tumi, 111, 114
sheet metal objects, 113, 175
bird, 92, 134
feet, 104, 105, 119, 142
hands, 103, 104, 105, 119, 142
heads, 104, 105, 109, 113, 136, 137, 159
legs, 113
Moche textiles, 3, 81, 104, 113, 169, 171, 173, 176, 190
banner, 95, 119, 201
burned, 30
cord / string, 110, 114, 155
cotton, 75, 78, 118, 133, 208
decomposed, 14, 27, 37, 39, 72, 75, 78, 118, 119, 138, 151, 157, 165, 174,
185
feathered, 83, 89
head cloth, 96, 141
herringbone weave, 75
platelet-covered
banner, 95
shirt, 89, 108, 141, 145
twill weave, 75, 208
wool, 118, 174
monkey, 98, 99
Moon Animal. See Crested Animal

number sets, 68, 69, 130, 163, 169, 185, 199–202

octopus, 120
offering
broken ceramics, 8, 9, 30, 31

i n d e x 2 3 9
 organic liquid, 185
ofrenda. See Moche ceramics
owl, 120, 124, 143

parrot, 21, 224, 33, 34, 35, 120, 128, 131, 132, 153, 155, 201, 225, 226, 227,
229, 230
pectoral. See Moche bead work
Piura Valley, 203
post, 25, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,54, 55, 63, 149, 193
post hole, 45, 52
Pyramids at Moche, 46

quartz beads. See Moche bead work

radiocarbon samples, 197, 198

rattle, 117, 208
ray, 82
reclining figure. See Moche ceramics
red pigment, 98
retainer burial, 34, 35, 65, 66, 67, 129, 150, 152, 153, 156, 169, 172, 173
rock crystal beads. See Moche bead work
roof beam, 20, 21, 24, 25, 32, 33, 34, 43, 57, 68, 70, 71, 146, 149, 193, 200,
201

scepter. See Moche metal work

seahorse, 82, 120, 121, 123, 125, 147
sea lion, 124, 125, 133, 183, 184, 196
seated figure, 121
serpent, 179
shell beads. See Moche bead work
shell inlay, 96, 97, 104, 126, 136, 183
shield, 91, 92, 109, 110, 113, 139, 203, 204
shirt. See Moche textiles
Sipan, 119, 146, 147, 202, 204
skeletons, 14, 26, 27, 34, 35, 65, 98, 174, 175
age, 27, 29, 32, 33, 65, 110, 130, 149, 151, 162, 172, 179
children, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 156
female, 33, 34, 35, 65, 66, 67, 149, 172, 173
male, 27, 29, 30, 32, 110, 111, 129, 151, 152, 156, 169, 172, 173, 176, 178
partial, 14, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37
principal figure, 102, 109, 110, 111, 112, 162, 176, 178, 181, 195, 196,
197, 202, 203
stature, 27, 110, 130, 162, 181, 202, 203, 209
pathology, 181, 202, 203, 209
spatula-like blade, 116
spear point. See Moche metal work
spear shaft. See wood shaft
spear thrower, 109, 110, 155, 174
spindle whorl, 34, 35, 149, 151, 173
Spondylus shell, 3, 104, 105, 183, 190, 196, 208, 211
stone, 30, 31
stone inlay, 106, 109, 161
stirrup spout bottle. See Moche ceramics

2 4 0 m o c h e t o m b s a t d o s c a b e z a s
textiles. See Moche textiles
truncated pyramid, 10
tumi. See Moche metal work
tweezers. See Moche metal work
ulluchu, 118, 119

unlooted tomb, 16, 17. See also Huaca dos Cabezas pyramid Tombs A, B, 1 , 2,
and 3

Viru, 147
Viru Valley, 146

war club, 111, 113, 117, 139, 142, 203, 204

warrior, 91, 95, 104, 105, 108, 146
wood
beam. See roof beam
dart, 143
drum-shaped figure, 118, 145
post. See post
post hole. See post hole
spear thrower, 115, 145, 196
shaft / handle, 77, 110, 114, 115, 116, 136, 155, 175
spear, 114, 142. See also Moche metal work
staff, 117, 118, 142, 143
war club 139, 142
wool. See Moche textiles

i n d e x 2 4 1
 MOCHE TOMBS
at
DOS CABEZAS

MOCHE TOMBS at DOS CABEZAS

Christopher B. Donnan is Professor of Anthropology at UCLA. Considered one of the world’s foremost
authorities on the Moche, he has studied Moche civilization for more that four decades, combining the systematic
analysis of Moche art with numerous archaeological excavations in Peru. His many publications include Moche
Portraits from Ancient Peru, Moche Fineline Painting: Its Evolution and Its Artists (with Donna McClelland), Royal Tombs of
Sipán (with Walter Alva), Ceramics of Ancient Peru, and Moche Art of Peru: Pre-Columbian Symbolic Communication.

“This work is a detailed description and analysis of a number of elaborate burials from Dos Cabezas. This is

Donnan
Donnan at its best, and at the top of his game. In my point of view, it represents the most important contribution
on the subject after the Royal Tombs of Sipán. It will provide a wealth of information for people interested in
Moche religion and cosmovision.”
— Steve Bourget, The University of Texas at Austin

Christopher B. Donnan