Experiment No.

1 Date:

Aim: To measure the diameter of a small spherical and to measure the internal
diameter and depth of a given beaker using vernier callipers and hence find its
volume.

Materials Required

• Vernier callipers.
• A spherical body
• A beaker or a calorimeter.

Theory: A calliper is a device used to measure the distance between two

opposing sides of an object.
Least Count
The least count or the smallest reading which you can get with the instrument can
be calculated as;

Calculating the Reading

When a body is between the jaws of the Vernier Caliper;
If the zero of the vernier scale lies ahead of the Nth division of the main scale,
then the main scale reading (MSR) is;

If nth division of Vernier scale coincides with any division of the main scale,
then the Vernier scale reading (VSR) is;

Total reading,

Finding the Volumes

Volume of a Beaker
Volume of the beaker = internal area of the cross-section x depth
This can be expressed as;
where 'D' is the internal diameter of beaker / calorimeter and 'd' the depth of
beaker / calorimeter.
Volume of a Sphere

where 'r' is the radius of the sphere.

Diagram

Observations

1. Determination of Vernier constant (Least Count ) of the vernier callipers:

1 M.S.D. = 1 mm
10 V.S.D.= 9 M.S.D.
1 V.S.D.= 9/10 M.S.D. = 0.9 mm.
Vernier Constant, V.C.= 1 M.S.D.-1 V.S.D. = (1-0.9) mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01cm.
2. Zero error
zero error (e)=..........cm.

Main Vernier VSR x Total Reading

Corrected
Dimension to be L.C
Sl No Scale Scale MSR + (V S R x Reading=
measured Reading Reading cm L.C) Total
 MSR cm VSR cm Reading –
Zero error
cm

Diameter of the
bob

Internal diameter
of the beaker

Internal depth of
the beaker

Calculations

Mean corrected diameter------------cm

Volume of sphere,

V= ---------cm3= ------m3.
Mean corrected internal diameter,D=................cm
Mean corrected depth,d=........cm
Volume of beaker

V= ..........cm3=............m3

Result

Volume of Sphere=.......................... m3
The volume of the beaker / calorimeter is ...........cm3.
Precautions

1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by

oiling if necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and
properly recorded.
3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently
(without undue pres-sure on it from the jaws).
4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken
at least as three different places.

Sources of Error

1. The vernier scale may be loose on main scale.

2. The jaws may not be at right angles to the main scale.
3. The graduations on scale may not be correct and clear.
4. Parallax may be there in taking observations.
Experiment 2 Date:

Aim: To measure the volume of an irregular lamina using screw gauge.

Materials Required

• Screw gauge
• An irregular lamina
• A centimetre graph paper
• A pointed pencil

Theory: The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring accurately the
diameter of a thin wire , the thickness of a sheet of metal or volume of glass
plate (irregular lamina)

Pitch of the Screw Gauge

The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. To
find this, the distance advanced by the head scale over the pitch scale for a definite
number of complete rotation of the screw is determined.
The pitch can be represented as;

Least Count of the Screw Gauge

The Least count (LC) is the distance moved by the tip of the screw, when the
screw is turned through 1 division of the head scale.
The least count can be calculated using the formula;

To find the Volume of glass plate (irregular lamina)

The lamina is gripped between the tip of the screw and the anvil. The PSR and
HSR are noted as before.
The thickness of the lamina is;
t = M.S.R. + C.S.R. x L.C
Then place the lamina over a graph paper and trace its outline on the graph paper.
The area A of the lamina is taken from the graph paper.
The volume of the glass plate is calculated from the equation;
Volume =A x t

Observations

1. Determination of Least Count of the Screw Gauge

Linear Scale Division, LSD = 1mm
Number of full rotations given to screw =100
Distance moved by the screw = 1mm
Hence , pitch p= = 1mm
Number of divisions on circular scale=100
1𝑚𝑚
Hence, least count, L.C= = 0.01 mm= 0.001 cm
100

2. Zero Error
(i) zero error ( e) = ----mm

Object placed Circular Scale Reading Total Reading

 Linear
No of circular
Scale Value [n x Observed Corrected
divisions on
Reading L.C]mm t0=N+n mm t=(t0 - e )mm
reference line(n)
(N) mm

Irregular
Lamina

Calculations

Thickness of irregular lamina=--------cm

Area, A= -----------------------cm2
Volume of irregular lamina, V= A x t =------------cm3

Result

The volume of given lamina is = ....... cm3

PRECAUTIONS
1. To avoid undue pressure; the screw should always be rotated by ratchet R
and not by cap K.
2.The screw should move freely without friction.
3.The zero correction, with proper sign should be noted very carefully and
added algebraically.
4.For same set of observations, the screw should be moved in the same
direction to avoid back-lash error of the screw.
5.At each place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two
perpendicular directions and then the mean of the two be taken.
6.Readings should be taken at least for five different places equally spaced
along the whole length of the wire.
7.Error due to parallax should be avoided.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The screw may have friction.
2. The screw gauge may have back-lash error.
3. Circular scale divisions may not be of equal size.
4. The wire may not be uniform.
Experiment 3 Date:

Aim: Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T2 graph and use it to find the
effective length of second’s pendulum.

Materials Required

• A clamp with stand

• A split cork
• A Cotton Thread (about 2 meters long)
• A bob
• Vernier calliper
• Stop /watch
• Metre scale.

Theory:
1. Simple Pendulum. An ideal simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass
(called bob) tied to one end of a perfectly in extensible, flexible and weightless
string. There is no ideal simple pendulum. In practice, we make a simple
pendulum by tying a metallic spherical bob to a fine cotton stitching thread.
2. Length of Simple Pendulum. The distance between the point of suspension of
,the pendulum and its C.G. (which is C.G. of the bob), is called the length of the
simple pendulum. It is represented by the symbol l.
Length of simple pendulum = length of thread + mean radius of the spherical
bob
i.e., l = L+ r
3. Time Period of the Simple Pendulum. Time taken by the bob of the simple
pendulum to make one complete vibration, is called the time period of the
simple pendulum. It is represented by the symbol T. The time period is given by
the formula,

Knowing the value of T and g, l can be calculated.

To find the length of the second’s pendulum
A second’s pendulum is one for which the period of oscillation is 2 seconds. From
the graph the length l corresponding to T2=4 s2 is determined. This gives the
length of the second’s pendulum.

Expected Graph:

Observations
To find the diameter of the bob
1 M S D = 1mm
10 V S D =9 M S D
1 V S D=9/10 M S D=0.9 mm
Vernier Constant, V.C.= 1 M.S.D.-1 V.S.D. = (1-0.9) mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01cm.
Zero error of vernier callipers(e)

e=..............cm

Vernier
Main Scale Diameter of the bob,D={MSR+(VSRx
scale (VSRxL.C)
SL Reading L.C)}-e
Reading
No (cm)
MSR(cm) (cm)
VSR

Mean Diameter of the Bob, D= ……………cm

Mean radius of the bob, r =D/2 = .........cm
Least count of stop watch =..........s
Zero error of stop watch =...........s
Table for length (l) and time (T2)

Length of the Time for Time

20
Length of the pendulum Period T2
Sl oscillations
thread (L) l= L+r
No (t) (s2)
(cm)
(cm) (S)

1 70
2 80
3 90
4 100
5 110
Calculations

(Plot l vs T2 graph in a graph paper)

From the graph it is found length of the seconds pendulum =………….m

Result

Length of the seconds pendulum =………….m

Precautions

1. Thread should be strong, weightless and in extensible.

2. Point of suspension should be fixed in a rigid support.
3. Lower faces of split cork should be in same level.
4. Splitting should be perpendicular to the plane of vibration of the
pendulum.
5. Amplitude should be small to have sin 0 = 0. [when 0 < 18°]
6. The bob should move along a straight line.
7. The bob should not spin during vibration.
8. Place of experiment should be free from disturbances of building
vibrations or air current.
9. Laboratory fan should be switched off.
10.Length of pendulum should include length of hook and radius of
bob.
11.Counting should be proper and started from zero.
12.Clock/watch should be accurate.
13.Length of pendulum should be increased in steps of 10 cm to bring
appreciable change in time period.
14.Metre scale used should be accurate.

Sources of error

1. The string may not be weightless and in extensible.

2. Point of suspension may not be rigid.
3. The amplitude may not be small.
4. The bob may spin.
5. The air currents may disturb vibrations.
6. There may be an error in counting.
7. The stop clock/watch may be inaccurate.
8. There may be delay in starting and stopping the stop clock/watch.
Experiment No. 4 Date:
Aim:
To study the relationship between force of limiting friction and normal reaction
and to find the co-efficient of friction between a block and a horizontal surface.

Materials Required:

• Wooden block
• 50 or 20 g slotted weights
• Horizontal plane (table top) fitted with a frictionless pulley at one end
• Weight box
• Spring balance
• Thread

Theory:

When one body makes an attempt to slide over another body, an opposing force
called the force of friction arises as a reaction to the applied force, and acts in the
opposite direction.
Static friction is the type of friction that exists when two objects touch
each other at rest.
It is found experimentally that limiting frictional force,
The Laws of Static Friction are:
i. The magnitude of limiting friction depends upon the nature and state of polish
of the two surfaces in contact.
ii. The magnitude of limiting friction is independent of area and shape of
surfaces in contact as long as the normal reaction remains the same.
iii. The magnitude of limiting friction 'F' is directly proportional to normal
reaction 'R' between the two surfaces in contact.

where is called the coefficient of friction which is a measure of friction based

on the type of material that are in contact.
The coefficient of friction,
A graph can be drawn with normal reaction, R along X axis and limiting
friction, F along Y axis and it is a straight line. Slope of the graph measures
Expected Graph:
Observations

Weight of the wooden block, W =...................g wt

Table for finding coefficient of friction

Total weights on
Normal weight hanger=
Weight on Reaction
No of wooden block Limiting friction
Observations R=W+w
W(g wt) F=P+p
(g wt)
(g wt)

Calculation
Plot a graph between normal reaction R and limiting friction F, taking R along
X-axis and F along Y-axis. Slope of the graph measures coefficient of friction

Result
It is found that as the total weight pulled increases, force of limiting friction also
in-creases. The increase is in direct proportion.

The graph shows that limiting friction F is directly proportional to the normal
reaction R. It is an agreement with law of limiting friction. (This experiment
may be taken as a verification of the law).
From graph, Coefficient of fiction between given surfaces, µ =-------.
Precautions

1. The surface (table top) should be horizontal.

2. The thread part between block and pulley should be horizontal.
3. Weight in pan should be increased in small steps and pan should not
oscillate or rotate.
4. Table top should be tapped gently each time.
5. Pulley should be friction less.

Sources of error

1. The table top may not be horizontal.

2. The thread part between block and pulley may not be horizontal.
3. Pulley may not be friction less.
Activity 1 Date:
Aim:

To Make a Paper Scale of Given Least Count, e.g., 0.2 cm, 0.5 cm.

Material Required
A thick white paper sheet, pencil, scale with sharp edge marked in cm and mm,
fevicol, a pair of scissors, a paper cutter, thick ivory sheet used by engineering
students.

Theory
Least count. The minimum observation that can be measured by the instrument
accurately is called the least count of instrument.
Range of an instrument. The maximum observation that can be measured by
instrument is called its range.

Diagram
Procedure
(A) Paper scale of least count 0.2 cm

1. Fold a white paper sheet in the middle along lengthwise.

2. Mark in the upper half along the length a line PQ 15 cm long by a
sharp pencil (Fig. A).
3. Take P as zero mark points on PQ at a distance of 1.0 cm and write
as 0,1, 2,……up to 15.
4. Mark the vertical lines to line PQ at the position of each mark 0, 1,
2,……up to 15.
5. Draw another sharp line RS which is parallel to PQ at a distance of
8 mm.
6. Draw another line XY parallel to PQ at a distance of about 25 mm.
And complete the rectangle ABXY.
7. Now divide each 1.0 cm interval into five equal divisions on PQ by
marking points at every interval of 2 mm. Mark these points up to
15 cm mark.
8. Now draw sharp small lines about 3 mm long perpendicular to PQ
on each of the point which is separated by 2 mm.
9. Draw another line AB parallel to PQ at a gap of 3 mm.
10.Darken each line and division by the sharp black pen, and write
1,2,……15 at each cm mark.
 11.Cut the rectangular scale by a sharp paper cutter and paste it on a
thick ivory sheet and cut the sheet along the boundary of the
rectangle with the help of scissors.
12.Paper scale of least count 0.2 mm and of the range of 15 cm is
ready.

(B) Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm

1. Repeat steps 1 to 6 as in part A of the above activity.

2. Divide each 1.0 cm interval into two equal divisions on PQ by
marking points at every interval of 5 mm and mark these points up
to 15 cm mark (Fig. B).
3. Draw sharp small lines about 3 mm long perpendicular to PQ on
each of the point which is separated by 5 mm.
4. Draw another line AB parallel to PQ at a gap of 3 mm.
5. Darken each line and division by the sharp black pen and write
1,2,…….15 at each cm mark.
6. Repeat the step 11 as in part A of the Activity 1.
7. Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm and of the range of 15 cm is ready.

(C) Measure the length of pencil with the paper scale

1. Place one end A of the pencil along the scale (A) in such a way so
that A lies at full mark say 1 cm and read the position of the other
end. Repeat the observation by placing the one end A of the pencil
at 2 cm mark and take the reading of the other end.
2. Use the second scale (B) of least count 0.5 cm in the similar manner
as explained in step 1 and record the observations..

Observations
Least count of the scale (A) = ……..0.2 cm.
Table for length of the pencil using scale (A)

Mean length of the pencil =………..cm.

Table for length of the pencil using scale (B)
Mean length of the pencil =………cm.

Result

1. The scales of the least count 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm have been made.
2. The length of the pencil, using scale (A) = …….cm.
The length of the pencil, using scale (B) = ……….cm.

Precautions

1. The cm markings should be longer than 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm

markings.
2. Final lines and marking should be drawn by using fine tipped black
ink pen.
3. Paper scale should be pasted on the thick ivory paper.
4. Use very sharp pencil for the graduation marks.

Sources of error

1. Graduation marks may not be equally separated.

2. The lines showing graduations may not be sharp as required.
Activity No. 2 Date:
Aim
To determine mass of a given body using a metre scale by principle of
moments.

Material Required
A metre scale, a broad heavy wedge with sharp edge, a weight box, a body of
unknown mass.

Theory
If m and M be the mass of the body and mass of the weight used and a1 and
a2 be the distances of their loops from wedge. Then, power (mass) arm = a1,
weight arm = a2
From principle of moments mg a1 = Mg a2
or m=Ma1/a1 which can be calculated.

Mass is suspended at a fixed distance a1 .

Length of power arm is adjusted by moving weight loop thread in and out till
the metre scale become horizontal .
In this case a1 = a, a2 = A
Hence mg a1 = Mg a2, becomes mg a = Mg A
or m= M A/a

Procedure
1. Arrange the metre scale horizontally by supporting it at the sharp edge of the
broad heavy wedge at 50 cm mark.
2. Suspended the body of unknown mass by a loop thread at a fixed mark on the
left of the wedge.
3.Suspend the paper pan on the right of the wedge with some known weight in
it.
4. Adjust the distance of the paper pan till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
5. Note the position of the paper pan and thus length of the weight arm.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, three times by increasing the mass of the weights by
equal amount.
7. Record the observations as given below in table.
Observations and calculations

Result
The unknown mass of the body, m =……..g.

Precautions

1. The wedge should be broad and heavy with sharp edge.

2. Metre scale should have uniform mass distribution.
3. Threads used for loops should be thin, light and strong,

Sources of error

1. The wedge may not be sharp.

2. Metre scale may have faulty calibration.
3. The threads used for loops may be thick and heavy.
Activity 3 Date:
Aim
To plot a graph for a given set of data, with proper choice of scales and error
bars.
Material Required
Graph paper, scale, rubber, pencil.
Data

Procedure
(a) To identify dependent and independent variable
1. The load is taken as independent variable and should be taken on X-axis. The
extension is taken as dependent variable and should be taken on Y-axis.
(b) To select proper scale for load and extension
2. Find the range of load i.e., 350 -50 = 300 gf and extension i.e., 0.57 – 0.08 =
0.49 cm.
Since the range of load is greater than extension, then load-axis is taken parallel
to longer side and extension axis is taken to smaller side of graph paper.
3. Since, the data have the positive values, then origin is taken at the lower left
comer of the graph paper.
4. Along the load-axis (X-axis), one small division (1 S.D.) = 5 gf and along the
extension axis (Y-axis).
1 S.D. = 0.01 cm.
(c) To plot the data with error bars
5. Mark the points 50, 100, 150, 350 gf on the load axis and the points 0.10,
0.20,
0. 30 0.60 cm on the extension-axis of the graph paper.
6. For the first data point, the value of load is 50 gf and extension is 0.08 cm
measured with an accuracy of ± 0,2 cm. Mark the dot on the graph paper against
the load 50 gf and extension 0.08 cm and surround it by a small circle as
Corresponding to the load of 50 gf, the error bars are indicated against the upper
and lower limiting values of the extension as 0.08 – 0.02 and 0.08 + 0.02 i.e.,
0.06 and 0.10 cm. The first data point is then completely plotted as

7. Similarly, plot the remaining data points, all the data points should lie in a
straight line.
In general, a few data points may be of the expected straight line graph.
8. Draw a straight line joining the data points, taking care that the points, which
do not lie on the straight line graph are distributed evenly above and below it.
9. Write down the title of the graph i.e., ‘Graph between load and extension’
and the scales used along the two axes on the graph-paper.
Graph
(Graph must be plotted in actual graph paper as shown below.)
Result
The graph between load and extension for the given set of data along with the
error bars is as shown in Graph.

Precautions

1. The scale along the two axes should be properly selected.

2. The data points should be joined with a smooth curve or a straight
line (as the case may be), so as to pass through the maximum
number of points and the points, which do not lie on the graph,
should be distributed evenly above and below it.