ASSIGNMENT # 2

COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROBLEM

You are required to design an accelerometer, which is used to measure the acceleration of a vibrating
object with respect to time. The accelerometer should be able to measure sinusoidal acceleration with
frequency from 0 - 20kHz. It should have the capacity to measure maximum acceleration up to 10g
(g=10m/s2). Your design should include the following things:

● Material selection of each component of the accelerometer.

● Detailed calculations of your design. Your sensor output should be a function of voltage. You
have to select the type of transducer.
● Engineering Drawings (handmade) of your design.

[CLO 2 – C6] (8 Marks)

Study T3.6.2 ; T10.3 ; T10.3.2 ; Search on google.

Figure 10.9 SSRao should be the type of design you should consider.

“Accelerometer Theory and Design” notes are added for your reference.

It should be a 4-5 pages report.

Last Date to submit: 31st Dec 2020.

Submit assignment in a group of maximum 2 students.

Read about SKF/ Fluke accelerometers on Google.

Accelerometer picture
How do I choose the right accelerometer?
Because accelerometers are so versatile, you have a variety of designs, sizes, and
ranges to choose from. Understanding the characteristics of the signal you expect to
measure and any environmental constraints can help you sort through all of the
different electrical and physical specifications for accelerometers. 

Vibration Amplitude

The maximum amplitude or range of the vibration you are measuring determines the
sensor range that you can use. If you attempt to measure vibration outside a sensor’s
range, it distorts or clips the response. Typically, accelerometers used to monitor high
vibration levels have a lower sensitivity and lower mass.

Sensitivity

Sensitivity is one of the most important parameters for accelerometers. It describes the
conversion between vibration and voltage at a reference frequency, such as 160 Hz.
Sensitivity is specified in mV per G. If typical accelerometer sensitivity is 100 mV/G and
you measure a 10 G signal, you expect a 1000 mV or 1 V output. The exact sensitivity
is determined from calibration and usually listed in the calibration certificate shipped
with the sensor. Sensitivity is also frequency dependent. A full calibration across the
usable frequency range is required to determine how sensitivity varies with frequency.
Figure 4 shows the typical frequency response characteristics of an accelerometer. In
general, use a low sensitivity accelerometer to measure high amplitude signals and a
high sensitivity accelerometer to measure low amplitude signals.
 Figure 4. Accelerometers have a wide usable frequency range where sensitivity is
relatively flat.

Number of Axes

You can choose from two axial types of accelerometers. The most common
accelerometer measures acceleration along only a single axis. This type is often used
to measure mechanical vibration levels. The second type is a triaxial accelerometer.
This accelerometer can create a 3D vector of acceleration in the form of orthogonal
components. Use this type when you need to determine the type of vibration, such as
lateral, transverse, or rotational.

Weight

Accelerometers should weigh significantly less than the structure you are monitoring.
Adding mass to the structure can alter its vibrational characteristics and potentially lead
to inaccurate data and analysis. The weight of the accelerometer should generally be
no greater than 10 percent of the weight of the test structure.

Mounting Options
 Another consideration for your vibration measurement system is how to mount the
accelerometer to the target surface. You can choose from four typical mounting
methods:

▪ Handheld or probe tips

▪ Magnetic
▪ Adhesive
▪ Stud mount

Stud mounting is by far the best mounting technique, but it requires you to drill into the
target material and is generally reserved for permanent sensor installation. The other
methods are meant for temporary attachment. The various attachment methods all
affect the measurable frequency of the accelerometer. Generally speaking, the looser
the connection, the lower the measurable frequency limit. The addition of any mass to
the accelerometer, such as an adhesive or magnetic mounting base, lowers the
resonant frequency, which may affect the accuracy and limits of the accelerometer’s
usable frequency range. Consult accelerometer specifications to determine how
different mounting methods affect the frequency measurement limits. Table 1 shows
typical frequency limits for a 100 mV/G accelerometer.

Method Frequency Limit

Handheld 500 Hz

Magnetic 2,000 Hz

Adhesive 2,500 to 5,000 Hz

Stud > 6,000 Hz

Table 1. Frequency Limits for Mounting a 100 mv/G Accelerometer.

Figure 5 shows the approximate frequency ranges of different mounting techniques,

including stud mounts, adhesive mounts, magnet mounts, and triax block mounts.
  

Figure 5. The different frequency ranges of different mounting techniques.

Environmental Constraints

When choosing an accelerometer, pay attention to critical environmental parameters

such as maximum operating temperature, exposure to harmful chemicals, and
humidity. You can use most accelerometers in hazardous environments because of
their rugged and reliable construction. For additional protection, industrial
accelerometers built from stainless steel can protect the sensors from corrosion and
chemicals.

Use a charge mode accelerometer if the system must operate in extreme temperatures.
Since these accelerometers do not contain built-in electronics, the operating
temperature is limited only by the sensing element and materials used in the
construction. However, since they do not have built-in conditioning and charge
amplification, charge mode accelerometers are sensitive to environmental interference
and require low-noise cabling. If the environment is noisy, you should use an inline
charge converter or IEPE sensor with a built-in charge amplifier.

Humidity specifications are defined by the type of seal an accelerometer has. Common
seals include hermetic, epoxy, or environmental. Most of these seals can withstand
high levels of moisture, but a hermetic seal is recommended for fluid immersion and
long exposure to excessive humidity.

Cost

Although charge mode and IEPE accelerometers have similar costs, IEPE

accelerometers have a significantly lower cost for larger, multichannel systems
because they do not require special low-noise cables and charge amplifiers. In
addition, IEPE accelerometers are easier to use because they require less care,
attention, and effort to operate and maintain.

Accelerometer Options

NI offers the following single-axis and triaxial accelerometers. To help you choose
between the accelerometers that NI offers, please reference the chart below.

 
 Table 2. Single-Axis Accelerometer Options

Table3. Triaxial Accelerometer Options

  

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Signal conditioning for accelerometers

When preparing an accelerometer to be measured properly by a DAQ device, you need
to consider the following to ensure you meet all of your signal conditioning
requirements:

▪ Amplification to increase measurement resolution and improve signal-to-noise ratio

▪ Current excitation to power the charge amplifier in IEPE sensors
▪ AC coupling to remove DC offset, increase resolution, and take advantage of the full
range of the input device
▪ Filtering to remove external, high-frequency noise
▪ Proper grounding to eliminate noise from current flow between different ground
potentials
▪ Dynamic range to measure the full amplitude range of the accelerometer

To learn more about how to condition, acquire, analyze, and display accelerometer
measurements, download the Engineer's Guide to Accurate Sensor Measurements.

Download the guide

SHOP NI VIBRATION MEASUREMENT HARDWARE

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References
https://www.pcb.com/techsupport/docs/vib/TN_17_VIB-0805.pdf

http://www.pcb.com/techsupport/tech_accel
https://www.endevco.com/news/newsletters/2012_07/tp327.pdf

Technology Selection
The first step in the selection process is to determine the type of measurement to be
made. There are three popular technologies used for acceleration measurements.

Piezoelectric (PE) accelerometers are the most widely used accelerometers for test and
measurement applications. These devices offer a very wide measurement frequency
range (a few Hz to 30 kHz) and are available in a range of sensitivities, weights, sizes,
and shapes. PE accelerometers are available with a charge or voltage (IEPE) output,
discussed later in this article. They are appropriate for both shock and vibration
measurements.

Piezoresistive (PR) accelerometers generally have low sensitivity making them desirable

for shock measurements and less useful for vibration measurements. They are also
used extensively in transportation crash tests. PR accelerometers generally have a
wide bandwidth (from a few hundred Hz to >130 kHz) and the frequency response goes
down to 0 Hz (often called "DC responding") or steady state, so they can measure
long-duration transients.

Variable capacitance (VC) is among the newer accelerometer technologies. Like

piezoresistive accelerometers, VC accelerometers are DC responding. They have high
sensitivities, a narrow bandwidth (from 15 Hz to 3000 Hz), and outstanding temperature
stability. Thermal zero and sensitivity shifts can be as low as 1.5% over a temperature
range of 180°C. These devices are suited for measuring low-frequency vibration,
motion, and steady-state acceleration.

Type of Measurement
First, we'll describe the basic measurement types, providing more detail later on. For
the purposes of this article, we will divide acceleration measurements into the following
categories:

Vibration—An object is said to vibrate when it executes an oscillatory motion about a

position of equilibrium. Vibration is found in the transportation, aerospace, and
industrial environments as well as when simulated by a shaker system.
Shock—A sudden transient excitation of a structure that generally excites the
structure's resonances. A shock pulse can be produced from an explosion, a hammer
striking an object, or a vehicle crash.

Motion—Motion is a slow-moving event lasting from <1 s to several minutes, such as

the movement of a robotic arm or an automotive suspension.

Seismic—This is more like a slow-motion or a low-frequency vibration. This

measurement usually requires a specialized ,low-noise, high-resolution accelerometer.
Seismic accelerometers are used to measure the motion of bridges, floors, and
earthquakes.

General Considerations
Before we discuss the technologies and applications in greater detail, here are a few
general considerations.

Frequency response is the accelerometer's electrical output vs. a mechanical excitation

over a frequency range with a fixed amplitude and it is an important parameter when
considering any accelerometer. The frequency range will usually be determined by the
test specifications or by the user. It is usually specified within ±5% of the reference
frequency (usually 100 Hz). Many devices will have the specifications extended

Figure 1. A miniature triaxial accelerometer incorporates three accelerometers in a single

package to simultaneously measure acceleration in three orthogonal axes
to ±1 dB and in some cases ±3dB. The preceding limits express the accuracy that can
be expected over a given frequency range. Most data sheets will have a typical
frequency response curve to assist the user. The curves illustrate how the
accelerometer's accuracy varies over a specified frequency range.

Another consideration is the number of axes to be measured. Accelerometers are

available in single-axis and triaxial (3-axis) versions (Figure 1). An alternative approach
to making a three-axis measurement is to mount three accelerometers on a triaxial
mounting block. Both methods allow for the measurement of three orthogonal axes
simultaneously.
Vibration
Piezoelectric accelerometers are the first choice for most vibration measurements since
they have a wide frequency response, good sensitivity and resolution, and are easy to
install. There are two types of piezoelectric accelerometers: the basic charge-mode
accelerometer and the voltage-mode Internal Electronic Piezoelectric (IEPE)
accelerometer.

In recent years, the IEPE type has become the most commonly used accelerometer
type because of its ease of use. IEPE sensors are often sold under different
trademarked names, but most comply with a pseudo industry standard and are
interchangeable between brand names. (Author's note: Be sure that the power source
current and voltage are compatible with the accelerometer you've selected to achieve
optimal performance and to avoid possible damage.) Basically, an IEPE accelerometer
has a charge amplifier built into the accelerometer. As a result, the sensor requires no
external charge amplifier and uses ordinary, low-cost cable. The accelerometer does
require a constant current power source and many DA systems have built-in power
sources. For a known vibration range and an operating temperature that lies within the
range of –55C°C to 125°C consider using an IEPE device. Note that high-temperature
versions of some models have a maximum operating temperature of 175°C.

The advantages of charge-mode piezoelectric accelerometers include

high-temperature operation and an extremely wide amplitude range, which is largely
determined by the charge amplifier setting. An IEPE accelerometer has a fixed
amplitude range. A typical charge-mode accelerometer will have an operating
temperature range of –55°C to 288°C. Special-purpose accelerometers are available for
extreme environments as low as –269°C to as high as 760°C. Special
radiation-hardened charge-mode accelerometers are available for use in a nuclear
environment.

Unlike the IEPE accelerometer, the charge-mode accelerometer requires the use of a
special low-noise cable, which is expensive when compared to the standard
commercial coaxial cable. A charge amplifier or an in-line charge converter is also
required for operation. Charge-mode accelerometers are preferred for high-temperature
operation (above 175°C) or in cases where the maximum acceleration is unknown.
 Figure 2. Variable capacitance accelerometer shown with a popular mounting configuration.
In instances where vibration measurements at very low frequencies are required,
consider choosing a VC accelerometer (Figure 2). VC accelerometers have a frequency
response from 0 Hz to 1 kHz, depending on the sensitivity required. When making very
low frequency measurements, a VC accelerometer with a frequency range from 0–15
Hz will provide a sensitivity of 1 V/g. VC accelerometers are useful on electrohydraulic
shakers, to make flutter measurements, and for many transportation applications, such
as testing automotive and suspension systems and making railroad ride and sway
measurements.

Shock
Two technologies are available for shock measurements and, depending on the shock
levels and the final data required, you can choose from a variety of accelerometers. It is
important to know the expected shock level, since this will determine the type of
accelerometer to be used. Here is a rough guide to assist the reader in choosing the
proper accelerometer.

Low-Level <500 g

Crash <2000 g

Far-Field 500–1000 g with sensor located 2 m from point of impact

Near-Field >5000 g with the sensor located <1 m from point of impact
For low-level shock measurements, a general-purpose accelerometer will usually do
the job. The accelerometer will need a linear range of at least 500 g and a shock
survivability rating of 500 g. An IEPE type is usually preferred because they are less
susceptible to producing erroneous
Figure 3. An automotive crash test accelerometer shown in an industry standard package
results from cable motion. Use an amplifier with a low-pass filter to attenuate the
accelerometer resonance.

For automotive crash testing, a rather specialized area of shock testing, piezoresistive
accelerometers are usually used (Figure 3).

For far-field shock measurements, a special shear-mode accelerometer with a built-in

electronic filter is often adequate. These are usually lightweight IEPE types with solder
connections. The electronic filter attenuates the resonance frequency of the
accelerometer to prevent overloading of the DA equipment.

Figure 4. An example of a near-field shock accelerometer with built-in mechanical filter and
rugged 1/4-28 mounting stud
Near-field measurements are often in excess of 20,000 g. Here the choice of
accelerometers is dependent on the type of test being conducted. Specialized
accelerometers of either piezoelectric (charge-mode and IEPE) or piezoresistive may be
appropriate (Figure 4). Typically, an IEPE with characteristics similar to the far-field
accelerometer is appropriate, but with the addition of an internal mechanical filter. The
mechanical filter will ensure the survivability of the accelerometer and will generally
eliminate zeroshift.

A detailed discussion of zeroshift is beyond the scope of this article, but, in general
terms, the zeroshift phenomenon appears when the time history doesn't return to the
zero acceleration level following the shock event. This shifting results in distortion of
data when performing integration. Zeroshift is rare when piezoresistive accelerometers
are used.
 As is the case with vibration, the frequency response is an important parameter for
shock. In general, a shock accelerometer should have a wide frequency response
range (10 kHz is typical), depending on what is being tested.

Motion, Constant Acceleration, and Low-Frequency Vibration

VC accelerometers should be considered for applications within this category. This
technology allows for the measurement of low-level, low frequency vibration with a
high output level. They also provide a high degree of stability over a broad temperature
range.

When a VC accelerometer is placed in a position where the sensitive axis is parallel to

the earth's gravity, an output equal to 1 g will be produced. This phenomenon is often
referred to as "DC responding." Because of this characteristic, VC accelerometers are
very useful for measuring centrifugal force or for measuring acceleration and
deceleration of devices such as elevators.

In the realm of vibration testing, VC accelerometers are used in applications where

low-frequency events are to be studied and where preservation of phase data is
important. VC accelerometers have found their niche in the area of aircraft flutter
testing. Their low-frequency characteristics make VC accelerometers ideal for ride
quality measurements in automobiles, trucks, and railroad equipment. A wideband
frequency response is not a characteristic of VC devices.

The Environment
Once the technology has been selected and the test type determined, there are a
number of other factors to be considered. As a starting point, considering the
environment in which the sensor will operate. Environmental characteristics include
temperature, maximum acceleration levels, and humidity.

The table in Figure 5 shows typical values to assist with temperature selection:

Figure 5. Accelerometer technologies based on operating temperature ranges

The specified g range is often confusing to the new accelerometer user since this
parameter appears twice in the specifications. The actual usable range of the
accelerometer is found in the dynamic specifications. For example, an IEPE
accelerometer might have a range of 500 g and, under the environmental
characteristics, the device has a shock limit of 1000 g and a shock limit of 2000 g. The
500 g is the maximum range of linear operation of the accelerometer. The parameters
specified in the environmental section are indicative of the maximum survivable shock
and/or sine acceleration levels.

In the case of charge-mode piezoelectric devices, a range is not specified under the
dynamic characteristics since it is largely determined by the charge amplifier. The user
should refer to the amplitude linearity specifications, in the dynamic characteristics
section of the data sheet. As above, the maximum range specified in the environmental
characteristics section is a maximum survivability figure.

The humidity specification is usually given as "Hermetic," "Epoxy Seal," or

"Environmental Seal." Most of these seals will withstand high levels of moisture. If the
accelerometer is being used in the space environment, underwater, or with very long
exposure to excessive humidity, a hermetic seal is recommended. It should be noted
that continuous temperature cycling can make an epoxy seal fail.

If accelerometers are designed to operate within a nuclear radiation environment, the

data sheets will so indicate.

Magnetic susceptibility is seldom specified since it is usually not a problem with newer
accelerometers. Nonmagnetic materials are used in modern accelerometers, thus
reducing this problem.

If the accelerometer is going to be mounted on a highly flexible surface, the base strain
specification becomes important. A flexile surface tends to bend, inducing strain on the
accelerometer's base. The resulting strain can appear as vibration in the
accelerometer's signal, distorting the output. As a general guide, avoid using
compression-type accelerometers on flexible surfaces.

Accelerometer Weight
When an accelerometer is attached to the test article, the measured acceleration will
be altered. These effects can be reduced to an insignificant amount by being mindful of
the accelerometer's weight (Figure 6). As a rule-of-thumb, the weight of the
accelerometer should be no greater than 10% of the weight of the test article.

 
Figure 6. On the left is a popular side-connector accelerometer that weighs 7.8 g and is used on heavy test
articles (A). The miniature accelerometer (B) on the right weighs 0.5 g and can be mounted on lightweight
structures and PC boards
Mounting
There are a number of ways to mount an accelerometer to the unit under test (UUT),
and methods include everything from permanent mounting to temporary methods.
Here are a few of the most common mounting methods.

The best mounting method uses a threaded stud or screw. Stud/screw mounting
provides the best transmissibility at high frequencies since the accelerometer is
virtually fused to the mounting surface. High-frequency response can be enhanced by
the application of light oil between the accelerometer and the UUT. If this method of
mounting is desired, accelerometers should be purchased that are designed for stud
and/or screw mounting.

Adhesive mounting is often required, especially on small surfaces and PC boards. The
preferred mounting adhesive is a cyanoacrylate because it can be easily removed (with
the proper removal techniques). Many accelerometers are specifically designed for
adhesive mounting and this fact will be noted on the data sheet. A stud-mount
accelerometer may be mounted using an adhesive, but a cementing stud should be
used to prevent the adhesive from damaging the accelerometer's threads.
 Ground Isolation
Ground isolation becomes important when the test article's surface is conductive and
at ground potential. A difference in ground voltage levels between the electronic
instrumentation and the accelerometer may cause a ground loop resulting in erroneous
data.

Accelerometers are available with ground isolation or with the ground connected to the
accelerometer's case. Accelerometers with ground isolation usually have an isolated
mounting base and, where applicable, an isolated mounting screw. In some cases the
entire accelerometer case is ground isolated.

Sensitivity and Resolution

When either a low-level signal and/or a wide dynamic range is required, the
accelerometer's resolution and sensitivity become important.

An accelerometer converts mechanical energy into an electrical signal (the output). The
output is expressed in terms of millivolts per g (mV/g), or, in the case of a charge-mode
accelerometer, the output is expressed in terms of picoCoulombs per g (pC/g).
Accelerometers are offered in a range of sensitivities and the optimum sensitivity is
dependent on the level of the signal to be measured e.g., in the case of a high g shock
test, low sensitivity is desirable.

In the case of low-level signals, the best approach is to use an accelerometer of high
sensitivity to provide an output signal well above the amplifier's noise level. For
example, if the expected vibration level is 0.1 g and the accelerometer has a sensitivity
of 10 mV/g, then the voltage level of the signal would be 1 mV, and a higher sensitivity
accelerometer may be desirable.

Resolution is related to the accelerometer's minimum discernable signal. This

parameter is based on the noise floor of the accelerometer (and in the case of an IEPE
type, the internal electronics) and is expressed in terms of g rms.

Other Considerations
The above information will help the potential user make a preliminary decision as to
which accelerometers can potentially perform the measurement task. However, there
are other—equally important—parameters that should be discussed with potential
suppliers. These important items may include:

● Signal conditioning and powering

● Transverse sensitivity
● Temperature response
● Cable types
Once the questions posed in this article have been answered, further discussion with
the manufacturer is recommended.
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Selecting and Installing Industrial
Accelerometers
EP Editorial Staff | January 1, 1998

As the number and importance of permanently installed

vibration sensors increases, so does the importance of
proper installation and operation.

Proper sensor selection requires special attention to three main issues: sensor
design, dynamic expectations, and application environment.

Sensor design encompasses the actual sensing element and the physical
material and component selection for the sensor. Preferred industrial
accelerometers employ a shear sensing element with either a ceramic or a
quartz crystal.

Quartz sensing elements are typically used when long-term stability and
minimum temperature induced output shifts are desired. Ceramic sensing
elements are used for low-frequency, low-level measurements. Shear-design
sensors are preferred because of their inherent insensitivity to adverse
environmental influences, such as case or base strain and thermal transients.
Internal case isolation and shielding reduce the effects of erroneous signals
from ground loops and pick-up of electromagnetic and radio frequency
interference. Other critical material selection criteria include nonmagnetic 316L
stainless steel housing, hermetic sealing, and industrial military connectors.

ADVERTISEMENT

Dynamic expectations are application-specific and refer to the frequency range

of measurement and the anticipated amplitudes of vibration. After careful
review of the machinery to be monitored, a minimum and maximum
measurement frequency range may be established. The minimum
measurement frequency is normally related to any subharmonics of running
speed or any lower frequencies where vibration data is to be collected. The
maximum measurement frequency of interest is determined by the maximum
number of harmonics of an event such as running speed, bearing frequencies,
or gear mesh. This measurement frequency range should be well within the
specified frequency range of the sensor.

Amplitude range refers to the anticipated levels of vibration to be measured.

These values are related to the alarm levels set for the machine. By carefully
evaluating the idiosyncrasies of the machinery, the predictive maintenance
engineer can estimate the minimum expected vibration levels and ensure that
the electrical noise floor of the accelerometer is less than those levels.

Environment of the application is a critical consideration during program

implementation. The sensor must be capable of surviving the conditions to
which it will be exposed. The specified temperature range of the sensor must
conform to the fluctuations of the environmental temperature. If harsh industrial
chemicals are present, the sensor requires hermetic sealing and construction
that resists corrosion. Finally, the specific location of the sensor within the
environment must be appropriate because both cable and sensor may be
damaged by imprudent installation in heavily traveled, physically punishing
areas.

Sensor calibration
Accelerometers are precision measuring instruments. They are highly
engineered to provide accurate electrical signals representative of the
vibration being monitored. Each sensor is calibrated by comparison with a
known acceleration level. Calibrations may include frequency response curves,
resonant frequency measurements, and transverse sensitivity, as well as other
tests. Applications requiring a high degree of accuracy or those in plants
requiring certification and traceability require full calibration test results.
Some applications have much less stringent requirements for calibration
certification. Simple sensitivity measurements at a single frequency may be
sufficient. Operational verification and certificates of conformance to published
specifications may satisfy the calibration needs of many plants. Reducing the
final calibration requirements reduces the cost of manufacturing the sensor and
should lower the price for predictive maintenance users.

Periodic recalibration may be required by plants with strict certification and

traceability requirements. It is always recommended that the user has the
sensor recalibrated periodically, particularly if the sensor has experienced a
high shock level or extreme temperatures for extended periods. Some plants
develop in-house calibration capabilities for periodically verifying the
performance of accelerometers. Products are available that provide a set
1g-acceleration level at a fixed frequency for quick sensor checking.

Sensor mounting
Another environmental condition to consider is the mounting method of the
vibration sensor. Four primary methods are used for attaching sensors to
monitoring locations for predictive maintenance: stud mounted, adhesive
mounted, magnet mounted, and nonmounted, a term which includes handheld
probes or stingers. Each method affects the high-frequency response of the
accelerometer. Stud mounting provides the widest frequency response and the
most secure, reliable attachment.
Ideal surface preparation for stud-mounted sensors is specified in the
accompanying drawing. In addition to the surface being as flat as possible,
clean and free of debris, with the mounting hole perpendicular, the mounting
surface should be lightly coated with a lubricant. This coating aids in the
transmissibility of the higher-frequency vibrations and improves high-frequency
response of the sensor. Silicone vacuum grease, heavy machine oil, or
beeswax is commonly used.

The other three methods reduce the upper frequency range of the sensor. By
removing the sensor from intimate contact with the measurement point and
inserting alternate mounting pieces, such as adhesive pads, magnets, or probe
tips, a mounted resonance is introduced. This mounted resonance is lower
than the natural resonance of the sensor and reduces the upper frequency
range. The farther the sensor is from the measurement point, the lower the
mounted resonance and the lower the usable frequency range.

Sensor cabling
The selection of connectors and cables has a direct impact on the ruggedness
and reliability of the installation. Internally amplified, two-wire accelerometers
require two leads: one for the power and signal, and one for the common and
signal return. Often, coaxial cables are used because they are inexpensive.
However, erroneous signals can be introduced into systems through ground
loops, electromagnetic interference (EMI), or radio frequency interference (RFI)
when coaxial cables are used. To avoid ground loops, there should be only one
ground in the system.
Permanent installations require two-conductor shielded cables to insure clean
vibration signal transmission. Two-conductor shielded cables allow the signal
and the signal return (common) to be fully shielded from the sensor to the
readout equipment. For the best shielding from EMI and RFI, and to insure that
ground loop signals are not induced, the shield should be terminated at one
end only. Typically, the shield of a two-conductor shielded cable is left open or
not connected at the sensor end and is tied to earth ground at the
instrumentation end.

Troubleshooting
Piezoelectric sensors are dynamic measuring instruments. They use
piezoelectric sensing elements to convert or transduce the mechanical
phenomena into an electrical signal. The mechanical parameter may be force,
pressure, or vibration. The raw electrical signal from a piezoelectric element is
a high-impedance charge signal. This charge signal can be converted to a
low-impedance voltage signal by either an external charge amplifier or an
external voltage amplifier. The cables between the charge sensor and amplifier
must be high-quality and low-noise, and must be kept as short as possible.
Because of high-impedance circuits, charge mode systems are not well suited
for factory environments.
ICP* sensors are internally amplified sensors that employ miniature amplifiers
to convert the high-impedance charge signal into a low-impedance voltage
signal that is compatible with a dirty factory environment.

Because these amplifiers are internal to the sensor, they do not require
low-noise cables or external amplifiers. These internal amplifiers have set gain
so that output sensitivities are standardized.

The constant-current dc input and bias voltage output of the ICP sensor design
provides troubleshooting opportunities. The power supply is typically 18 to 30
volts dc current limited via a constant-current diode between 2 and 20 mA.
Typical battery-operated supplies offer 2 mA of constant current to extend
battery life, while continuous monitoring systems offer more current in order to
drive longer cables.
 The signal output of the sensor is a low-impedance voltage signal proportional
to the dynamic measurement. This voltage is carried on a dc bias voltage. The
ac dynamic signal is superimposed on the dc bias voltage and is allowed to
swing between the supply voltage and ground. (Operational amplifier types use
a plus and minus supply and allow the signal to ride on ground and swing
between the plus and minus rails).

The dc bias voltage, which can be measured with a dc volt meter, can be used
as a diagnostic tool. The voltage provides a means of verifying that the
amplifier is turned on.

If the sensor is plugged in while measuring the supply voltage, and the meter
stays at the supply voltage level, something in the system is open or not
connected. If the meter reads zero, something in the system is shorted. If the
meter reads approximately half the supply voltage, then the sensor and cabling
are functioning properly.

Vibration monitoring programs are effective only if the data that is analyzed is
accurate and reliable. Proper selection and installation of industrial
accelerometers insures the data collected is correct. MT

*ICP is a registered trademark of PCB Piezotronics, Inc.

The author’s presentation at Enteract ’97, sponsored by Entek IRD, Cincinnati,

OH, was based on information in this article.

Eric R. Saller is product manager at IMI division of PCB Piezotronics, Inc.,

Depew, NY; (717) 684-0003; e-mail [email protected]
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https://www.efficientplantmag.com/1998/01/selecting-and-installing-industrial-accelerometers/

Quartz is a natural material commonly used in accelerometers and exhibits unmatched long

term stability. Polycrystalline ceramic materials can be made to exhibit piezoelectric properties.
Vibration is most commonly measured using a ceramic piezoelectric sensor or accelerometer.

The purpose of the accelerometer

The application of accelerometers extends to multiple disciplines, both academic and
consumer-driven. For example, accelerometers in laptops protect hard drives from
damage. If the laptop were to suddenly drop while in use, the accelerometer would
detect the sudden free fall and immediately turn off the hard drive to avoid hitting the
reading heads into the hard drive platter. Without this, the two would strike and cause
scratches to the platter for extensive file and reading damage. Accelerometers are
likewise used in cars as the industry method way of detecting car crashes and
deploying airbags almost instantaneously.

In another example, a dynamic accelerometer measures gravitational pull to determine

the angle at which a device is tilted with respect to the Earth. By sensing the amount of
acceleration, users analyze how the device is moving.

Accelerometers allow the user to understand the surroundings of an item better. With
this small device, you can determine if an object is moving uphill, whether it will fall over
if it tilts any more, or whether it’s flying horizontally or angling downward. For example,
smartphones rotate their display between portrait and landscape mode depending on
how you tilt the phone.

How they work

An accelerator looks like a simple circuit for some larger electronic device. Despite its
humble appearance, the accelerometer consists of many different parts and works in
many ways, two of which are the piezoelectric effect and the capacitance sensor. The
piezoelectric effect is the most common form of accelerometer and uses microscopic
crystal structures that become stressed due to accelerative forces. These crystals
create a voltage from the stress, and the accelerometer interprets the voltage to
determine velocity and orientation.

The capacitance accelerometer senses changes in capacitance between

microstructures located next to the device. If an accelerative force moves one of these
structures, the capacitance will change and the accelerometer will translate that
capacitance to voltage for interpretation.

Accelerometers are made up of many different components, and can be purchased as a

separate device. Analog and digital displays are available, though for most technology
devices, these components are integrated into the main technology and accessed using
the governing software or operating system.

Typical accelerometers are made up of multiple axes, two to determine most

two-dimensional movement with the option of a third for 3D positioning. Most
smartphones typically make use of three-axis models, whereas cars simply use only a
two-axis to determine the moment of impact. The sensitivity of these devices is quite
high as they’re intended to measure even very minute shifts in acceleration. The more
sensitive the accelerometer, the more easily it can measure acceleration.

Accelerometers, while actively used in many electronics in today’s world, are also
available for use in custom projects. Whether you’re an engineer or tech geek, the
accelerometer plays a very active role in a wide range of functionalities. In many cases
you may not notice the presence of this simple sensor, but odds are you may already be
using a device with it.