10/6/22, 1:36 PM Laboratory Simulation

Student: Karen Joy Magbanua

Apply What You Have Learned

Infection by a pathogen stimulates increased production of leukocytes that specialize in
fighting that pathogen type. Which leukocyte is likely to be elevated in number in an
individual infected with a hookworm (a parasitic worm)?
Eosinophils

A patient is administered synthetic interferon (IFN) to treat an infection. This will be most
beneficial against an infection with what type of pathogen?
Virus

A patient is administered synthetic interferon (IFN) to treat an infection. What is an

expected result of this type of treatment?
Apoptosis of infected cells

Summary of Innate Immune Cells

Check Your Understanding

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Critical Concepts

Types of Pathogens

Pathogens (infectious agents) are microorganisms that cause disease.

Types of pathogens include viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, and multicellular parasites.

Physical Barriers

The skin (cutaneous membrane) and mucous membranes serve as physical barriers to
infection because their structure makes it difficult for a pathogen to penetrate and enter the
body.

Chemical Barriers

Body membranes produce secretions that create an inhospitable environment to pathogens.

The secretions of the skin are acidic and contain several antimicrobial substances.

Mucous membranes produce thick, antimicrobial secretions that trap and destroy microbes.

Normal Flora (Commensal Microbiota)

Many microbes, collectively called the normal flora, reside on the skin and mucous
membranes.

Most of these are nonpathogenic, and may provide the benefit of interfering with the
attachment and growth of pathogenic microbes.

Cells of Innate Immunity

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Pathogens that breach the first line of defense encounter an array of nonspecific internal
defenses collectively referred to as the second line of defense.

The defenses include a variety of innate immune cells, each with their own specialty. These
cells have an immediate response to a pathogen regardless of previous exposure.

Phagocytic Cells

Macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils are phagocytic cells capable of engulfing and
destroying pathogens.

Proinflammatory Chemical-Secreting Cells

Basophils and mast cells are proinflammatory chemical-secreting cells that release
substances (e.g., histamine) to promote a process called inflammation.

Inflammation involves increased blood flow and capillary permeability at an infection site,
providing immune cells and substances to help fight the pathogen.

Apoptosis-Initiating Cells

Natural killer (NK) cells are capable of recognizing infected body cells, and responding with the
release of perforin and granzymes.

Perforin facilitates the uptake of granzymes into the infected cell. Once inside, granzymes
initiate apoptosis of the cell, preventing further replication of the intracellular pathogen.

Parasite-Destroying Cells

Eosinophils specialize in destruction of large parasites (e.g., parasitic worms) through the
release of cytotoxic substances.

Antimicrobial Proteins: Interferon and Complement

Antimicrobial proteins assist innate immune cells as a second line of defense. These include
interferons (IFNs) and complement.

IFNs are proteins released by activated and infected body cells, and are particularly effective
against viruses.

Complement proteins, found in the blood plasma, react strongly to bacteria.

Interferons and the Antiviral Response

Interferons (IFNs) are protein cytokines produced in response to intracellular pathogens -

primarily viruses, but also intracellular bacteria.

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Infected cells produce IFNs to "warn" surrounding healthy cells and cause them to increase
their viral defenses. These IFNs also activate NK cells.

Activated NK cells release a type of IFN that enhances the activity of macrophages.

Altogether, IFNs slow the replication and spread of virus, and promote the clearance of
infected cells.

The Complement System

Complement refers to a group of plasma proteins that are activated in response to a pathogen.

The classical pathway of complement activation occurs when complement binds to an

antibody that is attached to a foreign antigen.

Outcomes of complement activation include opsonization, cytolysis, increased inflammation,

and elimination of immune complexes.

For example, complexes of complement-antibody-antigen can attach to the surface of

erythrocytes. As blood circulates through the liver and spleen, resident macrophages can
remove and destroy these complexes.

Alternative Pathway of Complement Activation

Complement can also be activated by directly binding to surface antigens on a pathogen. This
is called the alternative pathway.

Complement on the pathogen surface acts as opsonin, making it more likely for the pathogen
to be engulfed by a phagocyte.

Other outcomes include cytolysis and increased inflammation.

Membrane Attack Complex

Various complement components trigger direct killing of a pathogen by forming a protein

channel in the plasma membrane called a membrane attack complex (MAC).

The MAC disrupts the osmotic balance of the cell, allowing an influx of fluid that causes
cytolysis (bursting of the cell).

Overview of Inflammation

Inflammation is a response to infection or injury. The process helps contain an infection,

destroy the pathogenic agent, and initiate repair of damaged tissues.

Inflammation is initiated by proinflammatory chemicals (e.g., histamine) released from

infected cells, damaged cells, immune cells, and pathogens.

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These chemicals trigger vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, and recruitment of

immune cells to the site of infection.

Recruitment of Leukocytes During Inflammation

During inflammation, leukocytes (e.g., neutrophils) are recruited to the site of infection.

Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs) present on leukocytes bind to CAMs found on the capillary
walls, causing the cell to slow down in a process called margination.

Leukocytes move out of the blood and into the tissue in a process called diapedesis.

These cells exhibit chemotaxis by following chemical signals to the site of infection and
damage.

Production of Exudate During Inflammation

Greater blood flow and capillary permeability lead to an increase in fluid, immune cells, and
plasma proteins (e.g., complement) moving from the blood to the injured tissue.

The inflammatory fluid and cellular/protein mixture is collectively called exudate.

The contents of exudate help eliminate the pathogen and promote healing. Cellular debris and
inflammatory fluid enter lymphatic capillaries to be carried away and cleansed.

Overview of Fever

A fever is an abnormal elevation in body temperature induced by substances called pyrogens,

which may be released from pathogens (e.g., bacteria) or immune cells in response to
infection.

Pyrogens travel through the blood to the brain, where they stimulate the hypothalamus to
increase body temperature.

Fever aids the immune system by inhibiting replication of microbes while increasing immune
cell activity and accelerating tissue repair.

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