Experiment Number 1

Aim: To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to study the structure of stomata.

Materials Required: A Plant Leaf, Forceps, Blade, Slide, Cover slip, Compound Microscope,
Watch glass, Brush, Needle and Filter Paper.

Theory: Stomata are minute pores on the leaves for the exchange of gases for respiration and
photosynthesis and transpiration. Each stoma is surrounded by kidney shaped guard cells
containing chloroplasts. The opening between the guard cells is called the stoma.
Stomata are generally present on the lower epidermis of the leaves.

Procedure:
1. The leaf is torn obliquely so that a small part of lower epidermis is seen.
2. The leaf is placed on the slide & with the help of a blade the lower epidermis is cut out. A
water drop is put on the piece of lower epidermis so that it does not dry out.
3. A drop of Saffranin stain is put on the lower epidermis piece on the slide.
4. After few minutes extra stain is washed off from the slide with the help of water.
5. A drop of glycerin is put on the stained lower epidermis piece on the slide.
6. A cover slip is placed gently on the lower epidermis piece so that no air bubble gets trapped in
glycerin.
7. Excess glycerin on the slide wiped out with the help of blotting paper.
8. The slide is focused under the microscope for viewing of the stomata.

Leaf Epidermal Cell

Chloroplast
Guard Cell

Stomatal Aperture
Observations:
Many stomata are seen in the lower epidermis.
Each stoma is guarded by two kidney shaped guard cells.
Epidermal cells are also seen along with the stomata.

Precautions:
Over staining of the leaf peel is avoided.
A very small drop of glycerin is put on the slide.
Lower epidermis is placed in the middle of the slide.
The cover slip is placed very carefully so that no air bubble gets trapped in the glycerin.

Experiment Number 2

Aim: To experimentally show that CO2 is given out during respiration.

Materials Required: Conical flask, a cork with one hole, Delivery tube bent at two right angles,
A Small tube, Thread, a beaker, water, KOH pellets, flower buds or germinating seeds.

Theory: Respiration is the process of oxidation of organic compounds, mainly carbohydrates like
glucose in the living cells for the release of energy in the cell. The energy released from glucose
is stored in ATP. ATP is used by the cell as the energy source.
During the process of aerobic respiration oxygen is used and CO2 is used as a bye product. The
overall reaction of respiration is:
C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy
Procedure:
1. Flower buds (or germinating buds) are placed in the conical flask.
2. KOH pellets are put in the small tube, which is tied with a thread.
3. The tube is hung in the conical flask above the flower buds and the cork with a hole is fixed on
the mouth of conical flask. The cork is fixed tightly to make the apparatus air tight.
4. One end of the delivery tube is fixed into the hole of the flask.
5. The other end of the delivery tube is placed in water kept in the beaker.
6. Initial level of water in the delivery tube is noted and marked with a pen.
7. The apparatus is kept undisturbed for some time.
8. The final level of water is noted.

Rubber stopper Delivery Tube

KOH Pellets Test Tube

Conical Flask

Water
Flower Buds

Observation: The level of water rises in the delivery tube.

Explanation: The flower buds (or germinating seeds) in the conical flask take up the oxygen in
the flask for respiration. They release CO2 during the process. This CO2 is absorbed by the KOH
pellets that are placed along with the flower buds. Due to this O2 and CO2 gases are used up in
the airtight conical flask and air pressure inside the conical flask and delivery tube decreases and
water from the beaker rises up into the delivery tube.
Precautions:
1. The apparatus should be airtight.
2. The thread used for tying the small tube containing KOH should be strong and thin.
3. Only fresh flower buds or germinating seeds should be used.
4. If seeds are used they should remain moist so that they can respire properly.
5. The end of the delivery tube inside the conical flask should not touch the flower buds or the
germinating seeds. Rather it should be far above the buds or the seeds.
6. The other end of the delivery tube should be dipped completely in water.
Experiment Number 3
Aim: To study Binary Fission in Amoeba with the help of permanent slides.
Materials required: Permanent slides showing Binary fission in Amoeba and Compound
Microscope.
Theory: Amoeba reproduces by the process of Binary fission, which is a type of asexual
reproduction. The parent Amoeba cell divides into two daughter cells. First the nucleus divides
followed by the division of the cytoplasm of the cell.
Procedure: The slides showing different dividing stages of Amoeba are focused under the
microscope and studied.
1. Single Mature Amoeba cell preparing to divide. The nucleus is seen elongating.
2. Dividing Nucleus. A constriction is seen in the cell membrane.
3. Nucleus divided. Constriction in the cell membrane grows deeper.
4. Two daughter Amoebae cells formed by the division of the parent Amoeba cell.
Observations: The different stages of binary fission of Amoeba are:
First the cell elongates and the nucleus divides into two nuclei from the centre.
A constriction appears in the cell membrane in the centre and the parent Amoeba cell divides
into two daughter Amoebae.

Precautions:
The slides and microscope are handled carefully.
The slides are first focused under the low power and then under the high power lens of the
microscope.
Experiment Number 4
Aim: To study budding in Yeast with the help of prepared slides.
Materials required: Permanent slides showing Budding in Yeast and Compound Microscope.
Theory: Yeast reproduces asexually by the process of Budding, which is a type of asexual
reproduction. A small protuberance called bud appears in a part of the adult yeast cell. This bud
slowly grows in size. A new bud appears in this newly budded yeast cell. The process takes place
many times till a chain of yeast cells is produced.

Procedure: The slide showing budding in Yeast is focused under the microscope and observed.

Steps in Reproduction of Yeast:

1. A small protuberance (Bud) is formed in the
yeast cell.
2. The Bud grows out into a new Yeast cell.
3. A chain of Buds is formed due to repeated
budding in the yeast cells.

Observation: Chains of buds are seen in the slide. The last bud to be formed is smallest in size.

Precautions:
1. The slides and microscope are handled carefully.
2. The slides are first focused under the low power and then under the high power lens of the
microscope.
Experiment Number 5

Aim: To study budding in Hydra with the help of prepared slides.

Materials Required: Prepared slides showing Budding in Hydra and Compound Microscope.
Theory: Hydra reproduces asexually by the process
of Budding, which is a type of asexual
reproduction. A small protuberance called bud
appears on the body surface of adult Hydra. This
bud slowly grows in size and develops into a new
Hydra. Finally the new Hydra separates from the
parent body and swims away.
Procedure: The slide showing budding in Hydra is focused under the microscope and observed.
Observations:
1. A small projection or outgrowth appears on the parent body. This outgrowth is called bud.
2. This bud enlarges in size, develops tentacles and looks almost like the parent Hydra.

Experiment Number 6

Aim- To identify the different parts of an embryo of a Dicot seed

Materials Required- Gram Seeds, forceps and dissecting microscope.

Theory- Dicot plants have two cotyledons in their seeds. The Cotyledons are Embryonic leaves
that store reserve food for the developing embryo in the seed.

Procedure-
1. The dicot seed is first examined externally.
2. It is then dissected with the help of forceps and seen under the dissecting microscope to
observe the different parts.

Observations- Different parts seen in the Dicot

Seed (Gram seed) are as follows.
1. Seed Coats- The seeds are covered with seed
coats. The seed coats give protection to the
embryo which lies inside. On one side a scar is
seen. This is the Hilum. It is the point of
attachment of the seed with its stalk. Below the
hilum is a small hole called Micropyle.
2. After removing the seed coats the embryo is seen. It has following parts-
a. Cotyledons- These are special leaves of the embryo that are thick and store food.
b. Plumule- It gives rise to the stem when the seed germinates. On the plumule some minute
young leaves can also be seen.
c. Radicle- It gives rise to the root when the seed germinates.

Precautions-
1. The seed coats are gently removed from the seeds with the help of forceps so that no damage
is done to the embryo inside.
2. A dissecting microscope is used to observe the minute details of the embryo.
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K. P. Singh, Science Department, Delhi Public School, Mathura Refinery Nagar, Mathura