Leadership & Organization Development Journal

Leadership development: learning from best practices

Sheri-Lynne Leskiw Parbudyal Singh
Article information:
To cite this document:
Sheri-Lynne Leskiw Parbudyal Singh, (2007),"Leadership development: learning from best practices",
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 28 Iss 5 pp. 444 - 464
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01437730710761742
Downloaded on: 08 December 2014, At: 22:48 (PT)
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

References: this document contains references to 77 other documents.

To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 10962 times since 2007*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Kevin S. Groves, (2007),"Integrating leadership development and succession planning
best practices", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 26 Iss 3 pp. 239-260 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/02621710710732146
Ron Cacioppe, (1998),"An integrated model and approach for the design of effective leadership
development programs", Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 19 Iss 1 pp. 44-53
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01437739810368820
Jim Stewart, Jeff Gold, Bob Hamlin, Jim Stewart, (2011),"What is HRD? A definitional review and
synthesis of the HRD domain", Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 35 Iss 3 pp. 199-220 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090591111120377

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by 318888 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for
Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines
are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as
providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee
on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive
preservation.

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0143-7739.htm

LODJ
28,5 Leadership development:
learning from best practices
Sheri-Lynne Leskiw and Parbudyal Singh
444 School of Administrative Studies, York University, Toronto, Canada

Received May 2006

Revised January 2007 Abstract
Accepted February 2007 Purpose – The main purpose of this paper is to conduct a systematic review of the literature on best
practices and propose a series of steps or practices that practitioners can use in developing and
assessing their leadership development strategies and programs.
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

Design/methodology/approach – This is a review paper. An extensive literature review was

conducted (by searching texts and business databases, such as ABIInform/Proquest, for “leadership
development best practices”). Once an organization was identified, several criteria were used to decide
whether it would be included in this study: independent analysts classified the practice as “best” in the
leadership development area; leaders were “made” through integrated, multi-mode programs that
included top management support, systematic training, etc.
Findings – Six key factors were found to be vital for effective leadership development: a thorough
needs assessment, the selection of a suitable audience, the design of an appropriate infrastructure to
support the initiative, the design and implementation of an entire learning system, an evaluation
system, and corresponding actions to reward success and improve on deficiencies.
Research limitations/implications – The paper identified “best practice organizations” by
reviewing the literature. While this is an acceptable method, it resulted in wide range of determining
criteria.
Practical implications – The most important implication of this paper is practical in nature.
Essentially, organizations can use the six stages identified in the paper to help them develop and
implement effective leadership development strategies.
Originality/value – Leadership development has become a key strategic issue for contemporary
organizations. There is considerable evidence to suggest that organizations that do not have properly
structured leadership development processes compete in the marketplace at their own peril. Several
organizations have reported successes with particular approaches, yet an examination of the literature
reveals that the lessons emanating from these success stories are generally not presented in a holistic
manner. This is the need that we address in this paper.
Keywords Leadership development, Best practice, Management strategy
Paper type Literature review

Introduction
Leadership development is becoming an increasingly critical and strategic imperative
for organizations in the current business environment. Recent historical events and
emerging trends emphasize the need to invest in the active development of leaders.
Despite the fact that executives are increasingly expressing the need to focus on such
initiatives, few are actively growing organizational leaders as part of their business
Leadership & Organization strategy. These findings are apparent in one study that found that while almost all of
Development Journal the organizations surveyed indicated the need to develop leaders, only 44 percent
Vol. 28 No. 5, 2007
pp. 444-464 actually had a formalized process to do so (Giber et al., 2000). As a result, these
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0143-7739
organizations may not be adequately prepared to compete in the ever-changing
DOI 10.1108/01437730710761742 business environment. IBM learned this lesson the hard way and associated their loss
 in market leadership with the fact that they stopped focusing on leadership Leadership
development in the 1980s (Ready and Conger, 2003). It is evident that organizations development
with a passion for growing the right leaders, appropriate organizational structures and
culture, and a strategic plan to implement leadership programs will be better prepared
for future challenges (Fulmer, 1997; Miller et al., 2001). The key purpose of this paper is
to systematically review the literature on leadership development and offer
organizational leaders practical advice on effective approaches to this issue. 445
Recent tragic events such as the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in New York
and Washington, and the Asian tsunami disaster have shed light on the fact that the
contributions of organizational leaders can be quickly terminated and organizations
must be in a position to appoint replacement leaders for the organization to continue to
move forward. Many organizations lost key executives who were on the planes or who
worked out of New York’s World Trade Center at the time of the terrorist attack,
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

including Sun Microsystems, Cisco Systems, Oracle and AON Insurance. Cantor
Fitzgerald, a bond-trading firm, lost about 700 out of its 1,000 World Trade Center
workers, including many top executives (Davis and Lucchetti, 2004; Greengard, 2001).
The New York Fire Department lost over 350 of its employees, but its leadership
succession plan helped it to replace many of its top leaders within days. In a less
dramatic instance, McDonald’s Corporation faced related challenges when they were
forced to replace their CEO twice within seven months due to sudden death and illness.
Fortunately, successors had been groomed enabling the business to continue with
minimal impact (Business Week, 2005). However, ensuring leaders are in place in the
event of a tragedy is by no means the only reason to focus on developing
organizational leaders and investing in “leadership insurance”. It is inevitable that
leaders will retire and/or move out to other organizations at which time their role may
need to be replaced. In fact, a recent study by Drake Beam Morin (2000) found CEO
turnover to be on the rise, reinforcing the need to ensure well-trained successors.
Organizations will also face increasing difficulties in filling leadership vacancies
with qualified candidates externally due to anticipated skill shortages in North
America and Europe. For instance, in Canada, it is anticipated that up to two-thirds of
the workforce will retire within the next two decades, with one-thirds projected to retire
in just the next few years (Brieger, 2004). In addition, the targeted age group (35-44
years of age) for senior leaders has a projected fifteen percent decline and this does not
even address the predicted premature burnout that will further shrink this candidate
pool (Giganti, 2003). In the USA, the number of older workers (age 55 and up) is rising
as baby boomers approach retiring; this figure is projected to reach 15.2 percent by
2010. Furthermore, the 35-44 age group is expected to decline by approximately 13
percent in the next decade (US Dept. of Labor Statistics, 2005)
Moreover, increased competition, both local and global, is forcing organizations to
be more adaptable and deliver quality products and services in a timely and unique
fashion. As a result, teams are more prominent and organizational structures are flatter
demanding stronger leadership skills at more levels within the organization (Giber
et al., 2000; Hernez-Broome and Hughes, 2004). Consequently, the increased presence of
teams in the workplace emphasizes empowerment resulting in a completely different
management role and an altered leadership style. Other changes contributing to a new
style of leadership include the increased need for strategic thinking to avoid
complacency, as well as coping with anticipated changes in the needs of the new
 LODJ workforce (Brieger, 2004; Hatfield, 2002). Younger generations are inspired by growth
28,5 and development opportunities. Striving for a work-life balance, they typically have
with a less intensive focus on work than the preceding generations demanding a
different kind of leader (Hatfield, 2002). These changes point to a need for internal
processes and practices to ensure the required leadership skill-sets are built within an
organization.
446 Whatever the reasons for leadership development – in preparation of turnover, in
response to the increased number of jobs requiring leadership and/or in response to the
changing leadership style driven by competition, altered organizational structures and
changing demographics – organizations should be adequately prepared for such an
undertaking. While there is some literature pertaining to effective leadership
development methods, practices, processes, and systems (for instance, see Giber et al.,
2000; Hernez-Broome and Hughes, 2004), there is a need to consolidate these into a
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

comprehensive framework of best practices that can be applied and adapted to fit
organizational needs.
Thus, the main objective of this paper is to identify the best practices, processes and
systems in leadership development discussed in the literature through a
comprehensive analysis of publications pertaining to practices that could be
described as “best” in the leadership development area. Essentially, a “best practice” is
considered to be one that has resulted in positive outcomes for the organization and is
recognized by independent analysts as contributing to the organization’s performance.
This paper offers human resource management stakeholders, especially practitioners,
action-oriented advice that is based on the experience of other organizations, and for
which there is support in theory.

Learning from best practices: a review of the literature

There are differing models and perspectives regarding the constituents of best
practices in leadership development. However, an extensive review of the literature on
best practices in organizations reveals six key areas of importance: a thorough needs
assessment, the selection of a suitable audience, the design of an appropriate
infrastructure to support the initiative, the design and implementation of an entire
learning system, an evaluation system, and corresponding actions to reward success
and improve on deficiencies.
Best-practice organizations included in this paper were previously identified in the
literature as such. Essentially, we conducted an extensive literature review (by
searching texts and business databases (such as ABIInform/Proquest) for “leadership
development best practices”. Once an organization was identified, we generally used
the following criteria to decide whether it would be included in this study: independent
analysts classified the practice as “best” in the leadership development area; leaders
were “made” through integrated, multi-mode programs that included top management
support, systematic training, and action learning (Tichy, 1997); and, the adoption and
implementation of the best practice resulted in positive organizational outcomes.
As mentioned above, six key areas were identified in these organizations as
constituting best practices, and they will be presented in a step-by-step manner that
may facilitate easier implementation by organizations. It is also important to note that
the best practices are firmly grounded in theory, strategic, behavioural, and
learning-based, and these will be integrated in the discussion.
 1. Needs assessment Leadership
Organizational leaders involved with successful leadership development programs development
begin with a thorough needs assessment (Fulmer et al., 2000; Giber et al., 2000). There
are two parts to the needs assessment. First, the organization seeks to develop some
clear objectives of the program through an assessment process ensuring that the
leadership development systems are somehow linked to the overall business strategy,
and thereby legitimizing its existence. Second, there is an identification of the elements 447
of effective leadership and the gaps in the stock of leaders when they are compared to
the ideal. These issues are examined in more detail below.
There is a definite trend among best-practice organizations towards defining the
program needs by clearly linking the development program to the organizational
strategy (Fulmer and Goldsmith, 2000; Marcus, 2004; Wellins and Byham, 2001). This
practice is grounded in strategic human resource management theory. At least since
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

the seminal work of Chandler (1962) students of business policy, organizational

behaviour and human resources management have argued that an organization’s
strategy, its structure and its managerial processes have to be congruent with one
another so as to improve organizational effectiveness and enhance desired outcomes
(Hofer, 1975; Peters and Waterman, 1982; Stonich, 1982). The concept of congruency or
fit, a central notion of contingency theory, is based on the notion that organizational
strategies can be broken down into components (such as technology, marketing,
compensation, etc.) that are important in their individual roles, as well as their roles in
overall strategic initiatives and plans (Balkin and Gomez-Mejia, 1990; Venkatraman
and Camillus, 1984). Since strategic synergy among the components is an implied
objective of an organization, then an important normative test for a firm’s strategy is
internal consistency (Porter, 1980). That is, if functional strategies, such as human
resources management, are not integrated or congruent with the overall strategy, then
the organization may have an unclear strategic direction leading to suboptimal or even
dysfunctional outcomes (Balkin and Gomez-Mejia, 1990).
Following such reasoning, many researchers have argued for highly inter-related
links between generic human resources management policies and organizational
strategies (Capelli and Singh, 1992; Foulkes, 1975). This strategic human resource
management perspective views people as an important source of sustainable
competitive advantage that should be factored into organizational strategies (Dyer,
1983; Pfeffer, 1994). This reasoning is validated through a growing body of empirical
evidence suggesting that strategic human resource management practices are
associated with increased firm performance (Becker and Gerhart, 1996; Becker and
Huselid, 1998; Delery and Doty, 1996; Huselid, 1995). Arguably, leadership
development is one of the most important people-related organizational
interventions, and from the fore going, it is imperative that it is strategically oriented.
Thus, rather than just putting development programs in place in a piecemeal and ad
hoc manner, best practice organizations develop programs as part of the business
strategy (Giganti, 2003; Intagliata et al., 2000). By identifying the key business
strategies for success and a clear vision of the organization’s business priorities and
future needs, a leadership development strategy can be created that supports that
business direction (Gordon, 2002). For example, SIAC, a technology organization in the
financial services industry located in New York, built a business case for its leadership
development efforts (Giber et al., 2000). The business case illustrated that customers’
 LODJ needs were extending beyond technical sophistication to include business acumen
28,5 within the leadership team. Leadership development efforts aimed at increasing
aligned leadership competencies would therefore enable the organization to continue
building information systems that support the changing customer requirements. The
leadership development initiatives were thereby legitimized by a strategic,
customer-driven business requirement. Likewise, the needs assessment process at
448 Massachusetts-based Bose Corporation involved several organizational audits to
reveal the need to broaden the bench in order to be able to respond to specific future
opportunities. Such audits build consensus within the organization and spark a sense
of urgency regarding the needs (Beeson, 2004; Giber et al., 2000; Redecker, 2004).
In addition to establishing the need for development programs, best-practice
organizations seek to identify the elements of effective leaders and the associated gaps
within their specific organization. It is imperative that an organization has a common
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

and clear understanding of what leadership means for that organization and how these
principles can be applied to guide leadership practices (Kesler, 2002; Zenger and
Folkman, 2003). This analysis typically involves looking at both external and internal
influences and perspectives.
External information is gathered regarding managerial tools, typical business
challenges, market trends and perspectives from leading edge thinkers (Beeson, 2004;
Fulmer et al., 2000). This provides a larger context for the internal analysis and brings
to light important information that may not be otherwise considered, including the
impact of forecasted trends such as globalization on effective leadership. Best-practice
organizations emphasize future trends in their analysis and use anticipatory learning
tools such as focus groups, strategic planning sessions and the Delphi technique to
increase awareness and consensus (Fulmer et al., 2000). Shell International ensures
they are up to date on the latest thinking through involvement with a Global research
group on leadership and training as well as working closely with consultants and
professors (Fulmer et al., 2000). Meanwhile, Illinois-based Abbott Laboratories
conducted extensive research to identify best practices and then made conscious
decisions to include and exclude certain practices after reviewing their effectiveness
and applicability within their particular culture (Giber et al., 2000). They also engaged
in partnerships with faculty members for program delivery in order to tap into
expertise external to the organization.
Ensuring an external perspective involves several issues: researching changing
trends and their impact on effective leadership, identifying and researching theoretical
perspectives, and benchmarking to identify what other organizations are considering
key to their perspective business areas. Developing leaders who think strategically can
actually be a competitive advantage, thus observing organizations known for effective
leadership development efforts can be priceless (Fulmer et al., 2000; Gordon, 2002;
Intagliata et al., 2000; Ready, 2004). In a study that provided in an-depth look at sixteen
best -practice organizations, four prominent leadership requirements emerged: global
leadership, strategic thinking, an appreciation for customer perspectives, and the
ability to manage change (Giber et al., 2000). Gordon (2002) provides a more extensive
list of typical critical leadership competencies for individuals; they must be:
trustworthy, avid learners, comfortable with change, innovation champions,
relationship builders, open to taking action, self-aware, be able to foster
development in others, and, oriented towards achieving results.
 Although leadership needs should be grounded in research, an organization’s needs Leadership
cannot be determined solely by external analysis. Best-practice organizations typically development
conduct an extensive internal analysis with the key stakeholders to depict a clear
picture of leadership for their unique organization and culture. As Melum (2002, p. 12)
states, “the challenge and opportunity is to drive leadership results from organizational
excellence. The organization’s strategic direction and intent should define leaders,
instead of someone designing leadership in a vacuum and trying to imprint it on the 449
organization.”
Organizations need to look at the type of managers and career professionals needed
to achieve their objectives in a different market, economy, or perhaps even society
(Conger and Benjamin, 1999; Melum, 2002). Barclays Global Investors (BGI) held focus
groups with over 100 mid-level managers and associates and interviewed 25 top
executives specifically geared at revealing the critical abilities that needed to be
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

developed (Giber et al., 2000). At GE, the corporate leadership development team
frequently interviews company leaders around the world to gauge future business
needs and anticipated leadership competencies (Fulmer et al., 2000). The needs
assessment also should include a clearly articulated picture of the types of results
expected from ideal leaders (Hernez-Broome and Hughes, 2004).
Most best practice organizations, whose practices have been reviewed in the
literature, have developed their own competency model to define the behaviours of
successful leaders. The Bose Corporation actually developed three different leadership
competency models recognizing the different requirements for first line, middle and
senior management levels within their organization and aligning it with their business
requirement to build a leadership pipeline. Furthermore, they ensured that their core
values were defined and considered as an equally important factor in their
determination of an effective leader (Giber et al., 2000). Other companies, such as GM,
focus on specific level such as executives, and a particular competency area, such as
global leadership (Alldredge and Nilan, 2000).

2. Audience selection
Once specific leadership needs are defined in a best-practice organization, the
appropriate audience to develop is selected. Best-practice organizations do not
necessarily select the same level, position, or type of employee as the target of
leadership development. While some organizations focus on higher-level management
positions, IBM’s notorious “Basic Blue” leadership development program involved a
blended learning program for over 5,000 first-level supervisors (Bolch, 2001; Schettler,
2003).
However, despite the different audiences, there does need to be a clear connection
between succession plans, high potential employees and leadership development
initiatives (Charan, 2005; Redecker, 2004; Risher and Stopper, 2001). Furthermore, as
Fulmer and Conger (2004, p. 2) affirm, “by aligning succession planning and leadership
development, you get the best of both: attention to the skills required for senior
management positions, along with an educational system that can help managers
develop those skills.” Best-practice organizations provide a clear link between
succession plans and leadership development (Ibarra, 2005). It did not take SmithKline
Beechman long to understand this need as they initially underwent three distinct
initiatives of executive development, succession planning and a leadership competency
 LODJ model only to find there was significant overlap. They amalgamated their initiatives
28,5 and began an integrated approach under one umbrella focused around leadership
planning (Giber et al., 2000).
Similar to the needs assessment phase, effective audience selection practices are
grounded in strategic human resource management theory. An underlying argument
of this theory is that a firm’s intellectual/human capital is a potential source of
450 competitive advantage, especially in an environment when other probable sources
(such as technology and marketing systems) can be quickly imitated. Thus, there is a
need to nurture and develop leadership talent that would serve the strategic purposes
of the organization. Such leadership development would be difficult for the competition
to mimic or replicate, thus enhancing the firm’s competitive advantage (Lado and
Wilson, 1994; McCall, 1998; Vicere and Fulmer, 1998).
Essentially, business needs should drive the efforts. A succession plan linked to the
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

organization’s strategy of ensuring a flow of competent leaders would involve

identifying those individuals with the potential to succeed at higher levels and tailoring
the development audience to these potential successors. A high potential employee
could be defined as: “Someone who has the capability to advance to one of the
following:
. a critical position;
.
a higher level of responsibility; and
.
a higher level of technical proficiency” (Ibarra, 2005, p. 3).

The identification of high potential employees should be as objective and thorough as

possible, to ensure the right selection decisions and a properly channeled investment of
resources. An objective evaluation of past accomplishments is critical in predicting
future potential (Kesler, 2002). Selection processes should therefore be guided by clear
and objective criteria and should be more than a nomination from a manager. At PECO
Energy, based in Pennsylvania, high potential employees are identified through a
lengthy and intense process (Giber et al., 2000). High potential employees are initially
nominated by line managers based on a specific eligibility and screening criteria. The
employees’ work history and leadership potentials are discussed, and are further
screened by a committee of middle to upper-level management team. The candidate
pool is then reviewed by the Management Development Committee consisting of the
senior level management team including the President, CEO and Chairman of the
company. The individuals reaching this level participate in an assessment center that
examines the individual’s decisions, approach, and actions taken in complex situations
that reflect PECO’s business challenges. The results of the assessment center are
reviewed again by the Management Development Committee and final lists of high
potential employees are identified for further development.
The County of San Diego, another best-practice organization (Green, 2000), viewed
the selection process as a two-way process and ensured that the employees understand
the requirements and have the opportunity to select the program in addition to being
nominated for the program. High potential employees are given detailed fact sheets
that explicitly outline the commitments and expectations and allow these nominated
candidates to self-select in or out of the program.
While the literature emphasizes the development of high potential employees, other
strong and compelling perspectives are emerging that suggest leadership is now
 required throughout all levels of the organizations thereby increasing the appropriate Leadership
audience to the entire organization (Day, 2001; Tichy, 1997). In fact, dispersing development
leadership throughout the entire organization is indicated to be a critical strategic focus
over the next few years, since high performance organizations promote the use of
leadership skills at all levels throughout the organization (Conference Board of Canada,
2004). High performing organizations such as The Marine Corps and Southwest
Airlines, given their support for the notion of leadership at all organizational levels, 451
entitle everyone to leadership development (Zenger and Folkman, 2003). Public sector
organizations, such as Ramsey County, Minnesota, are also opening their leadership
development programs to rank-and-file employees (Goski, 2002), an issue that will be
expanded upon in the next section.
An alternative is to have customized leadership development programs for high
potential employees for specific future roles in the succession plan, and one for all
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

employees. This option could provide an alternative in that there is an accelerated,

focused plan for potential successors, while ensuring leadership developmental
opportunities are still available for the remaining members of the organization.

3. Supporting infrastructure in place

It is absolutely imperative to have the right structure and systems in place in order to
successfully implement and manage a leadership development program. The essential
infrastructure needed to support these initiatives means leadership development is
embedded in the culture and there is ongoing support and involvement from senior
management. As Kesler (2002) states, people development is, like most critical
priorities, a matter of corporate culture. Furthermore, organizational structures should
not stifle leadership potential. That is, leaders develop their potential the most when
they are allowed to grow and implement their ideas or learning without encumbrances
from the organization itself; rather, leadership development is enhanced when social
networks within the organization facilitate individual and collective growth and
development.
As Day (2001) argues, leadership has been traditionally viewed as an
individual-level skill, or what he calls leader development, where the focus is on
human capital or training high-potential individuals to improve their knowledge, skills
and abilities. While this continues to be extremely relevant today (see more on this in
the next section), a complementary theoretical perspective views leadership
development somewhat differently, where the focus is on social capital and the
development process focuses on everyone in the organization (Day, 2001). Social capital
is built through relationships based on trust and respect that are translated into the
culture and structure of the organization. From this perspective, leadership
development becomes embedded in organizations and focuses on the interaction
between the individual and the social and organizational environment; thus, “each
person is considered a leader, and leadership is conceptualized as an effect rather than
a cause. . .leadership is therefore an emergent property of effective systems design”
(Day, 2001, p. 583). This perspective is somewhat similar to that proposed by those
who view organizations as social systems (Ackoff, 1999; Ackoff and Gharajedaghi,
1996).
Essentially, theorists who are aligned with this perspective argue that socio-cultural
systems, or multi-minded systems, are comprised of employees that are purposeful;
 LODJ that is, they have the capacity to seek different ends in their environments and choose
28,5 different means to achieve these ends. A social-systemic organizational model has the
following properties:
.
it allows its employees considerable freedom to make decisions;
.
it strives to replace the existing internal monopolies within the organization with
market economies;
452 .
it has a multidimensional organizational structure, which eliminates the need for
continued restructuring;
.
it uses interactive planning which involves idealized redesign of the
organization, and approximating it as closely as possible; and
.
it contains a decision support system that facilitates learning and adaptation.
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

It is theorized that there are two other organizational types – deterministic and
animated/biological – that are different from social systems. In these other systems
employees do not generally make choices that affect both means and ends (Ackoff,
1994; Ackoff, 1999; Ackoff and Gharajedaghi, 1996). From a systems theory
perspective, social systemic organizations would be ideal for leadership development,
since this would facilitate and support independent and purposeful decision-making by
leaders and the embedding of leadership development within the organization.
The process of embedding leadership development into the organizational systems
and culture begins with the initial needs assessment in which organizations should
have demonstrated a direct link to the business strategy, and thereby be consistent
with the values and mission guiding the organization’s culture. However, it needs to be
further embedded in the organization through shared ownership and accountability
across the different functions and organizational levels. In other words, one
organizational development person or particular function cannot have the sole
accountability for developing leaders. The accountability must be shared among the
CEO and executive staff, the leadership development function, line managers and
employees (Ready and Conger, 2003). Thus, the culture needs to be one that accepts
accountability throughout the entire business for leadership development to avoid it
being perceived as just another human resource management program or management
trend. As Melum (2002, p. 7) asserts:
As with quality management, strategic planning, and many other initiatives, there is a
tendency to treat leadership development like a program – a program that is someone
else’s job, and one that gets in the way of “real work”. To get beyond this pitfall and to
leverage its power, leadership development needs to be deeply embedded into the
organization.
Aligning appropriate systems such as performance management, rewards, succession
planning, as well as the incorporation of responsibilities into daily work can help
reinforce accountability in the culture (Kesler, 2002; Melum, 2002; Ready, 2004). At
SIAC, selection systems, succession plans, performance reviews and, to an extent,
compensation is tied to the leadership development program to make the connection
between the principle of leadership development and employees’ daily work (Giber
et al., 2000). At IBM, accountability at the line management level is accepted within the
culture as managers are fully engaged in identifying and developing high potential
 employees and understand that their skill in leadership development impacts their Leadership
ability to attain more senior executive positions (Ready and Conger, 2003). development
Most organizations reviewed in the literature, including 3M and Colgate-Palmolive,
involved senior management and executives directly in teaching the course material.
Often, the CEOs will participate in some of the program delivery and show ongoing
commitment and attention to the process. This shared responsibility also means that
employees are responsible for their development path, and they are expected to apply 453
their learning to their work (Zenger and Folkman, 2003). The organization, however,
still needs to ensure a climate in which employees have the opportunity to develop
(Melum, 2002).
In addition to shared accountability, the acceptance of feedback must be
incorporated into the culture to encourage the continuous improvement of those
individuals being developed. Tools such as 360-degree feedback procedures, ongoing
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

performance discussions, coach relationships and skip-level meetings help reinforce

feedback in the culture (Zenger and Folkman, 2003) and therefore should be
incorporated into the learning system.
In order to embed leadership development into the organization culture, structure
and systems, and for it to be truly accepted, it is absolutely imperative that it come
from the top management of the organization (Wellins and Byham, 2001). The
literature consistently echoes the need for CEO and executive support in building
leaders within the organization (Melum, 2002; Ready, 2004; Zenger and Folkman, 2003).
When CEO and top executive support is visible, it sends a strong message to all
employees that development should be their priority too; it reinforces accountability
and helps ensure the appropriate resources are provided. At GE, the senior executives
are actually involved in the assessment and selection of key GE personnel (Fulmer et al.,
2000; Fulmer and Goldsmith, 2000). Full support from senior leaders includes
involvement in the development of the curriculum, selection of the targeted individuals,
and involvement with the learning activities (Green, 2002). It is critical to build a
culture with the involvement of top management and employees that supports and
reinforces shared accountability, feedback mechanisms and the overall importance of
leadership development.

4. Develop a learning system

Best practices in leadership development include developing and implementing an
entire learning system comprising of formal training, as well as action-learning
activities, that provide the opportunity to apply and improve the application of the new
learning. Traditional theory-based course lectures and workshops are now being
replaced with a learning journey of customized interactive learning sessions with
ongoing support focused on real business issues (Marcus, 2004). The learning system
therefore provides developmental opportunities, developmental relationships and
developmental feedback systems.
The development of learning systems and the utilization of action learning is
grounded in both leadership development and leader development theories. As
explained in the foregoing section, leadership development can be interpreted as
system-wide social and cultural processes that enable individual employees and
managers to grow. There is the potential for collective development and every
 LODJ individual has a chance to grow. On the other hand, leader development focuses on the
28,5 development of individual knowledge, skills and abilities (Day, 2001).
At the individual level, leadership involves a range of behavioral, cognitive, and
social skills that may be developed through different learning modes and at different
rates (Day and Halpin, 2004; Lord and Hall, 2005). While some of these skills may be
learned through traditional training sessions and self-directed learning, Lord and Hall
454 (2005) argue that there are complex leadership skills that need to become part of one’s
identity for them to become sustainable. As such, they advance a theory of leadership
development that recognizes that information processing and knowledge structures
evolve with the required levels of leadership skills (from novice to intermediate to
expert). For instance, in terms of knowledge use at the novice level, leaders rely heavily
on their working memory that combines their generic knowledge with the situation to
compose a response; however, at the expert level, there is a greater dependence on a
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

principled understanding of the situation. Information processing is qualitatively

different at each stage (Anderson, 1987; Lord and Hall, 2005), thus, there is a need for
utilizing different modes of learning in leadership development, including action-based
learning, simulations, mentoring and so on.
The delivery mechanism of developmental opportunities is shifting away from a
pure traditional training approach to more of an action-based learning approach. As
Hernez-Broome and Hughes (2004, p. 2) state, “action learning is a set of organizational
development practices in which important real-time organizational problems are
tackled.” This is not to say that traditional classroom training is not relevant or
appropriate, only that it should now be heavily complemented by an opportunity to
practice within a real environment, solving real business issues.
The quickest and most enduring learning occurs when people are engaged in
finding solutions to real problems through action learning (Giber et al., 2000). Action
learning can range from un-facilitated learning on the job to high-impact learning
projects. Organizations can therefore use a variety of differing and effective action
learning methods. However, the learning methods should be focused on changing
behavior and in doing so be practical, provide immediate application, concrete results
and build in accountability for implementation (Zenger and Folkman, 2003). At GE,
students actually went to Russia to develop proposals for GE’s operations there.
One method that may effectively manage action learning and accelerate learning is
through the provision of challenging job assignments (Zenger and Folkman, 2003).
This can mean ensuring access to the right types of projects within the individual’s
current role or through defined job rotations throughout specified business areas.
Rotational assignments are carefully selected to ensure exposure and appreciation for
different perspectives such as staff and management, and domestic and international
approaches.
Some organizations expose their employees to these different perspectives by
loaning their employees out to suppliers, or civic and charitable organizations (Giganti,
2003). Arrow Electronics in the USA encourages seasoned employees to take a
ten-week sabbatical after every seven years of service. This allows other employees to
temporarily fill the role and develop their leadership skills (Schettler, 2003).
Other potential programs include simulation exercises wherein there are frequent
decisions needed with clear consequences and accountability (Zenger and Folkman,
2003) and job shadowing wherein the employees encounter real-life situations.
 Apprenticeships and off-site retreats are often seen in companies who are at the Leadership
learning edge of leadership development (Giganti, 2003). development
IMASCO’s action learning program consists of three components (Giber et al.,
2000). The first component involves on-site company visits wherein the
participants are exposed to a “live” case study exploring a general manager’s
view, strategy formulation, and organizational change issues. The next component
involves a customized education program aimed at integrating learning from the 455
case study through criticizing and comprehending how each operating company is
confronting its business challenges. In the third component, the employees form
teams to develop and present strategic recommendations to the senior executives.
Developmental relationships are now emerging as a key component of an
effective learning system. These relationships usually exist in the form of coaching
and mentoring. Although the emphasis of the overall learning system is typically
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

slanted towards a team-based delivery approach, the development relationships are

often targeted to the specific needs of individuals (Marcus, 2004).
Mentoring is a committed, long-term relationship in which a more seasoned
person supports the development of a more junior person (Hernez-Broom and
Hughes, 2004). Mentoring programs can be very highly structured or they can be
more open, learner-led relationships (Marcus, 2004). Coaching involves practical,
goal-focused forms of one-on-one learning and, ideally, behavior change. The point
of coaching is to provide some counsel and advice before potential leaders get into
trouble (Zenger and Folkman, 2003). The private relationships built through both
mentoring and coaching have been found to be very beneficial in transmitting the
organization’s values and accelerating the transfer and learning of the necessary
leadership capabilities. Colgate-Palmolive has integrated these types of
developmental relationships into their leadership development programs.
Coaching occurs with the executive prior to a learning session of which
personal learning objectives are set, through the course via learning partners and a
post-seminar meeting in which they review the key concepts and tools and jointly
decide how to implement these learning outcomes.
Although the developmental relationships described above, namely coaching and
mentoring, are directly aimed at providing guidance and feedback, “an essential part of
being a leader is to understand how you are perceived by others” (Pomeroy, 2005, p. 4).
A feedback mechanism that has arisen in popularity and effectiveness within the
leadership development context is the 360-degree performance feedback system
(Alldredge et al., 2003; Thach, 2002). It encourages reflection and self-analysis.
Feedback sessions are most effective by focusing on strengths and recognition, by
providing constructive suggestions or ideas for improvement, and in a method wherein
viewpoints can be exchanged freely (Zenger and Folkman, 2003). 3M incorporated a
360-degree assessment survey as part of their personalized learning focus and found it
added tremendous valued to their Accelerated Leadership Development Program
(Alldredge et al., 2003).
However, for it to be an effective tool in leadership development, 360-degree
performance feedback systems should not be used in isolation. Rather, its effectiveness
is affected by the supporting culture, discussed earlier within this paper, wherein there
needs to be top management support and a culture that reinforces and values feedback.
The findings of one study concluded that the combination of 360-degree feedback and
 LODJ individual coaching can increase leadership effectiveness up to sixty percent (Thach,
28,5 2002).
The content of the learning programs needs to be business-applicable, which is
why action learning linked to real business issues provides a meaningful context
for learning. The choice of these learning experiences however should be guided
by an attempt to increase the defined leadership competencies, to reinforce the use
456 and importance of the corporate values, and to incorporate strategy. Essentially,
the program content should be geared to fulfill the unique needs of the business as
determined through the previous internal and external analysis. Obtaining
feedback through a gap analysis will help in terms of focusing the learning
programs on the deficient competencies and values, as well as providing a
mechanism for ongoing individual feedback (Melum, 2002). Furthermore, general
career transition skills may need to be integrated into the program content such as
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

was done in Abbott Laboratories program design (Giber et al., 2000).

Another best practice in the design and implementation of a learning system
would be to include senior leaders and executives in the program delivery. Senior
leaders are able to provide the best insights into the unwritten rules of the
organization, help navigate employees around potential issues, and provide
encouragement (Zenger and Folkman, 2003). In looking back at their lessons
learned through implementing leadership development, 3M reiterated the powerful
effect of having leaders actively involved with teaching other potential leaders
(Melum, 2002). Senior level involvement in the process not only helps in terms of
providing symbolic communication, but in adding credibility in teaching more
effectively and ensuring the executives’ expectations are clearly communicated to
future leaders (Green, 2002; Zenger and Folkman, 2003). The successful GOLD
program at Motorola rests on this critical assumption: the development and
training responsibilities rest with the general managers and immediate supervisors
not just the HR department (Foxon, 1998). Likewise, the leader-teacher concept is
the foundation of Ford’s Leadership Development Centre (Training Strategies,
2001).
One of the major things organizations consider in designing the learning system is
the appropriate balance in terms of fulfilling the organizational needs, individual needs
and the team need (Giber et al., 2000). There is definitely a trend towards the use of
team-based activities in leading edge organizations (Zenger and Folkman, 2003). These
activities typically are structured such that that a team works together to solve a
problem or create a product. However, there is no exact formula used to balance these
needs across best-practice organizations and the needs of individuals versus groups
are not necessarily mutual exclusive. For example, a strong focus on fulfilling
individual or team needs should in turn lead to a more committed employee and
essentially fulfill the organizations needs in the long run.
Another practice gaining ground is the use of technology to deliver programs. Some
organizations create effective corporate colleges and universities in which some or all
classes are facilitated online, including chat rooms and web seminars (Marcus, 2004;
Vicere, 2000). However, this practice of including an element of on-line learning has not
been embraced by all best-practice organizations (Giber et al., 2000). For example,
Abbott Laboratories made a conscious decision to exclude this “best practice” from
their program, because the company viewed the opportunity to network and the
 consequential face-to-face interaction needed to do so, more critical to the program’s Leadership
success (Giber et al., 2000). development
A combination of internal and external resources to deliver the program content
could also be useful. The county of San Diego’s leadership team does presentations on
material directly related to the organization’s strategic plan, expectations and culture.
However, other courses are delivered by individuals outside of the organization. “The
balance of internal and external presenters provides participants with the opportunity 457
to compare and contrast the ‘county way’ with practices and methods used outside of
the organization” (Green, 2002, p. 7).
Best-practice organizations utilize a number of the above techniques to provide a
comprehensive offering to potential leaders over an extended period of time. Such
blended solutions could involve programs that combine web-delivered content with
facilitated sessions where employees have a chance to practice new skills, followed by
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

on-line simulation exercises that reinforce their new skills, coaching or mentoring
relationships and planned development experiences such as rotational assignments
(Zenger and Folkman, 2003). Any particular learning experience has a larger impact if
it is linked to other experiences and when these experiences are part of a supportive,
thoroughly designed system (Melum, 2002).

5. Evaluate effectiveness
Best practice organizations are committed to evaluating the effectiveness of their
leadership development efforts. Although many organizations believe that what
cannot be measured cannot be valuable, it is argued that leadership development may
be the exception in that it is not measurable in quantifiable terms that dictate
assessment of capital expenditures but through asking the right questions of the
leadership programs (Ready and Conger, 2003).
There is a fairly large body of empirical research on the effectiveness of leadership
development programs, including two meta-analyses (Burke and Day, 1986; Collins
and Holton, 2004). A leadership development initiative that is evaluated effectively
would involve questions in terms of how effective the program is in fulfilling the initial
needs outlined in the assessment process wherein the program objective, leadership
characteristics, and the desired types of results expected were outlined and defined for
the organization. Its success, therefore, should be a measure as to how well those
results, or outcomes are achieved. That said, organizations are changing and so are
their associated needs. Therefore, need assessments should continuously occur as part
of the process in order to account for changes in the leadership capacity (Martineau,
2004). Furthermore, these needs and associated outcomes cannot be determined in
isolation but need to include all relevant stakeholders in order to accurately access the
need, agree on the outcomes related to success, and identify desired levels of “mastery”
in which organizations can benchmark performance against (Martineau, 2004).
The evaluations should focus on the impact leadership development initiatives have
on an organization’s ability to operate more strategically because of its leadership
capability. Some important questions that could be included in the evaluation are
(Ready and Conger, 2003):
.
Is the organization better able to fill key leadership roles when needed?
.
Is the organization building managerial commitment to the organizations
strategic direction?
 LODJ .
Do managers behave more strategically?
28,5 .
Are inter company efforts more coordinated because business leaders now
understand how other businesses and locations function?

IBM measures success based on the extent that leadership-development activities

could be linked to business results. Leadership development programs are deemed to
458 be successful if they can show the right leaders are ready when the jobs are, new
opportunities are taken advantage of quicker than competitors do, and people
understand IBM’s business strategy and are able to execute it (Ready and Conger,
2003).
Kirkpatrick’s four-level training evaluation theory/model is a prominent method
used to evaluate the extent to which learning has taken place, and it can be very useful
in the evaluation of leadership development initiatives (Kirkpatrick, 1959, 2004).
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

Essentially, the model suggests a pyramid of four levels of evaluations with each
consecutive level increasing the rigor and thoroughness of the evaluation. The first
level of evaluation in Kirkpatrick’s model measures the reactions of the participants in
the leadership development program, i.e. how they feel about the program itself. The
next level of evaluation intends to measure what the participants actually learned from
the development program such as the skills, knowledge and abilities they were able
take away as a result of the training. This evaluation typically occurs through some
sort of testing. The next level in the model involves the evaluation of how the
participant’s behavior actually changes on the job as a result of their participation in
the leadership development programs. The final and most comprehensive level of
evaluation in Kirkpatrick’s training evaluation model proposes to evaluate the link of
these changed behaviours to organizational performance by reviewing the impact the
learning has on actual organizational results. Although the cost typically increases
with each level (Head and Sorenson, 2005), the return on investment and the end value
to the organization is best determined through the final evaluation stage of
Kirkpatrick’s model by measuring the programs impact on an organizations bottom
line results.
In gathering the necessary data to evaluate the effectiveness of leadership
development, multiple methods are recommended in order to increase validity. In
determining the appropriate evaluation method, an organization should consider the
unique objectives of the program and the level of desired outcome. Individual outcomes
of leadership development are best assessed by daily evaluations, end of initiative
evaluations, learning and change surveys and behavioral observation (Hannum, 2004).
Team outcomes are best determined though dialogue and focus groups, while
organizational outcomes are best determined through return on investments analysis,
document analysis, workplace statistics, customer satisfaction results, climate and
culture surveys as well as the analysis of organizational processes and systems
(Hannum, 2004). Furthermore, these tools should be intended not only to assess the
feedback and perspective from the participants but from their managers as well (Green,
2002). Colgate-Palmolive evaluates both participants and managers perceptions,
demonstration of skills learned through the participant’s ability to solve a realistic
business case, on the job behavior improvement and an impact on actual business
results as part of their evaluation process.
 6. Reward success and improve on deficiencies Leadership
The final stage is to put the feedback from the evaluation to use. There will essentially development
be elements of the feedback that require celebration and those that require
improvements. Embracing both of these responses is important within leadership
development initiatives. Success in leadership development means that the whole
organization embraces the program. Managers who effectively build leadership
capability for their organization should be recognized and rewarded. As mentioned 459
previously, the managers at IBM know and understand that they will be rewarded
through promotion and opportunity only if they demonstrate an ability to build
leadership capability. Rewarding success is grounded in several theories, with
reinforcement theory being a primary one.
Reinforcement theory, sometimes called behaviorism or operant conditioning, posits
that an individual will repeat behaviors that are satisfying and rewarded (Skinner,
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

1953). Such reinforcement is predicated on individuals perceiving a link between

behaviors and consequences. Reinforcement can take two forms: positive (rewards)
and negative (punishment). Rewarding employees and managers for displaying and
implementing strategic behaviors, including leadership development, is thus grounded
in both theory and practice.
Rewarding participants’ success through some form of graduation or public
recognition is critical for effective leadership development (Green, 2002). Gundersen
Lutheran Hospital, a US healthcare organization that provides services across Iowa,
Minnesota and Wisconsin, holds an official recognition ceremony upon completion of
the two-year program, in which the teams and individuals share their journeys through
a variety of mechanisms including slide shows, discussions, videos and skits. “It
provides an exciting opportunity to recreate buy-in and support from administration,
management and previous program participants” (Giber et al., 2000, p. 240).
It is also important to ensure an ongoing commitment to improvement. The county
of San Diego’s Leadership Academy is revised after every ‘graduation’ to reflect the
organizational changes and the changing needs of the participants (Green, 2002).
Motorola’s GOLD program supports a strategic approach to evaluation with
assessments and modifications occurring frequently throughout various stages after
the program. The key success factor here is the company’s ability and willingness to
modify their practices based on this feedback. For example, when Motorola’s
evaluation tool revealed a lack of supervisor support in implementing the newly
learned skills, a special program was developed and effectively implemented targeting
increased supervisor support (Foxon, 1998).

Conclusion
The organization of the existing literature into the six key areas defined above
provides a new consolidated step-by-step approach in leadership development. These
are the formal processes best practice organizations have in place to successfully grow
organizational leaders. They provide a simple yet meaningful approach for developing
leadership capability within any organization. Within each stage, details of the
best-practices have been further researched and reported along with specific
organizational examples. It is critical to ensure the appropriate program objectives and
organizational leadership requirements are jointly defined and a targeted audience and
supporting infrastructure are aligned with the development and implementation of an
 LODJ entire learning system. Furthermore, an evaluation process to monitor effectiveness
28,5 and corresponding action to reward success and improve on deficiencies will lead to a
well-refined initiative, aligned with the specific needs of the organization.
Future research should focus on the size issue, since there is not much research
pertaining to the differences in leadership development initiatives between different
sizes of organizations. Most of the best practices organizations in terms of leadership
460 development programs appear to be large organizations that typically have more
capital to invest in these programs. However, small organizations need to develop
leaders as well. In fact, it could be argued that since smaller organizations typically
require employees to perform broader roles, the requirement for leadership throughout
the organization is accentuated. The cost of the existing programs illustrated through
the literature may not be practical for all sizes of organizations. More in-depth reviews
of how small and medium size organizations effectively develop their leaders at a lower
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

cost may prove to be very valuable. Furthermore, much of the literature and research
conducted focuses on an overview of practices and the perceptions from the
perspective of the Human Resources department. Participant viewpoints and
perspectives from the organizational leaders need to be incorporated into future
research in order to gather a more rounded viewpoint from all stakeholders.
Leadership development will continue to be a key organizational issue in the future.
An opportunity exists for organizations to employ the best practices explored in this
paper and develop a competitive advantage through leadership. Organizations that are
able to survive and compete in the ever-changing marketplace will be those that have
proactively and strategically prepared themselves for future challenges through
effective leadership development programs, practices, and systems.

References
Ackoff, R.L. (1994), The Democratic Corporation: A Radical Prescription for Creating Corporate
America and Rediscovering Success, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
Ackoff, R.L. (1999), Re-Creating the Corporation – A Design of Organizations for the 21st
Century, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
Ackoff, R.L. and Gharajedaghi, J. (1996), “A reflection on systems and their models”, Systems
Research, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 13-26.
Alldredge, M. and Nilan, K. (2000), “3M’s leadership competency model: an internally developed
solution”, Human Resources Management, Vol. 39 Nos 2/3, pp. 133-44.
Alldredge, M., Johnson, C., Stoltzfus, J. and Vicere, A. (2003), “Leadership development at 3m:
new process, new techniques, new growth”, Human Resource Planning, Vol. 26 No. 3, p. 45.
Anderson, J. (1987), “Skill acquisition: compilation of weak-method problem solutions”,
Psychological Review, Vol. 94, pp. 192-210.
Balkin, D.B. and Gomez-Mejia, L.R. (1990), “Matching compensation and organization
strategies”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 11, pp. 153-69.
Becker, B. and Gerhart, B. (1996), “The impact of human resource management on organizational
performance: progress and prospects”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 39,
pp. 779-801.
Becker, B. and Huselid, M. (1998), “High performance work systems and firm performance:
synthesis of research and managerial implications”, Research in Personnel and Human
Resources Management, Vol. 16, pp. 53-101.
 Beeson, J. (2004), “Building bench strength: a tool kit for executive development”, Business Leadership
Horizons, Vol. 47 No. 6, pp. 3-10.
Bolch, M. (2001), “IBM”, Training, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 76-7.
development
Brieger, P. (2004), “Boomers’ exit from workforce will open doors, analysts say: more positive
view”, National Post, p. FP7.
Burke, M. and Day, R. (1986), “A cumulative study of the effectiveness of managerial training”,
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 71 No. 2, pp. 232-45. 461
Business Week (2005), “Succession screw-ups”, No. 3915, p. 84.
Cappelli, P. and Singh, H. (1992), “Integrating strategic human resources and strategic
management”, in Lewin, D., Mitchell, O. and Sherer, P. (Eds), Research Frontiers in
Industrial Relations and Human Resources, IRRA, Madison, WI, pp. 165-92.
Chandler, A. (1962), Strategy and Structure, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

Charan, R. (2005), “Ending the CEO succession crisis”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 83 No. 2,
pp. 72-84.
Collins, D. and Holton, E. (2004), “The effectiveness of managerial leadership development
programs: a meta-analysis of studies from 1982-2001”, Human Resource Development
Quarterly, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 217-25.
Conference Board of Canada (2004), Hot HR Issues for the Next Two Years, The Conference
Board of Canada, Ottawa.
Conger, J. and Benjamin, B. (1999), Building Leaders: How Successful Companies Develop the Next
Generation, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Davis, A. and Lucchetti, A. (2004), “‘New’ Candor Fitzgerald now looks to compete: bond-trading
firm recovers from losses in the 9/11 attack, but electronic rivals are tough”, Wall Street
Journal, September 10, p. C1.
Day, D. (2001), “Leadership development: a review in context”, Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 11,
pp. 581-613.
Day, D. and Halpin, S. (2004), “Growing leaders for tomorrow: an introduction”, in Day, D.,
Zaccaro, S. and Halpin, S. (Eds), Leader Development for Transforming Organizations:
Growing Leaders For Tomorrow, Eribaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 3-22.
Delery, J. and Doty, D. (1996), “Modes of theorizing in strategic human resource management:
tests of universalistic, contingency, and configurational performance predictions”,
Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 39, pp. 802-35.
Drake Beam Morin (2000), CEO Tenure At Risk Worldwide, Reports Drake Beam Morin,
available at: www.amgr.com/pdf/0200.pdf. 1-3 (accessed April 2005).
Dyer, L. (1983), “Bringing human resources into the strategy formulation process”, Human
Resource Management, Vol. 22, pp. 257-71.
Foulkes, F. (1975), “The expanding role of the personnel function”, Harvard Business Review,
Vol. 53, pp. 71-84.
Foxon, M.J. (1998), “Closing the global leadership competency gap: the Motorola GOLD process”,
Organization Development Journal, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 5-12.
Fulmer, R. (1997), “The evolving paradigm of leadership development”, Organizational
Dynamics, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 59-72.
Fulmer, R.M. and Conger, J.A. (2004), “Developing leaders with 2020 vision”, Financial Executive,
Vol. 20 No. 5, p. 38.
Fulmer, R.M. and Goldsmith, M. (2000), “Future leadership development”, Executive Excellence,
Vol. 17 No. 12, p. 18.
 LODJ Fulmer, R.M., Gibbs, P.A. and Goldsmith, M. (2000), “Developing leaders: how winning
companies keep on winning”, MIT Sloan Management Review, Vol. 42 No. 1, pp. 49-59.
28,5 Giber, D., Carter, L. and Goldsmith, M. (2000), Linkage Inc.’s Best Practices In Leadership
Development Handbook, Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer, San Francisco, CA.
Giganti, E. (2003), “Developing leaders for 2010”, Health Progress, Vol. 84 No. 1, pp. 11-12.
Gordon, J. (2002), “Using Business strategy to drive leadership development”, Employment
462 Relations Today, Vol. 28 No. 4, p. 61.
Goski, J. (2002), “A model of leadership development”, Public Personnel Management, Vol. 31
No. 4, pp. 517-23.
Green, M.E. (2002), “Ensuring the organization’s future: a leadership development case study”,
Public Personnel Management, Vol. 31 No. 4, pp. 431-9.
Greengard, S. (2001), “Why succession planning can’t wait”, Workforce, December, pp. 34-8.
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

Hannum, K. (2004), “Best practices: choosing the right methods for evaluation”, Leadership in
Action, Vol. 23 No. 6, pp. 15-20.
Hatfield, S.L. (2002), “Understanding the four generations to enhance workplace management”,
AFP Exchange, , Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 72-4.
Head, T.C. and Sorensen, P.F. Jr (2005), “The evaluation of organization development
interventions: an empirical study”, Organization Development Journal, Vol. 23 No. 1,
pp. 40-55.
Hernez-Broome, G. and Hughes, R.L. (2004), “Leadership development: past, present, and future”,
Human Resource Planning, Vol. 27 No. 1, pp. 24-32.
Hofer, C. (1975), “Toward a contingency theory of business strategy”, Academy of Management
Journal, Vol. 18, pp. 784-810.
Huselid, M. (1995), “The impact of human resource management practices on turnover,
productivity, and corporate financial performance”, Academy of Management Journal,
Vol. 38, pp. 635-72.
Ibarra, P. (2005), “Succession planning: an idea whose time has come”, Public Management,
Vol. 87 No. 1, pp. 18-23.
Intagliata, J., Ulrich, D. and Smallwood, N. (2000), “Leveraging leadership competencies to
produce leadership brand: creating distinctiveness by focusing on strategy and results”,
Human Resource Planning, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 12-23.
Kesler, G.C. (2002), “Why the leadership bench never gets deeper: ten insights about executive
talent development”, Human Resource Planning, Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 32-44.
Kirkpatrick, D.L. (1959), “Techniques for evaluating training programs”, Journal of American
Society of Training Directors, Vol. 13, pp. 3-26.
Kirkpatrick, D.L. (2004), “A T+D classic: how to start an objective evaluation of your training
program”, T þ D, Vol. 58 No. 5, pp. 16-18.
Lado, A. and Wilson, M. (1994), “Human resources systems and sustained competitive
advantage: a competency-based perspective”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 19,
pp. 699-727.
Lord, R. and Hall, R. (2005), “Identity, deep structure and the development of leadership skill”,
Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 16, pp. 591-615.
McCall, M. (1998), High Flyers: Developing the Next Generation of Leaders, Harvard Business
School, Boston, MA.
Marcus, M. (2004), “Preparing high-potential staff for the step up to leadership”, Canadian HR
Reporter, Vol. 17 No. 18, pp. 11-12.
 Martineau, J. (2004), “Laying the groundwork: first steps in evaluating leadership development”, Leadership
Leadership in Action, Vol. 23 No. 6, pp. 3-8.
development
Melum, M. (2002), “Developing high-performance leaders”, Quality Management in Health Care,
Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 55-68.
Miller, L., Caldwell, K. and Lawson, L.C. (2001), “The leadership investment: how the world’s best
organizations gain strategic advantage through leadership development”, HRMagazine,
Vol. 46 No. 2, pp. 152-3. 463
Peters, T. and Waterman, R. (1982), In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America’s Best Run
Companies, Harper & Row Publishers, New York, NY.
Pfeffer, J. (1994), Competitive Advantage Through People, Harvard Business School Press,
Boston, MA.
Pomeroy, A. (2005), “Head of the class”, HR Magazine, Vol. 50 No. 1, pp. 54-8.
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

Porter, M. (1980), Competitive Strategy, Free Press, New York, NY.

Ready, D. (2004), “The characteristics of great-builder companies”, Business Strategy Review,
Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 36-45.
Ready, D.A. and Conger, J.A. (2003), “Why leadership-development efforts fail”, Sloan
Management Review, Vol. 44 No. 3, pp. 83-90.
Redecker, J. (2004), “The legal overlay to succession planning”, Employee Relations Law Journal,
Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 23-30.
Risher, H. and Stopper, W. (2001), “Succession planning and leadership development”, Human
Resource Planning, Vol. 24 No. 3, p. 11.
Schettler, J. (2003), “2003 training top 100: top 100: best practices”, Training, Vol. 40 No. 3,
pp. 58-9.
Skinner, B. (1953), Science and Human Behavior, Macmillan Press, New York, NY.
Stonich, P. (1982), Implementing Strategy: Making Strategy Happen, Ballinger, Cambridge, MA.
Thach, E.C. (2002), “The impact of executive coaching and 360 feedback on leadership
effectiveness”, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 23 Nos 3/4, pp. 205-14.
Tichy, N. (1997), The Leadership Engine: How Winning Companies Build Leaders at Every Level,
Harper Business, New York, NY.
Training Strategies (2001), “Ford Motor Company uses leaders as teachers”, Training Strategies
for Tomorrow, Vol. 15 No. 5, pp. 19-20.
US Dept. of Labor Statistics (2005), Labor Force Statistics, available at: www.bls.gov/cps/home.
htm#overview (accessed April, 2005).
Venkataraman, N. and Camillus, J. (1984), “Exploring the concept of ‘fit’ in strategic
management”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 9, pp. 513-25.
Vicere, A. (2000), “Ten observations of e-learning and leadership development”, Human Resource
Planning, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 34-46.
Vicere, A. and Fulmer, R. (1998), Leadership by Design, Harvard Business School, Boston, MA.
Wellins, R. and Byham, W. (2001), “The Leadership Gap”, Training, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 98-102.
Zenger, J.H. and Folkman, J. (2003), “Developing leaders”, Executive Excellence, Vol. 20 No. 9, p. 5.

Further reading
Conger, J.A. and Fulmer, R.M. (2003), “Developing your leadership pipeline”, Harvard Business
Review, Vol. 81 No. 12, pp. 76-85.
 LODJ About the authors
Sher-Lynne Leskiw is a graduate from the Executive Masters Program in Human Resource
28,5 Management at York University, Canada. She has worked in several high-tech organizations
within a variety of Human Resources roles. She is currently heading up Human Resources at a
small software company, bringing to the role a fresh perspective of HR best practices and over a
decade of practical HR experience.
Parbudyal Singh (PhD) is an Associate Professor of Human Resources Management, School
464 of Administrative Studies, York University. Dr Singh’s research covers a broad array of
management issues, especially those related to the effects of the changing business environment
on human resource management and industrial relations. He has more than 40 refereed
publications, several in top journals such as Industrial Relations, Journal of Labor Research,
Journal of Vocational Behavior, and Relations Industrielles. He is listed in Marquis’s Who’s Who
in America (2003-2004). He has won several scholastic and teaching awards, the most recent
being the Atkinson Alumni Teaching Award, and the Atkinson’s Dean’s Award for Excellence
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

in Research in 2005. Dr Singh has worked as a Human Resources and Industrial Relations
manager in a large manufacturing company. He has also been a business consultant to many
organizations. Dr Singh is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]

Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
 This article has been cited by:

1. Belinda Dewar, Fiona Cook. 2014. Developing compassion through a relationship centred appreciative
leadership programme. Nurse Education Today 34, 1258-1264. [CrossRef]
2. Kathleen M. Matson. 2014. Revisiting the past, revamping the future. Nursing Management (Springhouse)
45, 47-51. [CrossRef]
3. Meshari Alwazae, Harald Kjellin, Erik Perjons. 2014. A synthesized classification system for best practices.
VINE 44:2, 249-266. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
4. Stavros Bekas. 2014. Evaluating leadership development in postgraduate medical education. Leadership in
Health Services 27:1, 31-40. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
5. Richard D. Waters. 2013. The role of stewardship in leadership. Journal of Communication Management
17:4, 324-340. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
6. Catherine McCauley-Smith, Sharon J. Williams, Anne Clare Gillon, Ashley Braganza. 2013. Making
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)

sense of leadership development: developing a community of education leaders. Studies in Higher Education
1-18. [CrossRef]
7. Gina Grandy, Judith Holton. 2013. Leadership development needs assessment in healthcare: a
collaborative approach. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 34:5, 427-445. [Abstract] [Full
Text] [PDF]
8. Diane Magrane, Deborah Helitzer, Page Morahan, Shine Chang, Katharine Gleason, Gina Cardinali,
Chih-Chieh Wu. 2012. Systems of Career Influences: A Conceptual Model for Evaluating the Professional
Development of Women in Academic Medicine. Journal of Women's Health 21, 1244-1251. [CrossRef]
9. Hardik Shah, Raj Gopal. 2012. Training needs analysis for bus depot managers at GSRTC. European
Journal of Training and Development 36:5, 527-543. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
10. Curtis D. CurryBest Practices in Leadership Development 1-22. [CrossRef]
11. Gerri HuraExecutive Education 203-208. [CrossRef]
12. Busaya Virakul, Gary N. McLean. 2012. Leadership development in selected leading Thai companies.
Journal of Leadership Studies 6:10.1002/jls.v6.1, 6-22. [CrossRef]
13. Larisa Belinskaja, Rasa PaulienėOverview of the Current Leadership Theories: What it Means to Lead?
321-328. [CrossRef]
14. James Coloma, Carrie Gibson, Thomas Packard. 2012. Participant Outcomes of a Leadership
Development Initiative in Eight Human Service Organizations. Administration in Social Work 36, 4-22.
[CrossRef]
15. Aoife McDermott, Rachel Kidney, Patrick Flood. 2011. Understanding leader development: learning from
leaders. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 32:4, 358-378. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
16. Mary-Jo Romaniuk, Ken Haycock. 2011. Designing and evaluating library leadership programs:
improving performance and effectiveness. The Australian Library Journal 60, 29-40. [CrossRef]
17. Barbara Dexter. 2010. Critical success factors for developmental team projects. Team Performance
Management: An International Journal 16:7/8, 343-358. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
18. Afroditi Dalakoura. 2010. Differentiating leader and leadership development. Journal of Management
Development 29:5, 432-441. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
19. Afroditi Dalakoura. 2010. Examining the effects of leadership development on firm performance. Journal
of Leadership Studies 4:10.1002/jls.v4:1, 59-70. [CrossRef]
 20. Carolyn Ward, John Blenkinsopp, Catherine McCauley‐Smith. 2010. Leadership development in social
housing: a research agenda. Journal of European Industrial Training 34:1, 38-53. [Abstract] [Full Text]
[PDF]
21. Tim Simkins. 2009. Integrating work‐based learning into large‐scale national leadership development
programmes in the UK. Educational Review 61, 391-405. [CrossRef]
Downloaded by Royal Roads University At 22:48 08 December 2014 (PT)