Reference

Quick

Mathematics
Important points and formulas
Third Edition (May 2009)
M.Danish
0333-2383452
Content
No. Topic / sub topic Page
1 Natural numbers 1 49 Loci and construction 14
2 Whole Numbers 1 50 Vectors 14
3 Integers 1 51 Column Vectors 15
4 Rational Numbers 1 52 Parallel Vectors 15
5 Irrational Numbers 1 53 Modulus of a Vector 15
6 Terminating Decimals 1 54 MATRICES 15
7 Recurring Decimals 1 55 The Inverse of a Matrix 15
8 Significant figures 1 56 Transformations 16 -17
9 Decimal Places 1 57 Transformation by Matrices 18
10 Standard Form 1 58 STATISTICS 19
11 Conversion Factors 2 59 Probability 20
12 Time 2 60 Symmetry 21
13 Percentages 2
14 Simple Interest 2
15 Compound Interest 2
16 Speed, Distance and Time 3
17 Quadratic Equations 3
18 Expansion of algebraic expressions 3
19 Factorization of algebraic expressions 3
20 Ordering 3
21 Variation 4
22 PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM 4
23 Area and Perimeter 4
24 Surface Area and Volume 5
25 Angles on a straight line 6
26 Vertically opposite angles 6
27 Different types of triangles 6
28 Parallel Lines 6
29 Types of angles 6
30 Angle properties of triangle 7
31 Congruent Triangles 7
32 Similar Triangles 7
33 Areas of Similar Triangles 8
34 Polygons 8
35 Similar Solids 8
36 CIRCLE 9
37 Chord of a circle 9
38 Tangents to a Circle 10
39 Laws of Indices 10
40 Solving Inequalities 11
41 TRIGONOMETRY 11
42 Bearing 11
43 Cartesian co-ordinates 12
44 Distance – Time Graphs 12
45 Speed – Time Graphs 12
46 Velocity 13
47 Acceleration 13
48 SETS 13
NUMBER  Real numbers are made up of all possible
Natural Numbers: Numbers which are used for rational and irrational numbers.
counting purpose are called natural numbers.
 An integer is a whole number.
Ex: 1, 2, 3, 4, …………….100, ……………….
Whole Numbers: Natural numbers including 0 are  A prime number is divisible only by itself and
called Whole Numbers. by one (1). 1 is not a prime number. It has
Ex: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …………………….. only two factors. 1 and the number itself.
Integers: Positive natural numbers, negative natural  The exact value of rational number can be
numbers along with 0 are called integers. written down as the ratio of two whole
Ex.: …………………, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ……………
numbers.
Rational Numbers: Numbers which are in the form  The exact value of an irrational number
𝑝 cannot be written down.
of 𝑞 (q ≠ 0) where p and q are positive or negative
whole numbers are called rational numbers.  A square number is the result of multiplying
1 3 −5 49 a number by itself.
Ex: 2 , 4 , 7 , −56 …………………..
Ex: 12, 22, 32, ……………. i.e. 1, 4, 9, ……………..
Irrational Numbers: Numbers like 2 , 𝜋 cannot  A cube number is the result of multiplying a
be expressed as rational numbers. Such types of number by itself three times.
numbers are called as irrational numbers. Ex: 13, 23, 33, …………………. i.e. 1, 8, 27,………
Ex: 5 , 17 , ………….  The factors of a number are the numbers
which divide exactly into two.
Terminating Decimals
eg. Factors of 36
These are decimal numbers which stop after a
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18
certain number of decimal places.
For example,7/8 = 0.875, is a terminating decimal  Multiples of a number are the numbers in its
because it stops (terminates) after 3 decimal places. times table.
eg. Multiples of 6 are 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, …
Recurring Decimals
These are decimal numbers which keep repeating a Significant figures;
digit or group of digits; for example Example;
137/259,=0.528 957 528 957 528 957 ...., is a 8064 = 8000 (correct to 1 significant figures)
recurring decimal. The six digits 528957 repeat in 8064 = 8100 (correct to 2 significant figures)
this order. Recurring decimals are written with dots 8064 = 8060 (correct to 3 significant figures)
over the first and last digit of the repeating digits, 0.00508 =0.005 (correct to 1 significant figures)
e.g. 0.528 957 0.00508 = 0.0051 (correct to 2 significant figures)
 The order of operations follows the BODMAS 2.00508 = 2.01 (correct to 3 significant figures)
rule:
Decimal Places
Brackets
Example
Powers Of
0.0647 = 0.1 (correct to 1 decimal places)
Divide
0.0647 = 0.06 (correct to 2 decimal places)
Multiply
0.0647 = 0.065 (correct to 3 decimal places)
Add
2.0647 = 2.065 (correct to 3 decimal places)
Subtract
 Even numbers: numbers which are divisible Standard Form:
by 2, eg, 2, 4, 6, 8, … The number a x 10n is in standard form when
 Odd numbers: numbers which are not 1≤ a < 10 and n is a positive or negative integer.
divisible by 2, eg; 1, 3, 5, 7 … Eg: 2400 = 2.4 x 103
0.0035 = 3.5 x 10-3

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 1 of 21
 Conversion Factors:
Mass:
Length: 1 kg = 1000 gm where kg means kilogram
1 km = 1000 m 𝑘𝑚 means kilometer 1 gm = 1000 mgm gm means gram
1 m = 100 cm 𝑚 means meter 1 tonne = 1000 kg mgm means milligram
1 cm = 10 mm 𝑐𝑚 means centimeter
𝑚𝑚 means millimeter Volume:
1 litre = 1000 cm3
1 m3 = 1000 litres
1 kilo litre = 1000 litre
1 dozen = 12

Time:
1 hour = 60 minutes = 3600 1 week = 7 days
seconds 1 leap year = 366 days
1 minute = 60 seconds. 1 light year = 9.46 × 1012 km.
1 day = 24 hours
1 year = 12 months
= 52 weeks
= 365.25 days.

Percentages:
 Percent means per hundred.
 To express one quantity as a percentage of another, first write the first quantity as a fraction of
the second and then multiply by 100.
 Profit = S.P. – C.P.
 Loss = C.P. – S.P.
𝑆𝑃−𝐶𝑃
 Profit percentage = 𝐶𝑃 × 100
𝐶𝑃−𝑆𝑃
 Loss percentage = × 100
𝐶𝑃

where CP = Cost price and SP = Selling price

Simple Interest: Compound Interest:

r n
To find the interest: A = 𝑝 1 + 100
𝑃𝑅𝑇
 𝑖= where
100
P = money invested or borrowed Where,
R = rate of interest per annum 𝑨 stands for the amount of money accruing after 𝑛
T = Period of time (in years) year.
𝑷 stands for the principal
To find the amount: 𝑹 stands for the rate per cent per annum
 𝐴 = 𝑃 + 𝐼 where A = amount 𝒏 stands for the number of years for which the
money is invested.

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 2 of 21
Speed, Distance and Time:
 Distance = speed x time
 Units of speed: km/hr, m/sec
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  Units of distance: km, m
 Speed =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒  Units of time: hr, sec
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 Time = 5 D
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑  km / hr × = m / sec
18
18 S T
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  m / sec × = km / hr
 Average speed = 5
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
ALGEBRA

Quadratic Equations:
An equation in which the highest power of the variable is 2 is called quadratic equation. Thus
ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c are constants and a ≠ 0 is a general equation.
Solving quadratic equations:
We can solve quadratic equation by method of,

a) Factorization
b) Using the quadratic formula
c) Completing the square

(a) Solution by factors:

Consider the equation c × d = 0, where c and d are numbers. The product c × d can only be zero if either c
or d (or both) is equal to zero.
i.e. c = 0 or d = 0 or c = d = 0.

(b)Solution by formula:
The solutions of the quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by the formula:

−𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 =
2𝑎
(c) Completing the square
 Make the coefficient of x2 , i.e. a = 1
 Bring the constant term, i.e. c to the right side of equation.
𝑏
 Divide coefficient of x, i.e. by 2 and add the square i.e. ( 2)2 to both sides of the equation.
 Factorize and simplify answer

Expansion of algebraic expressions Factorization of algebraic expressions

 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2
 (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)2
 (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 (𝑎 − 𝑏)
 a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 – 2ab
 a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)

Ordering:
= is equal to ≥ is greater than or equal to
≠ is not equal to < is less than
> is greater than ≤ is less than or equal to

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 3 of 21
Variation:

Direct Variation: Inverse Variation:

y is proportional to x y is inversely proportional to x
1
y x y
x
k
y = kx y=
x
MENSURATION

PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM

For all the right angled triangles “ the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares on the other two sides”
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

𝒄 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝒃 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 𝒂 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑏2

Area and Perimeter:

Figure Diagram Area Perimeter
Rectangle
b Area = l × b perimeter = 2( 𝑙 + 𝑏 )

l
Square a

a a
Area = side × side perimeter = 4 × side
a = a×a =4×a

Parallelogram Area = b × h

perimeter = 2(a + b )

Area = ab sin 𝜃
where a, b are sides and 𝜃 is
the included angle
Triangle
1
Area = × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡
2

1
Area = 2 𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 perimeter = a + b + c

= 𝑠 𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑠 − 𝑏 (𝑠 − 𝑐)
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
where s =
2

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 4 of 21
Trapezium
perimeter = Sum of all
1
Area = 2 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑕 sides

Circle
r
Area =  r2 circumference = 2  r

Semicircle 1 2 1
Area = r perimeter =  d + d
r 2 2
Sector 𝑟  
Area =  r  360 length of an arc = 2 r 
2

𝜃 360

Surface Area and Volume:

Figure Diagram Surface Area Volume
Cylinder
Volume =  r h
2
curved surface area = 2πrh
total surface area = 2πr(h + r)

Cone curved surface area = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 1 2

Volume = πr h
where l = (r 2  h 2 ) 3
total surface area = 𝜋𝑟(𝑙 + 𝑟)

Sphere 4 3
Volume = πr
Surface area = 4πr2 3

Pyramid 1
Volume = × base area ×
Base area + area of the shapes in 3
the sides perpendicular height

Cuboid

Surface area = 2(𝑙𝑏 + 𝑏𝑕 + 𝑙𝑕) Volume = 𝑙 × 𝑏 × 𝑕

Cube
Surface area = 6𝑙 2 Volume = 𝑙 3

2 3
Hemisphere Curved surface area = = 2 r2 Volume = r
3

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 5 of 21
 GEOMETRY
(a) Angles on a straight line Parallel Lines:
The angles on a straight line add up to 180o. When lines never meet, no matter how far they are
extended, they are said to be parallel.

x + y + z =180o

(b) Angle at a point  Vertically opposite angles are equal.

a = c; b = d; p = s and q =r

 Corresponding angles are equal.

𝑎 = 𝑞; 𝑏 = 𝑝; 𝑐 = 𝑟 and 𝑑 = 𝑠
 Alternate angles are equal.
c= q and d = p.
The angles at a point add up to 360o.  Sum of the angles of a triangle is 180o.
a + b + c + d = 360o
 Sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360o.
(c) Vertically opposite angles
Types of angles
If two straight line intersect, then
Given an angle , if
𝑎=𝑐
𝜃 < 90° , then 𝜃 is an acute angle
𝑏 = 𝑑 (Vert,opp.∠𝑠)

90° < 𝜃 < 180° , then 𝜃 is an obtuse angle

180° < 𝜃 < 360° , then 𝜃 is an reflex angle

Triangles

Different types of triangles:

1. An isosceles triangle has 2 sides and 2 angles the same. AB = AC
ABC = BCA

2. An equilateral triangle has 3 sides and 3 angles the same.

AB = BC = CA and ABC = BCA = CAB

3. A triangle in which one angle is a right angle is called the right angled triangle.

ABC = 90o
____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 6 of 21
Angle properties of triangle:
 The sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to 180o.
 In every triangle, the greatest angle is opposite to the longest side. The smallest angle is
opposite to the shortest side.
 Exterior angle is equal to the sum of the opposite interior angles.
x=a+b

Congruent Triangles:
Two triangles are said to be congruent if they are equal in every aspect.

AB = XY a = x
BC = YZ b = y
AC = XZ c = z

Similar Triangles:
If two triangles are similar then they have a pair of corresponding equal angles and the three ratios of
corresponding sides are equal.

AB BC AC
 a =  x;  b =  y and  c =  z = =
XY YZ XZ

If you can show that one of the following conditions is true for two triangles, then the two triangles are
similar.
i) The angles of one triangle are equal to the corresponding angles of the other triangle.

∆ ABC is similar to ∆ XYZ because  a=  x;  b =  y and  c =  z

ii) The ratio of corresponding sides is equal. F

R
D
P

PQ PR QR Q E
If = = then ∆ PQR is similar to ∆ DEF
DE DF EF

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 7 of 21
 iii) The ratios of the corresponding sides are equal and the angles between them are equal.
R Z

X Y
P Q
PQ PR
∆ PQR is similar to ∆ XYZ (if, for eg:  P =  X and = )
XY XZ

Areas of Similar Triangles:

The ratio of the areas of similar triangles is equal to the ratio of the square on corresponding sides.
C
R

area of ABC AB 2 BC 2 AC 2
P Q = = =
A B area of PQR PQ 2 QR 2 PR 2
Polygons:
i) The exterior angles of a polygon add up to 360o.
ii) The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is (𝑛 – 2) × 180o where 𝑛 is the number of sides
of the polygon.
iii) A regular polygon has equal sides and equal angles.
360
iv) If the polygon is regular and has 𝑛 sides, then each exterior angle = 𝑛
v)
3 sides = triangle 4 sides = quadrilateral 5 sides = pentagon
6 sides = hexagon 7 sides = heptagon 8 sides = octagon
9 sides = nonagon 10 sides = decagon

Similar Solids:
If two objects are similar and the ratio of corresponding sides is k, then
 the ratio of their areas is 𝑘2.
 the ratio of their volumes is 𝑘3.

Length Area Volume

𝑙1 𝑟 𝑕1 A1 2 2
V1 3 3

= 1 = r h
= 12 = 12
r h
= 13 = 13
𝑙2 𝑟2 𝑕2 A2 r2 h2 V2 r2 h2

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 8 of 21
CIRCLE
 The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is twice the angle subtended at the circumference

 Angles subtended by an arc in the same segment of a circle are equal.

 The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle. [or if a triangle is inscribed in a semi-circle the angle
opposite the diameter is a right angle]. ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = 90°

 Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180o (supplementary). The corners touch the
circle. A+C = 180o, B+D 180o

 The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.(𝑏 = 𝑝)

Chord of a circle:
A line joining two points on a circle is called a chord.
The area of a circle cut off by a chord is called a segment.
AXB is the minor arc and AYB is the major arc.

a) The line from the centre of a circle to the mid-point of

a chord bisects the chord at right angles.
b) The line from the centre of a circle to the mid-point of a
chord bisects the angle subtended by the chord at the centre of the circle.

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 9 of 21
Tangents to a Circle:
 The angle between a tangent and the radius drawn to
the point of contact is 90o.

 ABO = 900

 From any point outside a circle just two tangents to the circle may be drawn and they are of
equal length.

TA = TB

 Alternate Segment Theorem

The angle between a tangent and a chord through the point
of contact is equal to the angle subtended by the chord
in the alternate segment.

 QAB =  ACB (p = q)

 TC2 = AC × BC

INDICES:

 am × an = am + n  a
m
am
  =
 am ÷ an = am – n b bm

 (am)n = amn   a
n
m
= am / n
 a0 = 1
1  a× b = ab
 a-n =
an a a
 =
 m m
(a × b) = a × b m
b b
  a 2
= a

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 10 of 21
 Solving Inequalities:
When we multiply or divide by a negative number the inequality is reversed.
Eg: 4 > -2
By multiplying by -2 [4(-2) < (-2)(-2) ]
-8 < +4

TRIGONOMETRY

Let ABC be a right angled triangle, where  B = 90o

𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑂
 Sin 𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐻

 Cos 𝜃 =
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒
=
𝐴 SOH CAH TOA
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐻

𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑂
 Tan 𝜃 = =
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐴

Sine Rule:
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C

Cosine Rule:

To find the length of a side: To find an angle when all the three sides are
 a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cosA given:
 b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
b2  c2  a2
 c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C  cos A =
2bc
a  c2 b2
2
 cos B =
2ac
a  b2  c2
2
 cos C =
2ab

Bearing
The bearing of a point B from another point A is;
(a) an angle measured from the north at A.
(b) In a clockwise direction.
(c) Written as three-figure number (i.e. from 000 ° to 360°)
Eg: The bearing of B from A is 050° .

____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 11 of 21
Cartesian co-ordinates

Gradient and equation of a straight line

The gradient of the straight line joining any two given points A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) is;
y  y1
m 2
x2  x1
The gradient/intercept form of the equation of a straight line is y  mx  c , where m  gradient and
c  intercept on y – axis.

𝑥 1 +𝑥 2 𝑦 1 +𝑦 2
 The midpoint of the line joining two points A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) is; 𝑀 = , 2
2

 The distance between two points A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) is; 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2

 Parallel lines have the same gradient.

Vertical height 𝑦
 In a graph, gradient = or
Horizontal height 𝑥

Distance – Time Graphs:

From O to A : Uniform speed

From B to C : uniform speed
From A to B : Stationery (speed = 0)
The gradient of the graph of a distance-time graph gives the speed of the moving body.

Speed – Time Graphs:

From O to A : Uniform speed

From A to B : Constant speed (acceleration = 0)
From B to C : Uniform deceleration / retardation

The area under a speed –time graph represents the distance

travelled.
The gradient of the graph is the acceleration. If the acceleration is
negative, it is called deceleration or retardation. (The moving body is slowing down.)

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 12 of 21
Velocity:
Velocity is the rate of change of distance with respect to the time.

Acceleration:
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

SETS:
Notations
 𝜉 = universal set  𝐴′ = compliment of A (i.e. the elements of
 ∪ (union) = all the elements 𝜉 - the elements of A)
 ∩ (intersection) = common elements  n(A) = the number of elements in A.
 Ø or { } = empty set
 ∈ = belongs to  De Morgan’s Laws: (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = (𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ′ )
 ∉ = does not belongs to (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = (𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵 ′ )
 ⊆ = Subset

Subset ⊆ Proper subset ⊂

𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 means every elements of set B is also an B ⊂ A means every element of B is an element
element of set A. of set A but B≠A.

or

Disjoint sets Intersection ∩

Disjoint set do not have any element in 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the set of elements which are in A
common. If A and B are disjoint sets, then and also in B
𝐴∩𝐵 =∅

Complement
Union ∪ The complement of A, written as 𝐴′ refers to
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the set of elements in either A , B or the elements in 𝜀 but not in A.
both A and B.

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 13 of 21
 Loci and construction
The locus of a point is a set of points satisfying a given set of conditions.

(a) Locus of points at a distance x from a given point, O.

Locus: The circumference of a circle centre O, radius x.

(b) Locus of a points at a distance x from a straight line AB

Locus: A pair of parallel lines to the given line AB.

(c) Locus of points equidistance between 2 points.

Locus: Perpendicular bisector of the two points.

(d) Locus of points equidistant from two given lines AB and AC

Locus: Angle bisector of ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶

Vectors:
 A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
a
 Vectors a and b represented by the line segments can be added
using the parallelogram rule or the nose- to- tail method.

b
 A scalar quantity has a magnitude but no direction. Ordinary numbers are scalars.
 The negative sign reverses the direction of the vector.
 The result of a – b is a + -b
i.e. subtracting b is equivalent to adding the negative of b.

Addition and subtraction of vectors

𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 (Triangular law of addition)

𝑂𝐵 + 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐶 ( parallelogram law of addition)

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 14 of 21
 Column Vectors:
The top number is the horizontal component and the bottom number is the vertical component
 x
 
 y

Parallel Vectors:
 Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction. Both components of one vector must be
in the same ratio to the corresponding components of the parallel vector.
a a
 In general the vector k   is parallel to  
b b

Modulus of a Vector:
The modulus of a vector a, is written as a and represents the length (or magnitude) of the vector.
 m
In general, if x =   , x = (m 2  n 2 )
n

MATRICES:

Addition and Subtraction:

Matrices of the same order are added (or subtracted) by adding (or subtracting) the corresponding
elements in each matrix.
a b   p q a  p b  q
  +   =  
 c d   r s   c  r d  s
a b   p q a  p b  q
  -   =  
c d   r s   c  r d  s

Multiplication by a Number:
Each element of a matrix is multiplied by the multiplying number.
 a b   ka kb 
k ×   =  
 c d   kc kd 

Multiplication by another Matrix:

Matrices may be multiplied only if they are compatible. The number of columns in the left-hand matrix
must equal the number of rows in the right-hand matrix.

 a b   p q   ap  br aq  bs 
  ×   =  
 c d   r s   cp  dr cq  ds 

 In matrices A2 means A × A. [you must multiply the matrices together]

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 15 of 21
The Inverse of a Matrix:
a b  1  d  b
If A =   then A-1 =  
c d  (ad  bc)  c a 

 AA-1 = A-1A = I where I is the identity matrix.

 The number (ad – bc ) is called the determinant of the matrix and is written as A
 If A = 0, then the matrix has no inverse.
 Multiplying by the inverse of a matrix gives the same result as dividing by the matrix.
e.g. if AB = C
A-1AB = A-1C
B = A-1C
 x r xr
 If C =   and D =   then C + D =  
 y s  y  s

Transformations:

a) Reflection:
When describing a reflection, the position of the mirror line is essential.

b) Rotation:
To describe a rotation, the centre of rotation, the angle of rotation and the direction of rotation
are required.
A clockwise rotation is negative and an anticlockwise rotation is positive.
>> (angle) (Direction)rotation about (centre)
c) Translation:  x
When describing a translation it is necessary to give the translation vector  
 y
 + x represents movement to the right
 - x represents movement to the left
 + y represents movement to the top
 - y represents movement to the bottom.
>> Translation by the column vector -----
d) Enlargement:
To describe an enlargement, state;
i. The scale factor, K
ii. The centre of enlargement (the invariant point)
length of the image
Scale factor =
length of the object
>> Enlargement by the scale factor --- centre ------
 If K > 0, both the object and the image lie on the same side of the centre of enlargement.
 If K < 0, the object and the image lie on opposite side of the centre of enlargement.
 If the scale factor lies between 0 and 1, then the resulting image is smaller than the object.
[although the image is smaller than the object, the transformation is still known as an
enlargement]
Area of image = K2 area of object
____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 16 of 21
Repeated Transformations:
XT(P) means ‘perform transformation T on P and then perform X on the image.’
XX(P) may be written X2(P).

Inverse Transformations:
The inverse of a transformation is the transformation which takes the image back to the object.
 x  x
If translation T has a vector   , then the translation which ahs the opposite effect has vector   .
 y  y
-1
This is written as T .
If rotation R denotes 90o clockwise rotation about (0, 0), then R-1 denotes 90o anticlockwise rotation
about (0, 0).
For all reflections, the inverse is the same reflection.
Base vectors
1 0
The base vectors are considered as I =   and J =  
0 1
The columns of a matrix give us the images of I and J after the transformation.

Shear:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎
Shear factor = =
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑏

[The shear factor will be the same calculated from any point on the object with the exception of those
on the invariant line] Area of image = Area of object

Stretch:
To describe a stretch, state;
i. the stretch factor, p
ii. the invariant line,
iii. the direction of the stretch
(always perpendicular to the invariant line)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 ′ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝐵
Scale factor =
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝐵

Where, P is the stretch factor Area of image = 𝑝 × Area of object

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 17 of 21
 Transformation by Matrices
Reflection

Matrix Transformation
1 0
Reflection in the x-axis
0 −1
−1 0
Reflection in the y-axis
0 1
0 1
Reflection in the line y = x
1 0
0 −1
Reflection in the line y = - x
−1 0

Rotation
Matrix Angle Direction centre
0 −1
90° anticlockwise (0, 0)
1 0
0 1
90° clockwise (0, 0)
−1 0
−1 0
180° Clockwise/ anticlockwise (0, 0)
0 −1

Enlargement

𝑘 0
where 𝑘= scale factor and centre of enlargement = (0, 0)
0 𝑘

Stretch
Matrix Stretch factor Invariant line Direction

𝑘 0
𝑘 y-axis Parallel to x - axis
0 1
1 0
𝑘 x - axis Parallel to y - axis
0 𝑘

Shear
Matrix Shear factor Invariant line Direction
1 𝑘
𝑘 x-axis Parallel to x - axis
0 1
1 0
𝑘 y - axis Parallel to y - axis
𝑘 1

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 18 of 21
STATISTICS
Bar Graph:
A bar chart makes numerical information easy to see by showing it in a pictorial form.
The width of the bar has no significance. The length of each bar represents the quantity.

Pie Diagram:
The information is displayed using sectors of a circle.

Histograms:
A histogram displays the frequency of either continuous or grouped discrete data in the form of bars.
The bars are joined together.
The bars can be of varying width.
The frequency of the data is represented by the area of the bar and not the height.
[When class intervals are different it is the area of the bar which represents the frequency not the
height]. Instead of frequency being plotted on the vertical axis, frequency density is plotted.
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Frequency density =
𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑕
Mean:
The mean of a series of numbers is obtained by adding the numbers and dividing the result by the
number of numbers.

Mean =
 fx where ∑ fx means ‘the sum of the products’
f
i.e. ∑ (number × frequency)
and ∑f means ‘ the sum of the frequencies’.

Median:
The median of a series of numbers is obtained by arranging the numbers in ascending order and then
choosing the number in the ‘middle’. If there are two ‘middle’ numbers the median is the average
(mean) of these two numbers.

Mode:
The mode of a series of numbers is simply the number which occurs most often.

Frequency tables:
A frequency table shows a number x such as a score or a mark, against the frequency f or number of
times that x occurs.

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 19 of 21
Cumulative frequency:
Cumulative frequency is the total frequency up to a given point.

Cumulative frequency Curve:

A cumulative frequency curve shows the median at the 50 th percentile of the cumulative frequency.
The value at the 25th percentile is known as the lower quartile and that at the 75 th percentile as the
upper quartile.
A measure of the spread or dispersion of the data is given by the inter-quartile range where
inter-quartile range = upper quartile – lower quartile.

Probability:
 Probability is the study of chance, or the likelihood of an event happening.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
 Probability of an event =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚 𝑒
 If the probability = 0 it implies the event is impossible
 If the probability = 1 it implies the event is certain to happen.
 All probabilities lie between 0 and 1.
 Probabilities are written using fractions or decimals.

Exclusive events:
Two events are exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time.
The OR Rule:
For exclusive events A and B
p(A or B) = p(A) + p(B)

Independent events:
Two events are independent if the occurrence of one even is unaffected by the occurrence of the other.
The AND Rule:
p(A and B) = p(A) × p(B)
where p(A) = probability of A occurring
p(B) = probability of B occurring

Tree diagrams:
A tree diagram is a diagram used to represent probabilities when two or more events are combined.

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 20 of 21
Symmetry:
 A line of symmetry divides a two-dimensional shape into two congruent (identical) shapes.
 A plane of symmetry divides a three-dimensional shape into two congruent solid shapes.
 A two-dimensional shape has rotational symmetry if, when rotated about a central point, it fits
its outline. The number of times it fits its outline during a complete revolution is called the order
of rotational symmetry.
Number of Lines Order of Rotational
Shape
of Symmetry Symmetry
Square 4 4
Rectangle 2 2
Parallelogram 0 2
Rhombus 2 2
Trapezium 0 1
Kite 1 1
Equilateral Triangle 3 3
Regular Hexagon 6 6

____________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematics 4024 - important points and formulas Page 21 of 21
MATHEMATICS
4024

REVISION
34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN

Compiled & Edited by:

33 D
M.

M.Danish
Contact#03332383452
03
 Revision: Similar Shapes
Key Points to Remember:
* Shapes are similar if one shape is an enlargement of the other.
* When two shapes are similar, the corresponding sides are in proportion and corresponding
angles are equal.
* The scale factor of enlargement is the ratio:
length of a side on second shape
.
length of corresponding side on first shape

Example 1: Simple example

The two trapezia below are similar. Find the values of x and y.
7.2 cm 10.08 cm

y cm
9.1 cm

13 cm
34 H
52
38 SI
x cm
-2 AN

The first step is to find the scale factor of the enlargement. This can be found by dividing the length
of two corresponding sides. We can use the length of the two top sides to find the scale factor here.
10.08
 1 .4 .
33 D

So, s.f. =
7 .2
M.

The missing sides can be found by either multiplying or dividing by the scale factor.
To find x: Multiply 13 cm (the corresponding length on the first shape) by 1.4,
i.e. x = 13 × 1.4 = 18.2 cm.
[You check that this answer is reasonable – as x is on the larger shape, x must be bigger than 13 cm]
03

To find y: Divide 9.1 cm (the corresponding length on the second shape) by 1.4,
i.e. y = 9.1 ÷ 1.4 = 6.5 cm.

Examination-style question:
x X

57º 9 cm
8 cm
4 cm
w W

y Y

z Z
The two shapes (wxyz and WXYZ) are mathematically similar.
a) Calculate the length of XY.
b) Find the size of angle YXW (marked θ on the diagram)

1
 Similar Triangles
To show that two triangles are similar, you need to check that
Either they contain the same angles
Or corresponding lengths are in the same ratio.

Example 2: Similar triangles

Explain why the two triangles below are similar. Calculate the lengths marked a and b.

3.5 cm
35º
75º 70º
a 2.6 cm
1.75 cm b
35º
2.8 cm

Both triangles contain the same three angles (namely 75°, 70° and 35°). Therefore they are similar.
First the shapes must be redrawn so that angles that are equal are in the same position.
34 H
52
38 SI
75º
a 2.6 cm 75°
1.75 cm b
-2 AN

70° 35º
2.8 cm 70° 35°
33 D

3.5 cm
M.

The scale factor for the enlargement is 3.5 ÷ 2.8 = 1.25

To find a: a = 1.75 ÷ 1.25 = 1.4 cm.

To find b: b = 2.6 × 1.25 = 3.25 cm
03

2
Examination Question:
These triangles are similar. B
They are not drawn 1.75 Y
accurately. C
Angle A equals angle X. 4.25 24.5
Angle B equals angle Y.
Calculate the length of XY.
Z
A 77
X

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
M.

Examination Question:
State whether or not the triangles ABC and XYZ are similar. Show working to support
your answer.
Y
A 8 cm C
03

4 cm 3 cm

4 cm 6 cm X
Z
6 cm
B

[Hint: As there are no angles shown, to see whether the triangles are similar or not you will need to calculate the scale
factor based on each of the three pairs of corresponding sides– if all the scale factors are identical then the triangles are
similar].

Example 3:
3
Show that triangles ABC and APQ are similar and calculate the length of AC and BP.
A

2 cm 3 cm PQ and BC are parallel

lines.
4 cm Q
P

6 cm
B C
The triangles are similar if they contain the same angles. We can show this:
Angle A is common to both triangles ABC and APQ
Angle APQ = Angle ABC as they are corresponding angles (parallel lines)
Angle AQP = Angle ACB as they are corresponding angles.
So all three angles in the triangles are equal. So the triangles are parallel.

To calculate the lengths it is easiest to draw the two triangles separately:

A
2cm 3cm A

34 H
52
38 SI
P 4cm Q
-2 AN

B 6cm C
Using the bases of the two triangles we see that the scale factor is 6 ÷ 4 = 1.5.
33 D

So: AC = 3 × 1.5 = 4.5 cm

M.

Likewise, AB = 2 × 1.5 = 3 cm. So BP = AB – AP = 3cm – 2cm = 1 cm.

Examination Question:
In the diagram FG = 5.6 metres, EH = 3.5 metres and E D
DH = 15 metres. F
03

EH is parallel to FG.
FED and DHG are straight lines. 5.6 m 3.5 m
a) Explain why triangles DEH and DFG are similar.
b) Calculate the length of DG and GH. 15 m

H
G

4
Example 4: 5cm
A
AB and CD are parallel lines. B
AD and BC meet at X.
a) Prove that triangles ABX and DCX are similar.
b) Which side in triangle DCX corresponds to AX in triangle ABX?
c) Calculate the length of AX. X

3cm

C D
a) To show the triangles are similar we need to show 4cm
they contain the same angles:
Angle AXB = Angle CXD (vertically opposite angles)
Angle BAX = Angle XDC (alternate angles)
So the third angles in each triangle must also be equal, i.e. Angle ABX = Angle XCD.
Therefore the triangles are similar.
b) It is simplest to now redraw the two triangles so that they are the same way up and with
equal angles in corresponding positions:

34 H X

52
X
38 SI
3cm
-2 AN

C 4 cm D
33 D
M.

B 5 cm A
We see that AX corresponds to DX.

c) The scale factor is 5 ÷ 4 = 1.25

So AX = 3 × 1.25 = 3.75 cm.
03

Examination Question:
11cm
AB is parallel to CD. A B
Lines AD and BC intersect at point O.
AB = 11 cm. AO = 8 cm. OD = 6 cm.
8cm
Calculate the length of CD.

O
6cm

C D

5
 Revision Topic : Percentages
Percentages – Multipliers
The multiplier for an increase of 6% is 1.06 (100% + 6% = 106% or 1.06).
To increase an amount by 6%, multiply it by 10.06.
The multiplier for a decrease of 12% is 0.88 (100% - 12% = 88% or 0.88).
To decrease an amount by 12%, multiply it by 0.88.
For repeated percentage changes, multiply all the multipliers in turn.

Example:
A fast food restaurant decided to decrease by 18% the weight of packaging for their regular meals,
which weighed 40 grams. Calculate the weight of the new packaging.
Method 1: Non-calculator paper
Find 18% of 40g: 10% of 40g = 4g
1% of 40g = 0.4g So 8% of 40g = 3.2g
So 18% of 40g = 4 + 3.2 = 7.2g
So new packaging would weigh 40 – 7.2 = 32.8g
34 H
52
Method 2: Calculator paper (Multipliers)
38 SI
To decrease by 18%, the multiplier is 0.82 (100% - 18% = 82%).
So new weight is 0.82 × 40 = 32.8g
-2 AN

Example 2:
33 D

A manufacturer buys a machine for £56800. The machine is expected to depreciate by 12% in the
M.

first year and by 8.5% each future year. What will be the expected value of the machine after 5
years to the nearest £1?
Note: Depreciate means to lose value.
The multiplier for a decrease of 12% is 0.88.
The multiplier for a decrease of 8.5% is 0.915 (as 100% - 8.5% = 91.5% or 0.915).
03

So value of machine after 5 years is

56800  0.88  0.915
   0.915
  0.915
   0.915
  56800  0.88  0.915  £35036 (to nearest £1)
4

multipliers for 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th years

Examination Question
A shop is having a sale. Each day, prices are reduced by 20% of the price on the previous day.
Before the start of the sale, the price of a television is £450.
On the first day of the sale, the price is reduced by 20%.
Work out the price of the television on
a) the first day of the sale
b) the third day of the sale.

Examination Question:
A car was bought for £7600. It depreciated in value by 25% each year. What was the value of the
car after 3 years?

1
Percentage Change

You need to know the following formulae

Increase (or decrease)
Percentage increase (or decrease)   100
Original amount
Profit (or loss)
Percentage profit (or loss)   100
Cost price

Example:
In 1990 a charity sold 2¼ million lottery tickets at 25p each. 80% of the money was kept by the
charity.
a) Calculate the amount of money kept by the charity.
In 1991, the price of a lottery ticket fell by 20%.
Sales of lottery tickets increased by 20%.
80% of the money obtained was kept by the charity.
b) Calculate the percentage change in the amount of money kept by the charity.

34 H
52
a) Money made by selling tickets = 2 ¼ million × 25p = £562500
38 SI
Money kept by charity = 80% of £562500 = 0.8 × £562500 = £450000.
-2 AN

b) In 1991 price of ticket = 80% of old price = 80% of 25p = 20p

In 1991, sales of lottery tickets = 120% of 1990 sales
120
33 D

=  2250000  2700000
100
M.

In 1991, money made by selling tickets = 2700000 × 20p = £540000

So amount to charity is 0.8 × £540000 = £432000
Therefore:
decrease 450000  432000
03

Percentage decrease   100   100  4% .

Original amount 450000

Examination Style Question:

Del ‘boy’ Rotter buys an old cottage for £84000. He spends £10400 on repairs and renovation then
sells the cottage for £149000. Find his percentage profit to the nearest 1%.

2
Percentages- Compound Interest
Compound interest is interest paid on an amount and on the interest already received on that
amount.
You can solve compound interest questions using the formula:
n
 R 
A = P 1  
 100 
where: P is the amount invested initially;
R is the rate of interest (percentage per year)
n is the number of years invested;
A is the amount in the account at the end.

Example:
A building society pays compound interest at a fixed rate of 7% per annum. If £480 is invested in
an account, what will be the value of the account after 3 years?
Method 1:
In first year: Interest paid is 7% of £480 = 0.07 × 480 = £33.60
So balance at end of 1st year is £480 + £33.60 = £513.60.
34 H
52
38 SI
In second year: Interest paid is 7% of £513.60 = 0.07 × 513.60 = £35.952
So balance at end of 2nd year is £513.60 + £35.952 = £549.552
-2 AN

In third year: Interest paid is 7% of £549.552 = £38.46864

So balance at end of 3rd year is £549.552 + £38.46864 = £588.02 (to nearest 1p)
33 D
M.

Method 2: Use of formula

n 3
 R   7 
After 3 years balance would be A = P1    4801    480  1.07  £588.02 .
3

 100   100 

Note: Sometimes you are asked for the total amount of interest that has been received. You get this
03

by subtracting the initial amount invested from the final balance. Here the total interest received is
£588.02 – 480 = £108.02.

Example:
Tony invests £500 in a bank account that pays 4% (compound) interest p.a. By what single number
must £500 be multiplied by to get the amount in the account after 5 years?
n 5
 R   4 
The amount invested after 5 years is P1    500  1   .
 100   100 
So the required multiplier is (1.04)5 = 1.21665 (to 5 decimal places).

Examination Question:
£500 is invested for 2 years at 6% per annum compound interest.
a Work out the total interest earned over the two years.

£250 is invested for three years at 7% per annum compound interest.

b By what single number must £250 be multiplied to obtain the total amount at the end of the 3
years?

3
Examination Question:
Nesta invests £508 in a bank account paying compound interest at a rate of 10% per annum.
Calculate the total amount in Nesta’s bank account after 2 years.

Reverse Percentage Questions

Calculating the original value of something before an increase or decrease took place is called
“calculating a reverse percentage”.

Example 1:
Ella bought a pair of climbing boots for £45.60 in a sale that gave “20% off”. What was the non-
sale price of the boots.
34 H
52
38 SI
Let the original price of the boots be 100%. The sale price then is 80%.
So 80% of the price = £45.60
So 1% of the price = £45.60 ÷ 80 = £0.57
-2 AN

So 100% of the price = £0.57 × 100 = £57.

33 D

So the non-sale price of the boots was £57.

M.

Examination Question 1:
A clothes shop has a sale. All the original prices are reduced by 24% to give the sale price.
The sale price of a jacket is £36.86.
Work out the original price of the jacket.
03

Examination Question 2:
In a sale all prices are reduced by 16%. Alan buys a shaver in the sale for £21.
How much does he save by buying it in the sale?
[Hint: First work out the price before the sale]

4
Example 2:
The total price of a bike (including VAT at 17.5%) is £146.85.
Calculate the cost of the bike excluding VAT.

Let the cost of the bike before VAT be 100%. Then the cost including VAT would be 117.5%.
So 117.5% = £146.85.
Then 1% = £146.85 ÷ 117.5 = £1.249787…
So 100% = £1.249787 × 100 = £124.98 (to nearest 1p).

So the cost of the bike excluding VAT is £124.98.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
03 M.

5
Examination Question 3:
The price of a new television is £423. This price includes Value Added Tax (VAT) at 17.5%.
a) Work out the cost of the television before VAT was added.
By the end of each year, the value of a television has fallen by 12% of its value at the start of that
year. The value of the television was £423 at the start of the first year.
b) Work out the value of the television at the end of the third year.

34 H
52
38 SI
Examination Question 4:
The population of a town increased by 20% between 1981 and 1991. The population in 1991 was
43200.
-2 AN

What was the population in 1981?

33 D

[Hint: Let the population in 1981 be 100%].

03 M.

Examination Question 5:
A tourist buys a stereo which costs £155.10, including VAT at 17.5%.
Tourists do not have to pay VAT. How much does the tourist pay?

6
 Revision Topic : Loci and Constructions

Constructions

Bisecting an angle

N.B. To bisect an angle means to cut it in half.

(1) Use your compasses to mark points A and B which are the same distance
from the point (or vertex) of the angle.

(2) Without changing the settings of the compasses, put the compass point on A
and draw an arc in the middle. Then put the compass point on B and draw an arc
in the middle which crosses the first.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN

(3) This new point C will be in the middle of the angle. So we can draw a line
from the point of the angle to C and we will have split the angle in two.
33 D
M.

Perpendicular bisector of a line

A line which cuts a straight line in half at right angles is called a

03

perpendicular bisector.

(1) Draw a line AB.

(2) Open your compasses to just over half the distance of the length AB.

(3) Put your compasses on A and draw an arc above and below the line.
Then put your compasses on B and draw more arcs above and below the line. These arcs will cross
over at two points C and D.

(4) Join up points C and D with a straight line. This is then the perpendicular bisector of the line
AB.

Constructions such as bisecting angles or lines can be used for making scale drawings where
conditions have to be met.

1
Example
A water tap is to be put in a garden B Grape vine wires A
but it must meet these conditions: N
1. It must be the same distance
from the two greenhouses, A and Fence
Hedge
B.
2. It must be the same distance from
Tree
the grape line wires as from the
hedge. C D Greenhouse
Where must the tap be placed?

To meet condition 1 you

draw the perpendicular
bisector of the line BA.
This line is the locus of
all points equidistant from
B and A. B Grape vine wires A
To meet condition 2 you Fence
N
bisect the angle BAD.
This line is the locus of all points that
are equidistant from the lines BA
34 H Hedge

52
38 SI
and AD. Greenhouse
Tree
Where the two loci intersect C D
-2 AN

Wall
Both conditions are met, so Tap
the tap must be at this point.
33 D
M.

Examination Question 1: A B
The diagram shows a rectangular field ABCD.
The side AB is 80m long.
The side BC is 50m long.
Draw the diagram using a scale of 1cm to 10m.
Treasure is hidden in the field.
03

D C
a) The treasure is equidistant from the sides AB and
AD. Construct the locus of points for which this is true.
b) The treasure is 60m from corner C. Construct the locus of points for which this is true.
c) Mark with an X the position of the treasure.

2
Examination Question 2:
The map shows an island with three main towns, Alphaville, Betaville and Gammaville.
The map is drawn to a scale of 1 cm: 10 km.
A radio transmitter is to be installed.

Scale 1cm : 10km

Gammaville
x

x
Alphaville
34 H
52
38 SI
x Betaville
-2 AN
33 D

The transmitter must be equidistant from Alphaville and Betaville.

The transmitter must be between 35km and 50 km from Gammaville.
M.

Mark on all the possible sites that the transmitter may be drawn.

Examination Question 3:
Draw the locus of all points that are 2.5 cm away from the line AB.
03

A B

3
Examination Question 4:
On the diagram, draw the locus of the points outside the rectangle that are 3cm from the edge of this
rectangle.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
03 M.

Points to remember

* To construct an angle of 90 degrees, draw a line and construct its perpendicular bisector. By
bisecting this angle you can construct an angle of 45 degrees.

* To construct an angle of 60 degrees, construct an equilateral triangle. By bisecting this angle you
can construct an angle of 30 degrees.

* When you are asked to construct something, do not rub out the construction lines.

4
Examination Question 5.
The diagram shows a penguin pool at a zoo. It consists of a right-angled triangle and a semi-circle.
The scale is 1 cm to 1 m.
A safety fence is to be put up around the pool. The fence is always 2m from the pool. Draw
accurately the position of the fence on the diagram.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
M.

Examination Question 6:
Two straight roads are shown on the diagram.
A new gas pipe is to be laid from Bere equidistant from the two roads.
The diagram is drawn to a scale of 1cm to 1 km.
a) Construct the path of the gas pipe on the diagram.
03

b) The gas board needs to construct a site depot. The depot must be equidistant from Bere and
Cole. The depot must be less that 3 km from Alton. Draw loci on the diagram to represent this
information.
c) The depot must be nearer the road through Cole than the road through Alton. Mark on the
diagram, with a cross, a possible location for the site depot that satisfies all these conditions.

Alton o

o
Cole
Bere
5
 Revision Topic : Pythagoras Theorem
Pythagoras’ Theorem
Pythagoras’ Theorem allows you to work out the length of sides in a right-angled triangle.
The side opposite the right-angle is called the
hypotenuse – it is the longest side in the triangle.
c
a If the sides are labelled a, b, c (with c being the length
of the hypotenuse), then Pythagoras’ theorem is
b
a2  b2  c2

Example 1: Finding the length of the hypotenuse

Find the value of x.

8.5 cm x cm

20.4 cm

34 H
52
We start by labelling the sides a, b, and c:
38 SI
(c is the hypotenuse; a and b are the other two sides) a c
8.5 cm x
-2 AN

20.4 cm b
33 D

Write down Pythagoras’ theorem: a b  c

2 2 2
M.

Put in the values of a, b, c: 8.5 2  20.4 2  x 2

Work out the left-hand side: 72.25 + 416.16 = x2
488.41 = x2
Square root: x = √488.41 = 22.1 cm
03

Finally we should check the answer seems reasonable. The hypotenuse is the longest side in a
right-angled triangle. As our answer is bigger than 20.4 cm, it seems reasonable.

Example 2: Finding the length of a shorter side

Q
Find the length of PQ.
1.7 m
a b

R
P 4.1 m c
We label the triangle a, b, c (c must be the hypotenuse).
Pythagoras’ theorem: a2  b2  c2 The answer must
Substitute in the numbers: a 2  1.7 2  4.12 be smaller than
the hypotenuse
Work out the squares: a 2  2.89  16.81
Subtract 2.89 from both sides: a 2  13.92
Square root: a = 3.73 m (2 decimal places)

1
Examination Question 1:
The diagram shows the position of a ferry sailing between Folkestone and Calais.
The ferry is at X.
X 24km The position of the ferry from Calais is given as:
North of Calais 15km,
West of Calais 24km.
15 km Calculate the distance of the ferry from Calais.
Give your answer to one decimal place.
Calais

Examination Question 2
F In the diagram, triangle FGH is right-angled
at G.
GH = 24cm and FH = 26 cm.
34 H
52
26 cm
38 SI
Calculate the length of FG.
-2 AN

G 24 cm H
33 D
M.

Pythagoras’ Theorem in Isosceles Triangles

03

An isosceles triangle can be split into 2 right-angled triangles:

It is therefore possible to use Pythagoras theorem to find lengths
in isosceles triangles.

Example:
Find the area of this triangle. Split the triangle into two:
6cm
h 6 cm

4.5 cm
9cm We can find the height of the triangle:
h 2  4.5 2  6 2
h 2  20.25  36
h 2  15.75 So… h = 3.97 cm

1 1
Therefore the area is …  b  h   9  3.97  17.9 cm2
2 2

2
Examination Question 3
B
AB = 19.5 cm, AC = 19.5 cm and BC = 16.4 cm.
Angle ADB = 90˚.
BDC is a straight line.
19.5 m
Calculate the length of AD. Give your answer in
D A A centimetres, correct to 1 decimal place.

16.4 m

19.5 m

34 H
52
Note: Pythagoras’ theorem could occur on the non-calculator paper.
38 SI
Example for non-calculator paper
-2 AN

Find the value of x.

4cm x
33 D
M.

5 cm
Pythagoras’ theorem: a2  b2  c2
42  52  x 2
16  25  x 2
03

41  x 2
So, x = √41 cm
Since you do not have a calculator, leave the answer as a square root. Do not try to estimate the
square root of 41 unless you are told to do so.

Example 2: Non-calculator paper

Find the value of x.
√20 cm
√11cm Note that
 112  11
x cm
Pythagoras’ theorem: a2  b2  c2
 112  x 2   20 2
11  x 2  20
x2  9
So, x = 3 cm

3
Application of Pythagoras’ Theorem: Finding the distance between two points

Example: The coordinates of the points A and B are (6, 8) and (1, 1). Work out the length of AB.

Sketch A sketch showing the positions of points A and B is an

important first step.
A(6, 8) a2  b2  c2
7 2  52  c 2
7 units
49  25  c 2
74 = c2
B(1,1) 5 units So the length AB is… √74 = 8.6 units

Other uses of Pythagoras’ Theorem

Example
Prove that the triangle is right-angled.
24 cm
7cm
34 H
52
38 SI
25 cm
-2 AN

Solution
33 D

Pythagoras’ theorem only works in right-angled triangles, so we need to show that the triangle
above satisfies Pythagoras’ theorem.
M.

The longest side is 25 cm so this would have to be the hypotenuse, c. The two shortest sides, a and
b, are 7 cm and 24 cm.

Pythagoras: a2  b2  c2
03

Left-hand side: a 2  b 2  7 2  24 2  625

Right-hand side: c 2  25 2  625
So the right-hand side is equal to the left-hand side, so Pythagoras works in this triangle.
Therefore the triangle is right-angled.

Special triangles - right-angled triangles with whole number sides

The triangle at the top of this page is special as it is a right-angled triangle that has sides which are
all whole numbers. Two other common right-angled triangles with sides that are whole numbers
are:
This is called
the 3, 4, 5
3cm 5cm triangle 13 cm
5cm

4cm
12 cm

4
You can use these basic triangles to get other right-angled triangles by multiplying all the sides by
the same number. For example, a triangle with lengths 6cm, 8cm and 10cm would be right-angled
(as its sides are double those in the 3, 4, 5 triangle).

Right-angled triangles in semi-circles

Look at the triangle shown here.

A
If AB is a diameter of the circle, then triangle
ACB has a right-angle at C (this is one of the
circle theorems – an angle in a semi-circle is
90 degrees).
C B

Example
The side AB is the diameter of a circle. Find the length marked a. Give your answer to 1 decimal
place.
C
34 H
52
38 SI
12cm a B
-2 AN

A 16cm
33 D
M.

Solution
As AB is a diameter of a circle, angle ACB is a right angle. Therefore the hypotenuse is 16 cm.

Pythagoras: a2  b2  c2
03

12 2  a 2  16 2
144  a 2  256
a 2  256  144  112
a = √112 = 10.6 cm (to 1 dp)

Further examination question

A Find length AB. Give your answer correct to 3 significant
figures.

10m (Hint: You will need to find length BD first, using the
B lower triangle).

5m

C D
8m

5
 Revision Topic : Standard Form

Writing Numbers in Standard Form

Standard (index) form is a convenient way to write large numbers (like 230,000,000,000) and small
numbers (like 0.000 000 06).

Standard form notation is a  10 n where:

 a is a number between 1 and 10, and
 n is an integer (i.e. a positive or negative whole number).

(1) Writing large numbers in standard form:

The power of 10 is one less than the number of digits (to the left of the decimal point):
e.g. 230,000,000,000 = 2.3  1011 (there are 12 digits, so the power of 10 is 11)

Put a decimal point

after first digit

7,265,000 = 7.265  10 6
e.g.2
34 H (there are 7 digits).

52
38 SI
e.g.3 8.13  10 5 = 813000 (there must be 6 digits altogether)
e.g 4 1.074  10 7 = 10,740,000 (there must be 8 digits altogether).
-2 AN

(2) Writing small numbers in standard form:

The power of 10 is negative for small numbers. You get the power by counting to see which
33 D

decimal place the first non-zero digit occurs in):

M.

e.g.1 0.000 000 06 = 6  10 8 (the first non-zero digit is in the 8th decimal place)

e.g.2 0.0045 = 4.5  10 3 (the first non-zero digit occurs in the 3rd decimal place)
e.g.3 7.135  10 5 = 0.00007135 (the first non-zero digit will be the 5th decimal place)
03

e.g.4 5.09  10 2 = 0.0509 (the first non-zero digit will be the 2nd decimal place).

Examination Style Question 1

The Earth’s volume is about 1,080,000,000,000 km3. Write this number in standard form.

Examination Style Question 2

The approximate area of the Australian desert is 1.47  10 6 square miles. Write this number in
ordinary form.

Examination Style Question 3

The weight of a bee hummingbird is 0.0016 kg. Write this number in standard form.

1
Calculations involving numbers in standard form using a calculator
Your calculator has a key which can be used to enter a number written in standard form.
It is marked:
EXP

Worked examination question:

The area of the Earth covered by the sea is 362,000,000 km2.
(a) Write 362,000,000 in standard form.
The surface area A km2 of the Earth may be found using the formula
A  4r 2
where r km is the radius of the Earth, r = 6.38  10 3 .
(b) Calculate the surface area of the Earth. Give your answer in standard form correct to 3
significant figures.
(c) Calculate the percentage of the Earth’s surface that is covered by the sea. Give your
answer correct to 2 significant figures.

Solution:
(a) 362,000,000 = 3.62  10 8
34 H
52
38 SI
(b) A  4r 2  4    (6.38 10 3 ) 2 Use the x2
key
-2 AN

Use pi Use the

33 D

button EXP key

M.

The answer is 511506575 = 512000000 (to 3 s.f.)

= 5.12  108

3.62  10 8
03

(c) The percentage is  100  70.7....%  71% (correct to 2 sf).

5.12  10 8

Examination Question:
The time taken for light to reach Earth from the edge of the known universe is 14,000,000,000
years.
a) Write 14,000,000,000 in standard form.
Light travels at the speed of 9.46  1012 km/year.
b) Calculate the distance, in kilometres, from the edge of the known universe to Earth. Give your
answer in standard form.

(Remember that Distance = Speed × Time)

2
Examination Question:
The mass of a neutron is 1.675  10 24 grams. Calculate the total mass of 1500 neutrons. Give
your answer in standard form.

Calculations involving numbers in standard form without a calculator

Problems involving addition and subtraction:

To add and subtract numbers in standard form without a calculator, you must first change them to
ordinary numbers.

Example:
If x = 4  10 5 and y = 8.2  10 6 work out (a) x + y (b) y – x giving your answers in standard
form.
34 H
52
38 SI
Solution:
First write both x and y as ordinary numbers:
-2 AN

x = 400000 (as x must have 5 + 1 = 6 digits altogether)

y = 8200000 (as y has 6 + 1 = 7 digits altogether).
33 D

So x + y = 400000 + 8200000 = 8600000 8200000

M.

= 8.6  10 6 +400000
8600000

Likewise y – x = 8200000 – 4000000 = 7800000 8200000

= 7.8  10 6 –400000
03

7800000

Examination Question:
Work out 4  108  4  10 6 . Give your answer in standard form

Examination Style Question

Work out 4.57  10 4  6.3  10 5 . Give your answer as an ordinary number.

3
Problems involving multiplication and division:
To multiply and divide numbers in standard form without a calculator, there is no need to change
them to ordinary numbers first.

Example
If x = 4  10 5 , y = 8  10 6 and z = 5  10 2 work out (a) x × y (b) y ÷ z (c) x ÷ z giving your
answers in standard form

Solution
(a) x × y = 4  10 5  8  10 6 = (4  8)  (10 5  10 6 ) (i.e. reorder so that you multiply together the
numbers and the powers of 10)
= 32  10 11
(remember you add the powers together when
you multiply indices)

But this is not yet in standard form as 32 does not lie between 1 and 10. We write 32 in standard
form as 3.2  101 , so that
x × y = 3.2  101  1011  3.2  1012

34 H
52
8  10 6 8 10 6
38 SI
(b) y ÷ z = =  2 (reorder so that you divide the numbers
5  10 2 5 10
and the powers of 10)
-2 AN

= 1.6  10 8
(remember that you subtract the powers
when you divide indices and 6 - -2 = 8)
33 D
M.

This number is in standard form.

4  10 5 4 10 5
(c) x ÷ z = 2
 2 = 0.8  10 7
=
5  10 5 10
This number is not yet in standard form as 0.8 is not between 1 and 10. So we write 0.8 in standard
03

form as 8  10 1 .

So x ÷ z = ( 8  10 1 )  10 7 = 8  10 6 (adding the powers of 10 together).

Examination Question
A = 3 10 4 B = 5  10 2
(a) Calculate A × B. Give your answer in standard form.
(b) Calculate A ÷ B. Give your answer in standard form.

4
Examination Style Question
Carry out these calculations without a calculator, giving your answers in standard form.
 
(a) 5  108  6  10 7   
(b) 3  108  6  1011

34 H
52
Examination Question (Non-calculator paper)
38 SI
p  8  10 3
q  2  10 4
-2 AN

(a) Find the value of p × q. Give your answer in standard form.

(b) Find the value of p + q. Give your answer in standard form.
33 D
03 M.

Examination Question (Non-calculator paper)

(a) Write 84,000,000 in standard form.
84000000
(b) Work out . Give your answer in standard form.
4  1012

5
Mixed Questions

Calculator paper examination question

420000 carrot seeds weight 1 gram.
Each carrot seed weighs the same.
(a) Write the number 420000 in standard form.
(b) Calculate the weight in grams of one carrot seed. Give your answer in standard form correct to
2 significant figures.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN

Non-calculator paper examination question

33 D

(a) i) Write the number 5.01  10 4 as an ordinary number.

M.

ii) Write the number 0.0009 in standard form.

(b) Multiply 4  10 3 by 6  10 5 . Give your answer in standard form.
03

6
 Revision Topic : Area and Volume
Area of simple shapes
You need to learn ALL of the following area formulae:

Rectangle Triangle

W h

L b

Area = length × width base  height

Area = = ½ b×h
2

Parallelogram Trapezium
a

34 H
52
38 SI
h
h
-2 AN

b
33 D

Area = base × height = bh

sum of parallel sides
 height
M.

Area =
2
1
= ( a  b)h
2
03

You also need to know how to find the area of a kite:

You can find the area of a kite by splitting it into triangles.

Alternatively, you can find the area of a kite by multiplying

the two diagonals together and then dividing by 2.
1
Diagonal 1 Area of a kite =  product of diagonals
2

Diagonal 2

1
Example 1:
Find the area of the following trapezium.

7cm

4.5cm

11cm

To find the area, you add the parallel sides 7 + 11 = 18

you multiply by the height 18 × 4.5 = 81
you divide by 2 81 ÷ 2 = 40.5 cm2

Alternatively, you can use the formula:

1 1 1
Area = (a  b)h  (7  11)  4.5   18  4.5  40.5 cm2
2 2 2

34 H
52
Note: In all area questions it is important to show your method and to give units.
38 SI
Example 2:
-2 AN

If the area of this triangle is 24cm2, find x.

x
33 D
M.

12 cm

1
The formula for the area of a triangle is A  bh.
2
03

Here the triangle has been rotated – the height is 12cm and we need to find the base, x.

1
So… A bh
2
24 = ½ × x × 12
Double both sides… 48 = x × 12
So… x = 4 cm.

Circles
You need to learn the following:

Circumference of a circle = πD
Area of a circle = πr2

where D is the diameter of the circle and r is the radius (D = 2×r).

2
Example 3:
A circle has a circumference of 50cm. Calculate the radius of the circle.

Solution
The formula for the circumference is… C = πD
So…. 50 = π × D
Therefore… D = 50 ÷ π
So… D = 15.915 cm

The radius of the circle is 15.915 ÷ 2 = 7.96 cm

Example 4:
Calculate the percentage of the diagram below that is shaded.

1.5cm

4.6cm
34 H
52
38 SI
The area of the larger circle is r 2    4.6 2  66.48 cm2
-2 AN

The area of the smaller circle is r 2    1.5 2  7.07 cm2

So the area shaded is 66.48 – 7.07 = 59.41 cm2
33 D
M.

59.41
Therefore the percentage shaded is  100  89% (to the nearest whole number).
66.48

Examination Question 1
03

1.52
m

1.86 m
A mat is made in the shape of a rectangle with a semicircle added at one end.
The width of the mat is 1.52 metres.
The length of the mat is 1.86 metres.
Calculate the area of the mat, giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.

3
Examination Question 2
14cm

12 cm

The diagram shows a shape, made from a semi-circle and a rectangle.

The diameter of the semi-circle is 12cm.
The length of the rectangle is 14cm.
Calculate the perimeter of the shape. Give your answer to 3 significant figures.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN

Examination style question 3

7.4cm
33 D
M.

6cm
03

9.6cm

Calculate the shaded area in the above diagram.

4
Volume of prisms
A prism is a three dimensional shape with a cross-section that is the same all the way through the
shape.

These are all examples of prisms:

Cylinder Cuboid Triangular prism

(circular cross-section) (rectangular cross-section)

34 H
52
Prism with a trapezium-shaped Prism with a cross-shaped
38 SI
cross-section cross-section
-2 AN

At grade B/C level, you need to be able to work out the volume of any prism. The formula is
33 D

Volume of prism = cross-sectional area × length

M.

Cuboids and cylinders have their own formulae, which are special cases of the general formula
above:

Volume of a cuboid = length × width × height

03

height

width
length

Volume of a cylinder = r 2 h
height, h

radius, r

5
Worked examination question 1:

A cylinder is 13 cm high.
The diameter of the base is 1.76 m.
Calculate the volume in cm3 of the
13 cm cylinder. Give your answer correct to
3 significant figures.

1.76 metres

The formula for the volume of a cylinder is r 2 h (remember this!!).

The diameter is 1.76 m or 176 cm (we want lengths in cm as volume must be given in cm3).
So the radius is 176 ÷ 2 = 88 cm.
As the height is 13 cm, the volume must be
  88 2  13  316270 cm3 or 316000 cm3 (to 3 sf).

Density
34 H
Some questions on volume relate to density. You need to know the formula:

52
38 SI
mass
Density = or mass = density × volume
volume
-2 AN

Worked examination question 2:

33 D

The diagram shows a prism.

M.

The cross-section of the prism is a trapezium.

6cm The lengths of the parallel sides of the trapezium
are 8 cm and 6 cm.
The distance between the parallel sides of the
5cm 20 cm trapezium is 5 cm.
The length of the prism is 20 cm.
03

8cm
(a) Work out the volume of the prism.
(b) The prism is made out of gold. Gold has a density of 19.3 grams per cm3. Work out the
mass of the prism. Give your answer in kilograms.

(a) To find the volume, we must first find the cross-sectional area (i.e the area of the trapezium).
1 1 1
Area of trapezium = (a  b)h  (6  8)  5   14  5  35 cm2.
2 2 2
Volume of prism = cross-sectional area × length = 35 × 20 = 700 cm3.

(b) Mass = density × volume = 19.3 × 700 = 13510 grams.

The answer must be in kilograms, so 13510g = 13.51 kg.

6
Examination Question 1:

COPPER NICKEL

These two metal blocks each have a volume of 0.5m3.

The density of the copper block is 8900 kg per m3.
The density of the nickel block is 8800kg per m3.
Calculate the difference in the masses of the blocks.

Examination Question 2:
34 H
52
On a farm, wheat grain is stored in a cylindrical tank.
38 SI
The cylindrical tank has an internal diameter of 6 metres and a height of 9 metres.

a) Calculate the volume, in m3, of the tank. Give your answer

-2 AN

correct to 2 decimal places.

33 D

9m 1 m3 of wheat grain weights 0.766 tonnes.

M.

b) Calculate the weight, in tonnes, of the weight grain in the storage

tank when it is full.

6m
03

2.5 cm
Examination Question 3:
A gold bar is in the shape of a prism of length 10cm.
It has a cross-section in the shape of this trapezium. 12.4cm
Calculate the volume of the bar.

3.5 cm

7
 Revision Topic : Statistics 1

Averages
There are three common types of average: the mean, median and mode.
The mode (or modal value) is the data value (or values) that occurs the most often.
The median is the middle value, once all the data has been written in order of size. If there are n
n 1
values in a list, the median is in position .
2
The mean is found by adding all the data values together and dividing by the total frequency.
When to use each type of average
 The mode is particularly useful for non-numerical data (such as eye colour or make of car) – it is
the only average that can be found for data that is not numerical. It is also frequently used for
sizes of clothes.
 The mean is used when the data are reasonably symmetrical with no anomalous (or outlying
values). It is the most commonly used average.
 The median is useful when that data are skewed or when there are anomalous values in the data.

Grade C example for the mean

A class took a test. The mean mark for the 20 boys in the class was 17.4. The mean mark for the
34 H
52
10 girls in the class was 13.8.
38 SI
(a) Calculate the mean mark for the whole class.
5 pupils in another class took the test. Their marks, written in order, were 1, 2, 3, 4 and x.
-2 AN

The mean of these 5 marks is twice the median of these marks.

(b) Calculate the value of x.
33 D

Solution
M.

(a) To find the mean mark for the whole class we divide the total of all the class’s marks by
30 (since 30 is the number of pupils in the class).
total
The total of the boys marks is 17.4 × 20 = 348 (as mean =
frequency
so total = mean × total frequency)
03

The total of the girls marks is 13.8 × 10 = 138.

Therefore the total for the whole class is 348 + 138 = 486
So… the mean mark for the class is 486 ÷ 30 = 16.2.
(b) As the marks are written in order, the median mark is 3 (i.e. the middle mark).
So the mean of all 5 marks must be 6 (as it is twice the median).
Therefore the total of all 5 marks must be 6 × 5 = 30.
The sum of the first four numbers is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10.
So, the value of x must be 30 – 10 = 20.

Examination question 1:
27 boys and 34 girls took the same test.
The mean mark of the boys was 76. The mean mark of the girls was 82.
Calculate the mean mark of all these students. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.

1
Examination question 2 (non-calculator paper):
A shop employs 8 men and 2 women.
The mean weekly wage of the 10 employees is £396. The mean weekly wage of the 8 men is £400.
Calculate the mean weekly wage of the 2 women.

Finding the mean, median and mode from a table

Example 1: Frequency table
The table shows the boot sizes of players on a rugby team.
Boot size Frequency
8 3
9 5
10 6

34 H
11 1

52
38 SI
Find a) the mode b) the median, c) the mean boot size.
Solution
-2 AN

a) The mode is the boot size that occurs most often. The modal size is therefore size 10.
b) The total number of rugby players is 15 (add up the frequency column).
33 D

n  1 15  1
The median is the value in position  8.
M.

2 2
The first three players have size 8; the next 5 have size 9. Therefore the 8th player has
size 9 boots.
c) To find the mean, we add an extra column to the table:
Boot size, x Frequency, f Boot size × freq, x × f
03

8 3 8 × 3 = 24
9 5 9 × 5 = 45 This is the
10 6 10 × 6 = 60 total of the
11 1 11 × 1 = 11 boot sizes of
TOTAL 15 140
all 15 players
You find the mean by dividing the total of the x × f column divided by the total of
the frequency column:
Mean = 140 ÷ 15 = 9.33 (to 3 sf).
Examination question
20 students took part in a competition. The frequency table shows information about the points
they scored.
Points scored Frequency
1 9
2 4
3 7

Work out the mean number of points scored by the 20 students.

2
Example 2: Grouped frequency table Mass (kg) Frequency
The table shows the masses of a group of children. 40 – 50 3
(a) Calculate an estimate of the mean mass. 50 – 60 10
(b) Find the modal interval. 60 – 70 6
(c) Find the interval that contains the median. 70 - 80 12

Note: We cannot find the exact value of the mean from a grouped frequency table as we do not
know the actual values of the data are not known. We can estimate the mean if we assume that all
the values in each class are equal to the mid-point of that class.
The middle of
(a) We add 2 further columns to the table: the interval 40-
50 is 45
Mass (kg) Frequency, f Midpoint, x x×f
40 – 50 3 45 3×45 = 135
50 – 60 10 55 550
60 – 70 6 65 390
70 - 80 12 75 900
Total 31 1975

The mean is the total of the x × f column divided by the total of the frequency column:
34 H
1975 ÷ 31 = 63.7 kg (to 1 dp)

52
38 SI
Note: We should check that our mean mass is sensible (i.e. lies within the range of the data).
-2 AN

(b) The interval that occurs the most often is 70-80 kg. This is the modal interval.

n  1 31  1
33 D

(c) The median is in position   16 .

M.

2 2
There are 13 children with weights below 60 kg and 19 children below 70 kg. Therefore the
median weight lies within the 60 – 70 kg interval.

Examination question:
75 boys took part in a darts competition. Each boy threw darts until he hit the centre of the
03

dartboard. The numbers of darts thrown by the boys are grouped in this frequency table.

Number of darts Frequency

thrown
1 to 5 10
6 to 10 17
11 to 15 12
16 to 20 4
21 to 25 12
26 to 30 20

(a) Work out the class interval which contains the median.

(b) Work out an estimate for the mean number of darts thrown by each boy.

3
Cumulative frequency tables and curves
Cumulative frequency curves can be used to find the median for grouped tables. They can also be
used to find the interquartile range.
The interquartile range is a measure of spread. It tells you how variable the data are. The
interquartile range (IQR) is found using the formula
IQR = upper quartile – lower quartile
The interquartile range is a better measure of spread than the range because it is less effected by
extreme values in the data.
This interval is
Example: short for 50 – 60 g
A secretary weighed a sample of letters to be posted.

Mass (g) 20 - 30 - 40 - 50 - 60 - 70 - 80 – 90
Number of students 2 4 12 7 8 17 3
Draw a cumulative frequency graph for the data
Use your graph to find the median weight of a letter and the interquartile range of the weights.
Solution:

34 H
We first need to work out the cumulative frequencies – these are a running total of the frequencies.

52
38 SI
Mass (g) Frequency Cumulative frequency
20 – 30 2 2 There are 18
30 – 40 4 6 letters so far
-2 AN

40 – 50 12 18
50 – 60 7 25
60 – 70 8 33
There are
33 D

70 – 80 17 50 54 letters
M.

80 – 90 4 54 below 90g

We plot the cumulative frequency graph by plotting the cumulative frequencies on the vertical axis
and the masses on the horizontal axis. It is important that the cumulative frequencies are plotted
above the endpoint of each interval. So we plot the points (30, 2), (40, 6), (50, 18), …, (90, 54).
As no letter weighed less than 20g, we can also plot the point (20, 0).
03

60
Cumulative frequency

50
The
40 median is
about 62g
30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Mass (g)
L.Q. is
U.Q. is
about 47g
about 75g

4
The total number of letters examined was 54. The median will be approximately the 54 ÷ 2 = 27th
letter. We draw a line across from 27 on the vertical axis and then find the median on the horizontal
axis. We see that the median is about 62g.

1
The lower quartile will be the  54  13.5th value. From the horizontal scale we find that the
4
lower quartile is about 47g.
3
The upper quartile is the  54  40.5th value. This is about 75g.
4
Therefore the interquartile range is U.Q – L.Q. = 75 – 47 = 28g.

Note: We can represent the data in the above example as a box-and-whisker plot. A box plot is a
simple diagram that is based on 5 measurements:
 The lowest value
 The lower quartile
 The median
 The upper quartile
 The largest value.
In the example above we don’t know the exact values of the lightest and heaviest letters. However

34 H
we do know that no letter weighed less than 20g and no letter weighed more than 90g. So we take

52
38 SI
the lowest and largest values as 20g and 90g respectively.
The box plot we get is as follows: median Upper quartile
-2 AN

Lower quartile Largest value

33 D
M.

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Mass (g)

Smallest value

Examination question
03

At a supermarket, members of staff recorded the lengths of time that 80 customers had to wait in the
queues at the checkouts.
The waiting times are grouped in the frequency table below.
Waiting time (t seconds) Frequency
0 < t ≤ 50 4
50 < t ≤ 100 7
100 < t ≤ 150 10
150 < t ≤ 200 16
200 < t ≤ 250 30
250 < t ≤ 300 13

(a) Complete the cumulative frequency table below.

Waiting time (t seconds) Cumulative frequency
0 < t ≤ 50
50 < t ≤ 100
100 < t ≤ 150
150 < t ≤ 200
200 < t ≤ 250
250 < t ≤ 300

5
(b) On the grid below, draw a cumulative frequency graph for this data.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
03 M.

(c) Use your graph to work out an estimate for

the median waiting time,

the number of these customers who had to wait more than three minutes.

6
Examination Question
The grouped frequency table gives information about the weekly rainfall (d) in millimetres at
Heathrow airport in 1995.

Weekly rainfall Number of

(d) in mm weeks
0≤ d < 10 20
10≤ d < 20 18
20≤ d < 30 6
30≤ d < 40 4
40≤ d < 50 2
50≤ d < 60 2

a) Copy the table and complete it to calculate an estimate for the mean weekly rainfall.
b) Write down the probability that the rainfall in any week in 1995, chosen at random, was
greater than or equal to 20mm and less than 40mm.
c) Copy and complete this cumulative frequency table for the data.
Weekly rainfall Cumulative
(d) in mm frequency
34 H
52
0≤ d < 10
38 SI
10≤ d < 20
20≤ d < 30
-2 AN

30≤ d < 40
40≤ d < 50
50≤ d < 60
33 D

d) Draw a cumulative frequency graph to show the data.

M.

e) Use your cumulative frequency graph to estimate the median weekly rainfall and the
interquartile range.
03

7
 Revision Topic : Algebra

Indices:
At Grade B and C levels, you should be familiar with the following rules of indices:
y a  y b  y a b i.e. add powers when multiplying;
y a  y b  y a b i.e. subtract powers when dividing;
(y )  y
a b ab
i.e. when you have a power of a power, multiply powers together.
y0  1 i.e. anything to the power 0 is 1.

Example:
Simplify each of the following, if possible:

a) a  a  a
4 2 3
b)
c4  c
c 2
c) (4 x) 0  
d) e 3
2
e) a 3  b 2

Solution:
a) a 4  a 2  a 3  a 4 23  a 9 (add powers together).
c4  c c 4  c1 c 5
  2
34 H
simplifying top

52
b) c 2 c2 c
38 SI
c 3
subtracting powers
-2 AN

c) (4 x) 0  1 (anything to the power 0 is 1)

 
d) e 3
2
 e6 (multiply powers together)
33 D
M.

e) a 3  b 2 this cannot be simplified as the base numbers (a and b) are different letters.

Example 2:
Work out the value of each of the following:
03

a) 34 b) 7 0 c) 2 9  2 6
Solution:
a) 3 4  3  3  3  3  81
b) 7 0  1 (anything to the power 0 is 1)
c) 2  2  2 96  2 3  2  2  2  8
9 6

Example 3:
15 y 7
Simplify: a) 4 x  3x 4 b) 2
c) 6a 3b 2  4a 2 b 4
3y
Solution:
a) 4 x  3 x 4  4 3  x 
 x  12 x
4 5
(i.e. multiply together the numbers and add the powers)

15 y 7 15 7 2
b) 2
 y  5y5 (i.e. divide numbers and subtract powers)
3y 3
c) 6a 3b 2  4a 2 b 4  (6  4)  (a 3  a 2 )  (b 2  b 4 )  24a 5 b 6 .

1
Examination Style Question
Find the value of x in each of the following:
a) 7 6  7 3  7 x b) 7 6  7 3  7 x c) (7 6 ) 3  7 x d) 7 0  x

Examination Style Question 2:

Simplify fully each of these expressions. Leave your answers in power form.
23  2
a) 3 2  33 b) 4 2  4 5 c) 5 6 53 d) 9 4  9 2 e) .
26
34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
M.

Examination Style Question 3:

03

Simplify each of the following expressions.

a) 2a 3  3a b) 6 x 8  3x 2 c) 4 x 3 y 2  5 x 2 y 2

2
Expanding brackets
Expanding out a single bracket: You can remove a single bracket by multiplying everything
inside the bracket by the number, or expression, on the outside.
Example
Expand the following brackets:
a) 6(7d – 4) b) y(8y – 2x + 1) c) 5 x(2 x 2  3 x  2) d) 2xy(4x – y)

Solution:
a) 6(7d – 4): Multiply both the 7d and the 4 by the number on the outside:
We get 6(7d – 4) = 42d - 24
b) y(8y – 2x + 1): Multiply everything in the bracket by y:
We get: y(8y – 2x + 1) = 8y2 – 2xy + y

c) 5 x(2 x 2  3 x  2) : Multiply all the terms inside the bracket by 5x:

We get 5 x(2 x 2  3 x  2)  10 x 3  15 x 2  10 x

34 H
d) 2xy(4x – y): Multiply the 4x and y by 2xy:

52
This gives: 2xy(4x – y) = 8x2y – 2xy2.
38 SI
You need to take care when there is a minus sign in front of a bracket.
-2 AN

Example 2:
Expand and simplify:
33 D

a) -4(2x – 3y) b) 6x(3x + 2) – 3(5x – 2)

M.

Solution:
a) Here we multiply everything in the bracket by -4.
This gives: -4(2x – 3y) = -8x + 12y

-4 × -3y = +12y
03

as two minuses
multiply to
make a plus!

b) If we multiply out the first bracket we get: 6x(3x + 2) = 18x2 + 12x

If we multiply out the second bracket, we get: – 3(5x – 2) = -15x + 6.
Putting it all together: 6x(3x + 2) – 3(5x – 2) = 18x2 + 12x - 15x + 6 = 18x2 – 3x + 6.

Examination Question:
a) Multiply out: t 2 (t 3  t 4 ) .
b) Multiply out and simplify: 3(2a + 6) – 2(3a – 6)
12a 2 b
c) Simplify: .
4ab

3
Expanding out double brackets: When there is a pair of brackets multiplied together, you need to
multiply everything in the first bracket by everything in the second.

Example: Multiply out the following brackets:

a) (3x – 2)(x + 4) b) (2x – 3y)(2x – 4) c) (2x + 3y)2
Solution:
a) (3x – 2)(x + 4)
We can expand these brackets directly, multiplying everything in the first bracket by the
terms in the second bracket. This gives:
(3x – 2)(x + 4) = 3x2 + 12x – 2x – 8 = 3x2 + 10x – 8.

Alternatively, you can draw a grid to help expand the brackets:

× 3x -2 Adding the numbers inside the grid gives:

(3x – 2)(x + 4)
x 3x2 -2x = 3x2 + 12x – 2x – 8
4 12x -8 = 3x2 + 10x – 8.

b) (2x – 3y)(2x – 4)
34 H
52
The grid for this would look like:
38 SI
× 2x -3y Adding the numbers inside the grid gives:
(2x – 3y)(2x – 4) = 4x2 – 6xy – 8x + 12y
-2 AN

2x 4x2 -6xy This cannot be simplified!

-4 -8x +12y
33 D
M.

c) (2x + 3y)2
To square a bracket, you multiply it by itself! Drawing a grid:
× 2x 3y Adding the expressions inside the grid:
(2x + 3y)(2x + 3y) = 4x2 + 6xy + 6xy + 9y2
2x 4x2 6xy = 4x2 + 12xy + 9y2
03

3y 6xy 9y2

Examination Questions:
Expand and simplify:
1) (2x – y)(3x + 4y)
2) (2x – 5)(x + 3)
3) (3x – y)2

4
Factorising
Factorising is the reverse of multiplying out brackets, i.e. when you factorise an expression you
need to put brackets back into an expression.

Common factors: Some expressions can be factorised by finding common factors.

Example: Factorise the following expressions.

a) 12e + 18 b) 2xy + 5x c) x2 – 6x d) 4x2 + 2x e) 10x2y – 15xy2.

a) We look for a common factor of 12e and 18. We notice that 6 goes into both of them. We
therefore write 6 outside a bracket:
12e + 18 = 6(2e + 3)

6 goes into 12 6 goes into 18

twice 3 times

b) We notice that x appears in both 2xy and 5x. This can be taken outside a bracket:

34 H
2xy + 5x = 2×x×y + 5×x = x(2×y + 5) = x(2y + 5)

52
38 SI
c) As x2 is x×x, both x2 and 6x have x as a factor.
So, x2 – 6x = x×x – 6x = x(x – 6)
-2 AN

d) Looking at the number parts, we notice that 2 is a common factor of both 4 and 2.
4x2 + 2x = 2(2x2 + x).
33 D

This hasn’t been completely factorised yet, as both 2x2 and x also contain an x. We therefore can an
M.

x outside the bracket.

4x2 + 2x = 2(2x2 + x) = 2x(2x + 1).
03

x is 1x, so when x is taken

outside the bracket, we are
left with 1 inside.

e) 10x2y – 15xy2: Looking at the numbers, we see that both 10 and 15 have 5 as a factor. Both
terms also have an x and a y in common. We can therefore factorise by writing 5xy in front of a
bracket.
10x2y – 15xy2 = 5×2×x×x×y – 5×3×x×y×y = 5xy(2x – 3y)

Note: You can check your answers by expanding out the brackets.

Examination Question
Factorise completely: (a) x2 – 3x (b) 2p2q + pq2.

5
Examination Question 2:
a) Expand and simplify: 5(3x + 1) – 2(4x – 3).
b) Expand and simplify: (x + 5)(x – 3).
c) Factorise completely: 6a2 – 9ab.

Factorising quadratics
Simple quadratics like x 2  3x  2 or x 2  7 x  12 can often be factorised into two brackets.

General steps for factorising x 2  bx  c Example: Factorise x 2  9 x  18

Step 1: Find two numbers that multiply to make Step 1: Find two numbers that multiply to make
c and add to make b. 18 and add to give 9. These numbers are 6 and
3.
34 H
Step 2: Write these two numbers in the Step 2: The factorised expression is

52
38 SI
brackets: (x + 9)(x + 3)
(x )(x )
-2 AN

Example 2: Factorise x 2  7 x  12
33 D

We need to find two numbers that multiply to make 12 and add to give -7. These numbers are -3
M.

and -4.
So the answer is (x – 3)(x – 4).

Example 3: a) Factorise x 2  8 x  20
b) Solve x 2  8 x  20  0
03

a) We have to find two numbers that multiply to make -20 and add to give -8. These are -10 and 2.
The factorised expressions is (x – 10)(x + 2).

b) To solve the equation x 2  8 x  20  0 we use our factorised expression: (x – 10)(x + 2) = 0.

We have two brackets that multiply together to make 0. The only way this can happen is if
one of the brackets is 0.
If the first bracket is 0, then x – 10 = 0, i.e. x = 10.
If the second bracket is 0, then x + 2 = 0, i.e. x = -2.
So the solutions are x = 10 and x = -2.

Examination question
Factorise x 2  4 x  12 .
Hence or otherwise solve x 2  4 x  12  0 .

6
Examination question:
a) Factorise 2x + 8y.
b) Factorise completely 3ac2 – 6ac.
c) Factorise x 2  9 x  18 .

Examination question:
a) Expand and simplify (x + 5)(x – 3).
b) Factorise x 2  5 x  14 .
c) Solve x 2  5 x  14 = 0.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
M.

Difference of two squares

When you expand out the brackets for (x + a)(x – a) you get x2 + ax – ax – a2 which simplifies to
x2 – a2.

The result x2 – a2 = (x + a)(x – a) is called the difference of two squares result.

03

Examples:
1) y2 – 16 = y2 – 42 = (y + 4)(y – 4).
2) z2 – 25 = z2 – 52 = (z + 5)(z – 5).
3) 9x2 – 4y2 = (3x)2 – (2y)2 = (3x + 2y)(3x – 2y).

Examination question:
a) Factorise x2 – y2.
b) Use your answer to a) to work out the EXACT answer to
1234567892 – 1234567882.

7
 Revision Topic : Algebra 2

Sequences
A linear sequence is one which goes up by the same amount each time.
E.g. 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, … is a linear sequence – it goes up in 3’s.

E.g. 2 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, …is a linear sequence – it goes down in 2’s.

nth term formula

The terms of a sequence can often be generated by a formula.

Example: The formula for the nth term of a sequence is 4n + 5.

a) Find the first 4 terms of the sequence.
b) Which term of the sequence is 49.

a) To get the first 4 terms of the sequence you have to replace n by 1, 2, 3, and 4.
The 1st term of the sequence is 4 × 1 + 5 = 9
The 2nd term of the sequence is 4 × 2 + 5 = 13
34 H
52
The 3rd term of the sequence is 4 × 3 + 5 = 17
38 SI
The 4th term of the sequence is 4 × 4 + 5 = 21.
-2 AN

b) To see which term of the sequence is 49 we solve: 4n + 5 = 49

i.e 4n = 44
i.e. n = 11
33 D

The 11th term of the sequence is 49.

M.

Finding the nth term of a formula

The formula for the nth term of a linear sequence is:

03

Difference The term in the

between
terms
× n + sequence that
would be before
the 1st term.

Example: Find an expression for the nth number in the sequence 7, 12, 17, 22, 27.

Solution: The sequence goes up in 5’s.

The term before 7 in the sequence would be 2.
The nth term of the sequence is therefore 5n + 2.

Example 2: Find the formula for the nth term of the sequence 19, 16, 13, 10, …

Solution: The sequence goes down in 3’s. The difference between terms is -3.
The term before 19 in the sequence would be 22.
The nth term of the sequence is therefore -3n + 22

1
Example 3: Find the formula for the nth term of the sequence: 1, 2.5, 4, 5.5, …
Solution: The sequence goes up in 1.5’s. The previous term in the sequence would be -0.5. So the
formula for the nth term is: 1.5n - 0.5.

Examination Question: Here are the first 4 terms of a number sequence: 3, 7, 11, 15.
a) Write down the next two terms of the sequence.
b) Write down an expression in terms of n for the nth term of the sequence.

Examination Question 2:
Marco writes down a number sequence.
He starts at 120.
Each time he subtracts 12 to get the next number in the sequence.
34 H
52
a) Write down the first 5 numbers in the sequence.
38 SI
b) Write down an expression for the nth number in the sequence.
-2 AN
33 D
M.

Simultaneous Equations
03

The equations 5x + 2y = 11 and 3x – 4y = 4 are known as simultaneous equations – there are two
equations and two variables (x and y).
We solve simultaneous equations by trying to get the same number of x’s or y’s in the equations.
Example 1: Solve 5x + 2y = 11 and 3x – 4y = 4.
5x + 2y = 11 To make the number of y’s the same we can
3x – 4y = 4 multiply the top equation by 2.
10x + 4y = 22 The number of y’s is the same but the signs are
3x – 4y = 4 different. To eliminate the y’s the equations
must be added.
13x = 26
i.e. x = 2
Substitute x = 2 into 5x + 2y = 11 To find the value of y, substitute x = 2 into one
5×2 + 2y = 11 of the original equations.
10 + 2y = 11
2y = 1
y = 0.5
Check: 3×2 - 4×0.5 = 6 – 2 = 4 as required. You can check the solution by substituting x = 2
and y = 0.5 into 3x – 4y = 4.
2
Example 2: Solve the simultaneous equations x + 3y = 13 and 4x + 2y = 2.
x + 3y = 13 To make the number of x’s the same we can
4x + 2y = 2 multiply the top equation by 4.
4x + 12y = 52 The number of x’s is the same and the signs are
4x + 2y = 2 the same. To eliminate the x’s the equations
must be subtracted.
10y = 50
i.e. y = 5
Substitute y = 5 into x + 3y = 13 To find the value of x, substitute y = 5 into one of
x + 3×5 = 13 the original equations.
x + 15 = 13
x = -2
Check: 4×-2 + 2×5 = -8 + 10 = 2 as required. You can check the solution by substituting x = -2
and y = 5 into 4x + 2y = 2.

Example 3: Solve the simultaneous equations 2x + 3y = 7 and 3x – 2y = 17.

2x + 3y = 7 To make the number of y’s the same we can
3x - 2y = 17 multiply the top equation by 2 and the second

34 H equation by 3

52
4x + 6y = 14 The y’s can be eliminated by adding the
38 SI
9x - 6y = 51 equations.
13x = 65
-2 AN

i.e. x = 5
Substitute x = 5 into 2x + 3y = 7 To find the value of y, substitute x = 5 into one of
2×5 + 3y = 7 the original equations.
33 D

10 + 3y = 7
M.

3y = -3
y = -1
Check: 3×5 - 2×-1 = 15 – (-2) = 17 as You can check the solution by substituting x = 5
required. and y = -1 into 3x - 2y = 17.
03

Examination question 1:
Solve the simultaneous equations: 3x + y = 13
2x – 3y = 16

Examination question 2:
Solve the simultaneous equations: 2x + 5y = -1 and 6x – y = 5

3
Examination question 3:
Solve the simultaneous equations: x + 8y = 5
3x – 4y = 8

Simultaneous Equations: Problems

Example: Two groups visited Waterworld. The first group of four adults and three children paid a
total of £38 for their tickets. The second group of five adults and two children paid £40.50 for their
tickets. What are the charges for adult and child tickets at Waterworld?

34 H
52
Solution: Let a be the cost for an adult and c the cost for a child.
38 SI
Group 1: 4a + 3c = 38
-2 AN

Group 2: 5a + 2c = 40.50

Multiply top equation by 2 and bottom equation by 3: 8a + 6c = 76

33 D

15a + 6c = 121.50
M.

Subtract the bottom equation from the top equation: 7a = 45.50

So, a = 6.50
From the equation for group 1: 4×6.50 + 3c = 38
3c = 12
c=4
03

So adults pay £6.50 and children £4.

Examination Question:
Mrs Rogers bought 3 blouses and 2 scarfs. She paid £26.
Miss Summers bought 4 blouses and 1 scarf. She paid £28.
The cost of a blouse was x pounds. The cost of a scarf was y pounds.
a) Use the information to write down two equations in x and y.
b) Solve these equations to find the cost of one blouse.

4
 Revision Topic 17: Probability
Estimating probabilities: Relative frequency
Probabilities can be estimated from experiments. The relative frequency is found using the
formula:
number of times event occurs
.
total number of trials

Example: Colour Frequency

This data shows the colour of cars passing a factory gate Red 68
one morning. Black 14
Estimate the probability that, at a random time, a car Yellow 2
passing will be red. Green 34
If 400 cars pass the factory gates the following morning, Blue 52
estimate the number of cars that will be red.
Grey 35
Other 23
Solution
Total 228
68
The relative frequency of red cars is  0.30 (to 2 d.p.)
228
34 H
52
So the probability of a red car is 0.30 or 30%.
38 SI
The following morning 400 cars pass the factory gate. The number of red cars will be
approximately 30% of 400 = 0.3 × 400 = 120.
-2 AN

Examination Style Question

33 D

The sides of a six-sided spinner are numbered from 1 to 6. The table shows the results for 100
M.

spins.
Number on spinner 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 27 18 17 15 16 7

a) What is the relative frequency of getting a 1?

b) Do you think the spinner is fair? Give a reason for your answer.
03

c) The spinner is spun 3000 times. Estimate the number of times the result will be a 4.

1
Probability diagrams
Example:
Kevin has a spinner in the shape of a regular pentagon, and a normal dice.
The five sections of the spinner are labelled 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Kevin spins the spinner once and rolls the dice once.
He records the outcomes.
a) Show all the outcomes in a probability diagram.
b) Find the probability that both of the numbers are prime;
c) Find the probability that the difference between the two numbers is 1.

Solution:
a) The outcomes can be shown in a table:

Number on spinner
1 2 3 4 5
1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5
2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5
Number on

3 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5

34 H
52
4 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5
38 SI
dice

5 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5

6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5
-2 AN

b) The outcomes for which both numbers are prime are shown in bold in the table above.
There are 30 outcomes in the table and 9 have both numbers prime. The probability
33 D

9 3
 .
M.

therefore is
30 10
c) The outcomes for which the difference between the numbers is 1 are shaded. 9 outcomes
9 3
have been shaded so the probability is also  .
30 10
03

Examination Question:
Jack has two fair dice.
One of the dice has 6 faces numbered from 1 to 6. The other dice has 4 faces numbered from 1 to 4.
Jack is going to throw the two dice. He will add the scores together tom get the total.
Work out the probability that he will get
a) a total of 7,
b) a total of less than 5.

Hint: Draw a diagram as in the example above.

2
Mutually Exclusive Events
Mutually exclusive events cannot occur at the same time.
When A and B are mutually exclusive events: P(A OR B) = P(A) + P(B).

Example:
A box contains red, green, blue and yellow counters.
The table shows the probability of getting each colour.

Colour Red Green Blue Yellow

Probability 0.4 0.25 0.25 0.1

A counter is taken from the box at random.

What is the probability of getting a red or blue counter?

Solution
P(red or blue) = P(red) + P(blue)
= 0.4 + 0.25
= 0.65

Examination Style Question:

34 H
52
A bag contains some red, some white and some blue counters. A counter is picked at random.
38 SI
The probability that it will be red is 0.2.
The probability that it will be white is 0.3.
-2 AN

a) What is the probability that a counter picked at random will be either red or white?
b) What is the probability that a counter picked at random will be either red or blue?
33 D
M.

Examination Style Question:

Some red, white and blue cubes are numbered 1 and 2.
03

The table shows the probabilities of obtaining each colour and number when a cube is taken at
random.
Red White Blue
1 0.1 0.3 0
2 0.3 0.1 0.2
A cube is taken at random.
a) What is the probability of taking a red cube?
b) What is the probability of taking a cube numbered 2?
c) State whether or not the following pairs of events are mutually exclusive. Give a reason for your
answer.
(i) Taking a cube numbered 1 and taking a blue cube.
(ii) Taking a cube numbered 2 and taking a blue cube.

3
Independent Events
The outcomes of independent events do not influence each other.
When A and B are independent events: P(A AND B) = P(A) × P(B).

Example (examination question):

Nikki and Romana both try to score a goal in netball.
The probability that Nikki will score a goal on the first try is 0.65.
The probability that Ramana will score a goal on the first try is 0.8.
a) Work out the probability that Nikki and Ramana will both score a goal on their first tries.
b) Work out the probability that neither Nikki nor Ramana will score a goal on their first tries.

a) P(Nikki scores AND Ramana scores) = P(Nikki scores) × P(Ramana scores)

= 0.65 × 0.8
= 0.52.

b) P(Nikki doesn’t score AND Ramana doesn’t score) = P(Nikki doesn’t) × P(Ramana doesn’t)
= 0.35 × 0.2
= 0.07.

34 H
52
Examination Style Question
38 SI
Samantha takes examinations in maths and English.
The probability that she passes maths is 0.7.
The probability that she passes English is 0.8.
-2 AN

The results in each subject are independent of each other.

Calculate the probability that
33 D

a) Samantha passes both subjects;

M.

b) Samantha passes maths and fails English.

03

Tree Diagrams
A tree diagram is a way of calculating probabilities when two events are combined.

Example (worked examination question):

Helen tries to win a coconut at the fair. She throws a ball at a coconut. If she knocks the coconut
off the standard she wins the coconut. Helen has two throws.
The probability that she wins a coconut with her first throw is 0.2.
The probability that she will win a coconut with her second throw is 0.3.
Work out the probability that, with her two throws, Helen will win
a) 2 coconuts;
b) exactly 1 coconut.

4
Solution:
We can draw a tree diagram to answer this question.

1st attempt 2nd attempt

wins 0.2 × 0.3 = 0.06
0.3

wins 0.7 doesn’t win 0.2 × 0.7 = 0.14

0.2

0.3 wins 0.8 × 0.3 = 0.24

doesn’t
0.8 win
0.7 doesn’t win 0.8 × 0.7 = 0.56

Write
probabilities Multiply
on branches
34 H probabilities on

52
branches together.
38 SI
a) From the diagram, the probability that Helen will win 2 coconuts is 0.06.
-2 AN

b) P(Helen wins exactly 1 coconut) = 0.14 + 0.24 = 0.38.

33 D

Examination Question
M.

Tina has a biased dice.

When she rolls it, the probability that she will get a six is 0.09.
Tina is going to roll the biased dice dice.
Complete the tree diagram shown.
Work out the probability that she will get:
03

a) two sixes,
b) exactly one six.

1st roll 2nd roll

six

not six
six

six

not six
not six

5
Examination Question
A machine makes two parts which fit together to make a tool. The probability that the first part will
be made correctly is 0.9. The probability that the second part will be made correctly is 0.95.
a) Complete the tree diagram below giving the missing probabilities.

1st part 2nd part

correct

correct incorrect
0.9

correct

incorrect
incorrect

b) Use the tree diagram to work out the probability that both parts will be made correctly.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
M.

Examination Question:
The probability of a person having brown eyes is ¼.
The probability of a person having blue eyes is 1/3.
Two people are chosen at random.
Work out the probability that
03

a) both people will have brown eyes;

b) one person will have blue eyes and the other person will have brown eyes.

6
 Revision Topic : Trigonometry
Trigonometry connects the length of sides and angles in right-angled triangles.

Some important terms

In a right-angled triangle, the side opposite the right angle
is called the hypotenuse. The hypotenuse is the longest

Opposite O
side in a right-angled triangle. Hypotenuse H
The side opposite the angle of interest is called the
opposite.
x
The third side (which is next to the angle of interest) is
called the adjacent. Adjacent A

Sin, cos and tan

Three important formulae connect the lengths of O, A and H with the angle x:

O A O
sin x  cos x  tan x  .
H H A

You need to learn these formulae! It sometimes helps to remember them as SOHCAHTOA.
34 H
52
38 SI
Finding an angle
Trigonometry can be used to find angles in right-angled triangles.
-2 AN

Example 1: Example 2: Example 3:

20 cm A
33 D
M.

x 11.2m
O 14 cm
H 9cm H 7.3 m
H O O
x θ
A
10 cm A We start by labelling the The triangle is labelled H, O
03

Start by labelling the triangle triangle. and A.

H, O and A. This time we will need to use Because we know O and H, we
We then have to decide tan as we know O and A: need to use sin this time:
whether to use sin, cos or tan SOHCAHTOA SOHCAHTOA
SOHCAHTOA So,
Since we know the values of A O O
and H, we use cos: tan x  sin  
A H
A
cos x  9 7 .3
H tan x   0.45 sin    0.6518
20 11.2
10
cos x   0.7143 To find angle x, you press To recover angle θ, you press
14 SHIFT tan 0.45. SHIFT sin 0.6518.
To find the angle x, you have to You get: The answer is:
press SHIFT cos 0.7143. x = 24.2˚ θ = 40.7˚.
You get:
x = 44.4˚

Note: Write down several

calculator digits in your
working.
1
Examination Question 1:
A

x Calculate the angle marked x.

Give your answer correct to one decimal place.

12 m 15m

B C
Examination Question 2:
B
x Work out the size of the angle marked x.
20 m

A 30 m
34 H
C

52
38 SI
Finding a side
Trigonometry can also be used to find sides in right-angled triangles if you know one of the angles.
-2 AN

Example 1: Example 2: Example 3:

33 D

6.8 cm A
M.

65˚ 0.85 m
xcm 24 cm
H xcm H O
O H O
52˚
37˚
y A
03

A We start by labelling the The triangle is labelled H, O

Start by labelling the triangle triangle. and A.
H, O and A. This time we will need to use Because we know H and want
We then have to decide tan as we know A and want O: A, we need to use cos this time:
whether to use sin, cos or tan SOHCAHTOA SOHCAHTOA
SOHCAHTOA So,
Since we want to find O and we O A
know H, we use sin: tan 65  cos 52 
A H
O
sin 37  x y
H tan 65  cos 52 
6.8 0.85
x
sin 37  x y
24 2.1445  0.61566 
6.8 0.85
x
0.6018  So, x = 2.1445 × 6.8 = 14.6 cm. So,
24 y = 0.85 × 0.61566 = 0.523 m.
So, x = 24 × 0.6018 = 14.4 cm.

Remember to put a unit on the

answer!!

2
Examination Question 3:
R Angle Q = 90 degrees, angle P= 32 degrees and PR = 2.6 m.
2.6 cm Calculate the length of QR. Give your answer in metres to
3 significant figures.
32˚
P Q
C

Examination Question 4:
Triangle ABC is shown on the right.
a) Calculate the length of the side BC.
b) Calculate the length of the side AC.
69˚
A 6cm B

34 H
52
38 SI
Finding the length of sides (continued)
-2 AN

Some side lengths are harder to calculate – they appear on the denominator of the fractions.
Consider the following example:
33 D

Example:
M.

Find the length x cm in this triangle: 40˚

A x cm
SOHCAHTOA 18cm H
03

O
The triangle is labelled H, O and A as normal. Since we know A and want to find H we use cos.
A 18 18
cos 40  so cos 40  so 0 . 7660 
H x x
The side we wish to find appears on the denominator. There are two methods that we could use to
find the value of x:
Method 1: Method 2:
0.7660 18 Rearrange the equation by first getting rid of the
Write both sides as fractions:  fraction (multiply by x): x × 0.7660 = 18
1 x
1 x Get x on its own by dividing by 0.7660:
Invert both sides:  18
0.7660 18 x  23.5 cm.
x 0.7660
Work out the left hand side: 1.305 =
18
Therefore x = 18 × 1.305 = 23.5 cm

We can check our answer – since we are finding the hypotenuse, it should be the longest side in the
triangle.

3
Example 2: Calculate the length of AB.
C
We need to use tan: SOHCAHTOA
Opp
tan 39 
12.5cm Hyp Adj
Opp 12.5
tan 39 
x
39˚ 12.5
0.8098 
A Adj B x
As x appears on the bottom, we need to use one of the
methods used in the previous example.
Eg:
1 x

0.8098 12.5
1
So, x  12.5   15.4cm
0.8098

Examination Question 5:
34 H
The triangle ABC has a right angle at B. B 8.3 cm C

52
38 SI
Angle BAC = 50 degrees and BC = 8.3 cm.
Calculate the length of AC.
-2 AN

50
33 D

A
03 M.

Examination Question 6:
B
6cm

8cm C

40˚
A D

ABCD is a quadrilateral. Angle BDA = 90˚, angle BCD = 90˚, angle BAD = 40˚.
BC = 6 cm, BD = 8cm.
a) Calculate the length of DC. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures. [Hint: use
Pythagoras’ theorem!]
b) Calculate the size of angle DBC. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
c) Calculate the length of AB. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.

4
 Trigonometry: Harder Questions:
Example:
B
AB = 19.5 cm, AC = 19.5 cm and BC = 16.4 cm.
19.5 cm Angle ADB = 90 degrees.
BDC is a straight line.
16.4 cm

D A Calculate the size of angle ABC. Give your

answer correct to 1 decimal place.
19.5 cm

Because triangle ABC is isosceles we can just consider the top triangle BDA. Length BD would be
half of 16.4 cm, i.e. 8.2 cm.
B
A
8.2 cm x 19.5 cm H cos x 
H
A
34 H cos x 
8.2
 0.4205

52
38 SI
D O A 19.5
x  SHIFT cos 0.4205  65.1
-2 AN

Examination Question 7:
33 D

C AB and BC are two sides of a rectangle.

M.

AB = 120 cm and BC = 148 cm.

D is a point on BC.
Angle BAD = 15 degrees.

Work out the length of CD. Give your

148 cm answer to the nearest centimetre.
03

15˚
A 120cm B

5
Trigonometry and Bearings
Recall that bearings measure direction. They are angles that are measured clockwise from a north
line. Bearings have three digits.

Example:
The diagram shows the path of a jet-ski from P to Q to R.

Q 160˚ Q is 700m from P on a bearing of 070 degrees.

700m
N R is 500m from Q on a bearing of 160˚.
070˚ 500m
P Calculate the bearing of P from R.

R
First it is important to realise that triangle PQR is a right-angled triangle (with the right angle at Q):

34 H
52
The blue angles are alternate (Z angles) so are
38 SI
Q 160 equal.
700m 70 20 The red angles add up to 180 degrees as they
make a straight line.
-2 AN

70 500m Therefore angle Q is a right angle.

33 D

20
P x
M.

R
We can therefore find angle x using trigonometry:
O 700
tan x    1 .4
A 500
x  SHIFT tan 1.4  54.46 
03

The angle of P from R is the clockwise angle measured from R to P. It is

360˚ - 20 - 54.46 = 285.54˚.
So the bearing is 286˚ (to nearest degree).

Examination Question
Ballymena is due west of Larne.
Ballymena Larne Woodburn is 15 km due south of Larne.
Ballymena is 32 km from Woodburn.
a) Calculate the distance of Larne from
N Ballymena, correct to 1 decimal place.
32 km 15 km b) Calculate the bearing of Ballymena from
Woodburn.
Woodburn

6
Angle of elevation
Worked examination question

Abbi is standing on level ground, at B, a distance of 19 metres away from the foot E of a tree TE.
She measures the angle of elevation of the top of the tree at a height of 1.55 metres above the
ground as 32˚.
Calculate the height TE of the tree. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.

Solution:
First find the length TR using trigonometry, specifically using tan:
34 H
52
O TR
38 SI
tan 32  
A 19
TR
0.6249 
-2 AN

19
TR  19  0.6249  11.87 metres
33 D

So, to get the height of the tree you need to add Abbi’s height to this distance.
M.

Therefore, height of tree = 11.87 + 1.55 = 13.4 metres (to 3 s.f.)

03

7
 Revision Topic : Sine and Cosine Rules and 3D Trigonometry
The objectives of this unit are to:
* use the sine and cosine rules to find the length of sides and angles in triangles;
* to use the formula for the area of a triangles;
* to solve problems involving the sine and cosine rules;
* to solve problems involving trigonometry in 3 dimensions.

Brief recap of Grade B and C material:

Pythagoras’ Theorem:
This theorem, which connects the lengths of the sides in right-angled triangles, states that:

a 2  b2  c2 c
a

34 H
52
where c is the length of the hypotenuse (i.e. the side opposite the right-angle) and a and b are the
38 SI
lengths of the other two sides.
-2 AN

Note that the hypotenuse is the longest side in a right-angled triangle.

33 D

Trigonometry
M.

The following formulae link the sides and angles in right-angled triangles:

O
sin x  H
H O
A
cos x 
03

H x
O
tan x  A
A

where H is the length of the hypotenuse;

O is the length of the side opposite the angle;
A is the length of the side adjacent to the angle.

These formulae are often remembered using the acronym SOHCAHTOA or by using mnemonics.
Here is a commonly used mnemonic:
Silly Old Harry Couldn't Answer His Test On Algebra

When finding angles, remember that you need to use the SHIFT key.

Further notes, examples and examination questions relating to Pythagoras’ theorem and
trigonometry are contained in separate revision booklets.

Sometimes you need to calculate lengths and angles in triangles which do not contain any right-
angles. This is when the sine and cosine rules are useful.
Labelling a triangle

To use the sine and cosine rules, you need to understand the convention for labelling sides and
angles in any triangle.

Consider a general triangle:

C

a
b

A c B

Triangles are named after their vertices - the above triangle is called triangle ABC.
The three angles are commonly referred to as angles A, B and C.
The length of the sides are given lower case letters:
Side a is the side opposite angle A. It is sometimes referred to as side BC.
34 H
52
Side b is the side opposite angle B. It is equivalently called side AC.
38 SI
Side c is the side opposite angle C. It is also known as side AB.

A triangle doesn’t have to be labelled using the letters A, B and C.

-2 AN

For example, consider the triangle PQR below:

33 D

R
M.

p
q
03

P r Q

Sine Rule
The sine rule connects the length of sides and angles in any triangle ABC:

C
It states that:
a b c
  . a
sin A sin B sin C b

An alternative version of the formula is often used when finding the size of angles:
A c B
sin A sin B sin C
 
a b c
Example: Finding the length of a side

The diagram shows triangle ABC. C

Calculate the length of side AB.
13.2 cm o
72
o
55
A B
Solution:

To find the length of a side using the sine rule, follow these steps:

Step 1: Label the triangle using the conventions outlined earlier.

Step 2: Look to see whether any additional information can be added to the diagram (for example,
can you deduce the length of any other angles?)
Step 3: Substitute information from the diagram into the sine rule formula.
Step 4: Delete the unnecessary part of the formula.
Step 5: Rearrange and then work out the length of the required side.

34 H
52
In our example, we begin by labelling the sides and by working out the size of the 3rd angle (using
38 SI
the fact that the sum of the angles in any triangle is 180°.
C
-2 AN

13.2 cm o a
33 D

72
b
M.

o o
55 53
A c B

a b c
Substituting into the formula   , we get:
sin A sin B sin C
03

a 13.2 c
 
sin 55 sin 53 sin 72

As we want to calculate the length c and as the middle part of the formula is completely known, we
delete the first part of the formula:

13.2 c

sin 53 sin 72

Rearranging this formula (by multiplying by sin72) gives:

13.2  sin 72
c
sin 53

i.e. c = 15.7 cm (to 1 decimal place).

Example: Finding the length of an angle

The diagram shows triangle LMN.

Calculate the size of angle LNM.

L
17.5 cm
6.9 cm o
134
M N

Solution:

Step 1: Label the triangle using the conventions outlined earlier.

sin A sin B sin C
Step 2: Substitute information from the diagram into the sine rule formula   .
a b c
Step 3: Delete the unnecessary part of the formula.
Step 4: Rearrange and then work out the size of the required angle.

34 H
In our example, the labelled triangle looks like:

52
38 SI
L
17.5 cm
-2 AN

m
6.9 cm o
n 134
33 D

M N
l
M.

The cosine rule formula (adjusted for our lettering) is:

sin L sin M sin N

 
l m n
03

Substituting into this gives:

sin L sin134 sin N

 
l 17.5 6.9

We want to find angle N and we know the middle part of the formula completely. We therefore
delete the first part of the formula, leaving

sin134 sin N

17.5 6.9

6.9  sin134
If we multiply by 6.9, we get: sin N   0.2836 .
17.5

So angle N = SHIFT sin 0.2836 = 16.5° (to 1 d.p.)

Examination style question

In triangle ABC, angle ABC = 65°, angle ACB = 38°, BC = 15 cm.

A
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn

o o
65 38
B 15 cm C

Work out the length of AB.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN

Examination style question:

33 D
M.

In triangle ABC, angle BAC = 115°, AC = 5 cm and BC = 9 cm.

Calculate the size of angle ABC.

A Diagram NOT
accurately drawn
5 cm
03

o
115

B 9 cm C
 Cosine Rule
The cosine rule also connects the length of sides and angles in any triangle ABC:

It states that: C
a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A
Equivalently, we also have these formulae: a
b
b 2  a 2  c 2  2ac cos B
c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos C A c B
You need to be familiar with the structure of these formulae. In particular note that the letter that
appears as the subject of the formula also appears as the angle.
Note that the cosine rule can be considered as an extension of Pythagoras’ theorem.

Example: Finding the length of a side

The diagram shows triangle ABC. C

Calculate the length of side AB.
34 H
52
38 SI
17.9 cm o 14.7 cm
62
-2 AN

A B
Solution:
33 D

To find the length of a side using the cosine rule, follow these steps:
M.

Step 1: Label the triangle using the conventions outlined earlier.

Step 2: Write down the appropriate version of the cosine rule formula and substitute information
from the diagram into it.
Step 3: Work out the length of the required side.
03

Our labelled diagram here is: C

17.9 cm o 14.7 cm
62
b a

A c B
As we wish to find the length of c, we need the formula with c as the subject:

c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos C
Substitute in: c 2  14.7 2  17.92  2  14.7  17.9  cos 62
Typing the right hand side into a calculator (in one long string and pressing = only at the end) gives:

c 2  289.436

Square rooting gives

c = 17.0 cm
Example: Finding the length of an angle

The diagram shows triangle BCD. C

Calculate the length of angle BDC.
11.4 cm 10.7 cm

B 13.2 cm D
Solution:
To find the length of a side using the cosine rule, follow these steps:
Step 1: Label the triangle using the conventions outlined earlier.
Step 2: Write down the appropriate version of the cosine rule formula and substitute information
from the diagram into it.
Step 3: Rearrange and work out the length of the required angle.

The labelled diagram here looks like:

C
34 H
52
38 SI
11.4 cm 10.7 cm
d b
-2 AN

B D
33 D

13.2 cm
c
M.

We want to find angle D. We therefore need to write down a version of the cosine rule formula that
contains angle D.
The subject of the appropriate formula would therefore be d2:

d 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos D
03

Substituting into this formula gives:

11.4 2  10.7 2  13.22  2  10.7  13.2  cos D

129.96 = 114.49 + 174.24 - 282.48  cos D (work out the squares of the terms)
129.96 = 288.73 - 282.48cos D (add together the first two numbers on the right)
-158.77 = -282.48 cos D (subtract 288.73 from both sides)

Therefore

cos D  0.56206

i.e. D = SHIFT cos 0.56206 = 55.8°

Worked Examination Question
In triangle ABC, AB = 9 cm, BC = 15 cm and angle ABC = 110°.
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.
C

15 cm
o
110
A 9 cm B

Calculate the perimeter of the triangle.

Give your answer correct to the nearest cm.

Solution:
In order to calculate the perimeter, we need to work out the length of the third side.
Labelling the triangle:
34 H C

52
38 SI
b a
-2 AN

15 cm
o
110
33 D

A 9 cm B
c
M.

Using the cosine rule:

b 2  a 2  c 2  2ac cos B
b 2  152  92  2  15  9  cos110
b 2  398.345
03

i.e. b = 20 cm (to nearest cm)

So perimeter = 20 + 15 + 9 = 44 cm (to nearest cm)

Past examination question (Edexcel):

In triangle ABC, AB = 7cm, BC = 12 cm and
angle ABC = 125°. B
Calculate the length of AC.
7 cm o 12 cm
125

A C
Past examination question (SEG):
The diagram shows triangle ABC. AB = 8.6 cm, BC = 3.1 cm and AC = 9.7 cm.

Not to scale
B
3.1 cm
8.6 cm

C
9.7 cm
A

Calculate angle ABC.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN

When do you use the sine rule and when do you use the cosine rule?
33 D
M.

In an examination, you will need to decide whether to use the sine rule or the cosine rule. It is
helpful to remember that you will need to use the sine rule unless
1) you are told all three sides, in which you can use the cosine rule to find any angle;
2) you are given 2 sides and the angle in between, in which case you can find the final side
using the cosine rule.
03

Worked example:
13 cm
A D

o
7 cm 100

o
30
C
B 12 cm

Calculate
a) the length AC;
b) angle ADC.

Solution
Consider first triangle ABC. In this triangle we know two sides and the included angle (i.e. the
angle in between). We can therefore use the cosine rule to find the third side, AC.
 A
c b
7 cm
o
30
C
B 12 cm
a

Using the cosine rule:

b 2  a 2  c 2  2ac cos B
b 2  7 2  12 2  2  7  12  cos 30
b 2  47.5077
b = 6.89… cm

Therefore AC = 6.9 cm (to 1 d.p.)

(b) To find angle ADC, we now consider triangle ADC:

34 H
52
c
38 SI
A 13 cm
D
-2 AN

o
6.89 cm 100 a
d
33 D

C
M.

We are not in either of the situations where the cosine rule can be used, so here we will be using the
sine rule:
sin D sin A sin C
 
d a c
03

Substituting into this formula gives:

sin D sin A sin100

 
6.89 a 13

Rearranging gives:
6.89  sin100
sin D   0.5219
13
So D = 31.5°
Examination Question (Edexcel June 2001)
C Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.
o
8 cm 80 10 cm

A B

a) Calculate the length of AB. Give your answer in centimetres correct to 3 significant figures.
b) Calculate the size of angle ABC. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
M.

Examination Question (Edexcel November 1998)

In the quadrilateral ABCD, AB = 6 cm, BC = 7 B

7 cm
cm, AD = 12 cm, angle ABC = 120°, angle
6 cm o
ACD = 70°.
03

120 C
o
Calculate the size of angle ADC. Give your 70
answer correct to 3 significant figures.
A
12 cm
D
 Area of a triangle
The area of a triangle can be found using this alternative formula:
C

b a

A c B

1
Area of a triangle = ab sin C
2
Alternative versions are:
1 1
Area = ac sin B or Area = bc sin A
2 2

This can equivalently be thought of as

34 H
52
38 SI
Area = ½ × product of two sides × sine of the included angle.
-2 AN

Example:
Find the area of the triangle:
33 D
M.

8.7 cm
o
112
9.8 cm
03

We can use the above formula to find the area of this triangle as we have two sides and the included
angle (i.e. the angle in between the given sides):

1
Area =  8.7  9.8  sin112  39.5cm 2 (to 3 s.f.)
2

Worked examination question

C Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.
o
150 60 m

A B

Angle ACB = 150°.

BC = 60 m.
The area of triangle is 450 m2.
Calculate the perimeter of triangle ABC. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
We can use the formula for the area of a triangle to find the length of AC:
C
o 60 m
b 150
a

A c B

1
Area = ab sin C
2
1
So 450   60  b  sin150
2
450  30b sin150
450  15b as sin150 = 0.5
So b = 30 m.

34 H
To find the perimeter, we also need the length AB. We can use the cosine rule:

52
38 SI
c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos C
c 2  30 2  602  2  30  60 cos150
-2 AN

c 2  7617.69...
So c = 87.3 m
33 D
M.

Therefore the perimeter is 30 + 60 + 87.3 = 177.3 = 177 m2 to 3 SF.

Examination question (June 2004)

A Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.
03

3.2 cm

B 8.4 cm C

AB = 3.2 cm. BC = 8.4 cm. The area of triangle ABC is 10 cm2.

Calculate the perimeter of triangle ABC.
Give your answer correct to 3 SF.
Examination style question
Q

o
9 cm 67

o
60
P R

In triangle PQR, PQ = 9 cm, angle PQR = 67° and angle QPR = 60°.
Calculate the area of triangle PQR.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
03M.

Problem style questions

Questions are often set involving bearings or angles of elevation.
If a diagram has not been drawn in the question, you will need to begin by sketching a diagram to
illustrate the situation.
There will usually be several steps required in order to get to the solution.
Worked examination question (Edexcel June 2006)
The diagram shows a vertical tower DC on horizontal ground ABC. ABC is a straight line.
The angle of elevation of D from A is 28°.
The angle of elevation of D from B is 54°.
AB = 25 m.
D

Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.

o o
28 54
A 25 m B C

Calculate the height of the tower. Give your answer to 3 significant figures.

Solution:
Step 1: Use triangle ADB to find the length DB.
34 H
Step 2: Use triangle DBC to find the height DC.

52
38 SI
Step 1: From the original diagram, we can deduce that angle ABD = 126° and angle ADB = 26°.
-2 AN

D
Using the sine rule:
a b 25
 
33 D

sin 28 sin126 sin 26

M.

b
a 25sin 28
So a  26.77m
sin 26
o o
28 126
A 25 m B
03

Step 2: D

Using trigonometry for right-angled triangles:

26.77 m
CD
sin 54 
26.77
o
CD  26.77  sin 54
54
CD  21.7 m
B C

So the tower is 21.7 m tall.

Examination question (NEAB)
A helicopter leaves a heliport H and its measuring instruments show that it flies 3.2 km on a bearing
of 128° to a checkpoint C. It then flies 4.7 km on a bearing of 066° to its base B.

o
128
H
o
4.7 km
3.2 km 66

a) Show that angle HCB is 118°.

b) Calculate the direct distance from the heliport H to the base.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
03 M.
 3D trigonometry
Grade A/ A* questions often involve you finding distances and angles in 3 dimensional objects.
The key to these questions is to identify and draw the relevant 2 dimensional triangle.

Example 1:
ABCDEFGH is a cuboid with dimensions 8cm, 6cm and 5cm (as shown in the diagram). X is the
midpoint of side HG.
X
H G

E
F

5 cm
D C
6 cm
A 8 cm B

a) Find length AC.

34 H
52
38 SI
AC is length diagonally across the base of the cuboid.
* We start by sketching the base ABCD and we mark on the length we want to find:
-2 AN

D C
33 D

6 cm
M.

A 8 cm B

* We identify a relevant right-angled triangle (here obviously triangle ABC).

* We can then use Pythagoras’ theorem to find AC:
03

AC2 = AB2 + BC2

AC2 = 62 + 82
AC2 = 100
So AC = 10 cm

b) Find the length AG

* We begin by identifying a relevant right-angled triangle. Here we use triangle AGC (we use this
triangle because C is vertically below G). We mark on the diagram all the lengths we know:
We now use Pythagoras’ theorem to find AG:

AG2 = AC2 + CG2

AG2 = 102 + 52
AG2 = 125
So AG = 11.2 cm

c) Find angle GAC.

The letters mentioned in the name of the angle tell you which triangle to draw (i.e. triangle GAC).
This is the triangle drawn in part (b).
We can use trigonometry to find angle GAC.

34 H
52
38 SI
5
tanθ =
10
i.e θ = 26.6°
-2 AN

d) Find the length AX.

33 D

* AX is a diagonal length across the cuboid. Let Y be the point vertically below X. We draw
M.

triangle AXY:
03

* There is not yet enough information in the diagram to find length AX.
* We can work out length AY however if we draw out the base ABCD:

We can use Pythagoras’ theorem to find AY:

AY2 = AD2 + DY2
AY2 = 62 + 42
AY2 = 52
So AY = 7.2111 cm (note that we don’t round too early).
Now we can find AX from triangle AXY:

7.2111cm

AX2 = AY2 + XY2

AX2 = 7.21112 + 52
AX2 = 77
So AY = 8.775 cm = 8.8 cm (to 1 DP)

e) Find angle AXB

34 H
We begin by drawing out triangle AXB (i.e. the triangle with the same letters as the angle we want).

52
This is an isosceles triangle as AX = XB.
38 SI
-2 AN

α
33 D
M.

We begin by finding α:
03

4
sin  
8.8
α = 27°

So angle AXB = 54°

Example 2:
ABCDE is a square-based pyramid. The length AB is 8cm.
Point E is vertically above point X, the centre point of square ABCD.
The height of the pyramid, EX, is 7cm.
a) Calculate length AC.
* AC lies along the base of the pyramid.
We therefore begin by drawing out the base.

Triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle. We can therefore use

Pythagoras’ theorem to find AC:
AC2 = 82 + 82
AC2 = 128
AC = 11.3 cm

b) Calculate length AE.

* The point below E is point X. We therefore draw out triangle AEX.
34 H
Note: AX is half of AC, i.e. 5.65 cm.

52
38 SI
We can find AE using Pythagoras’ theorem:
AE2 = 72 + 5.652
-2 AN

AE2 = 81
AE = 9.00 cm
33 D
M.

c) Calculate angle EAC.

* This angle is the same as angle EAX.
We can calculate this angle using the diagram in (b).
Using trigonometry
03

7
tan(EAX ) 
5.65
EAX  51.1o

So angle EAC = 51.1°

d) Calculate the area of face AEB.
* We begin by drawing out triangle AEB, an isosceles triangle (AE = EB).
E

9 cm 9 cm

A 8 cm B
* One way to find the area of triangle AEB would be to find the height of this triangle (by splitting
it into 2 right-angled triangles) and then using the formula ½ b×h. Alternatively, we could find
angle AEB (for example using the cosine rule) and then using the formula: area = ½ absinC.

If we use the first method, then we must begin by finding the height h of the triangle.
Using Pythagoras’ theorem:
E
h²+ 4² = 9²
h²+ 16 = 81
h² = 65 9 cm
h = 8.06 cm h

Therefore the area is

A B
1
 8  8.06  32.2 cm 2 4 cm
2

Examination question (Edexcel November 2004)

34 H
52
38 SI
The diagram represents a cuboid ABCDEFGH.
CD = 5 cm, BC = 7 cm, BF = 3 cm. E H
a) Calculate the length of AG. Give your answer
-2 AN

correct to 3 significant figures. F

b) Calculate the size of the angle between AG G
33 D

and the face ABCD. Give your answer correct

to 3 significant figures. 3 cm A D
M.

5 cm
B 7 cm C
03
Examination question (Edexcel November 2005) V

The diagram shows a pyramid.

The base, ABCD, is a horizontal square of side 10 cm.
The vertex V is vertically above the midpoint, M, of the base.
VM = 12 cm. D C

Calculate the size of angle VAM.

M 10 cm

A 10 cm B

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
M.

Examination question (Edexcel) F E

03

The diagram represents a prism.

AEFD is a rectangle.
ABCD is a square.
EF and FC are perpendicular to plane ABCD.
30 B
C o
AB = AD = 60 cm.
Angle ABE = 90 degrees. 60 cm
Angle BAE = 30 degrees.
D 60 cm A
Calculate the size of the angle that the line DE makes with the plane ABCD.
 Revision Topic : Angles

Angles and parallel lines

Recall the following types of angle:

Alternate angles (or Z angles) are equal: *

Corresponding angles (or F angles) are equal: *

Vertically opposite angles are equal:

34 H *

52
38 SI
*
-2 AN

Angles on a straight line add up to 180˚: x y x + y = 180

33 D
M.

Angles around a point add up to 360˚: a

b
e
d c a + b + c + d + e = 360˚
03

Angles in triangles
x
The three angles inside a triangle add up to 180˚
y z x + y + z =180˚

Angles in quadrilaterals

The four angles inside a quadrilateral add up to 360˚.

a b

c
d

a + b + c + d = 360˚

1
Interior and exterior angles in polygons
* The angles marked # are interior angles.
# # *
The angles marked * are exterior angles.

The interior and exterior angle at a corner

* # # of the shape add up to 180 degrees.
*
#
*

Sum of interior angles

We can find the sum of the (interior) angles for any polygon by splitting the polygon into non-
overlapping triangles.

Example: Pentagon
A pentagon can be divided into 3 non-overlapping triangles.
34 H
52
38 SI
As the triangles in each triangle add up to
180˚, the angles in a pentagon must add up to
-2 AN

3×180 = 540˚.
33 D
M.

The same principle applies for any polygon:

Polygon Number of Number of non- Sum of interior angles

sides overlapping triangles
Triangle 3 1 1 × 180 = 180˚
03

Quadrilateral 4 2 2 × 180 = 360˚

Pentagon 5 3 3 × 180 = 540˚
Hexagon 6 4 4 × 180 = 720˚
Heptagon 7 5 5 × 180 = 900˚
Octagon 8 6 6 × 180 = 1080˚
General polygon n n-2 (n-2) × 180 = 180(n - 2)

Sum of exterior angles

The exterior angles for any polygon add up to 360 degrees.

2
Example:

Find the marked angles in these two diagrams:

50 130
125
a
50 60

80 85 b

65

The first diagram above concerns exterior angles. The sum of exterior angles in any shape is 360
degrees. Therefore angle a is 360 – (50 + 65 + 80 + 50) = 115˚.

The second diagram above concerns interior angles. The interior angles of a pentagon add up to
540˚. Therefore angle b is 540 – (85 + 125 + 130 + 60) = 140˚.

Regular Polygons
34 H
52
38 SI
In a regular polygon all the interior angles are the same. Likewise all the exterior angles are the
same.
-2 AN

Because the exterior angles add up to 360˚, each of them must be 360 ÷ n (where n is the number of
sides).
33 D

Since each interior and exterior angle adds up to 180˚, the interior angles in a regular polygon with
M.

360
n sides must be 180  .
n

Example:
03

a) A regular polygon has 9 sides. Find the size of an interior angle.

b) A regular polygon has an exterior angle of 20˚. Show that the sum of the interior angles is
2880˚.

Solution:
a) Each exterior angle must be 360 ÷ 9 = 40˚. So the interior angles must be 180 – 40 = 140˚.

b) The exterior angle is 20˚. The number of sides must be 360 ÷ 20 = 18.
The interior angles must each be 180 – 20 = 160˚.
As there are 18 sides, sum of interior angles = 18 × 160 = 2880˚.

Examination Question
C
p The diagram shows a regular pentagon ABCDE.
36˚ BD is parallel to XY.
B D
q Angle CBD = 36˚.
Work out the size of angles p, q and r.
r
X A E Y

3
Angles in Circles
Circle Theorems

Theorem 1: The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.

Theorem 2: Angles at the circumference are equal.

θ θ

Theorem 3: Angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference

34 H
52
38 SI
θ θ
-2 AN

2θ 2θ
33 D
M.

A quadrilateral whose vertices ALL lie on the circumference of a circle is called a cyclic
quadrilateral.

Theorem 4: Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180º.

α
03

α + β = 180˚
β

Example:
A Angle BOC = 2 × 53˚ = 106˚ (the angle at the centre is twice
the angle at the circumference).

Triangle BOC is isosceles (as OB and OC are equal since

both radii of the circle).
Therefore x = (180 – 106)/2 = 37˚.
B C

4
Examination Question

In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle.

Angle COA = 100˚.
Calculate
a) angle CBA;
b) angle CDA.

Examination Style Question:

The diagram shows a circle with diameter AC.

a) i) What can you say about angles ADB and ACB?
ii) What is angle ABC? Explain your answer.
iii) Explain why x = 28˚.

b) If AD = BD, find y.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D

Tangents to circles
M.

The tangent to a circle at a point is a line that just touches the circle at that point.

Theorem 5: Two tangents are drawn to a circle. One tangent touches the circle at A and the other
touches the circle at B. If the tangents cross over at P, then PA = PB. If O is the centre of the circle
then PO bisects angle AOB.
03

Theorem 6: The angle between a tangent and a radius is 90˚.

5
Examination Question

A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of a circle.

TA and TC are tangents to the circle.
The centre of the circle is at O.
ODT is a straight line.
Angle OTC = 42˚.
a) Write down the size of angle OCT. Give a reason for your answer.

34 H
b) Calculate the size of angle COT. Give reasons for your answer.

52
38 SI
Grade A circle theorem: The Alternate Segment Theorem
-2 AN

The angle between a tangent and a chord is equal to any angle on the circumference that stands on
that chord.
33 D
M.

θ
03

Examination Question

O is the centre of a circle.

CD is a tangent to the circle.
Angle OCB is 24˚.
a) Find the size of angle BCD. Give
reasons for your answer.
b) Find the size of angle CAB. Give a
reason for your answer.

6
 Topic :Straight Line Graphs: Perpendicular Lines
The objectives of this unit are to:
* recap the equation of a straight line and to recap finding the equation of parallel lines;
* to understand the relationship between the gradients of perpendicular lines;
* to calculate the equation of a line perpendicular to a given line.

Recap: Grade B and C content

Gradient and parallel lines

The equation of a straight line has the form y = mx + c, where m is the gradient of the line and c is
the y-interecpt.

Parallel lines have the same gradient.

The gradient of a line passing through two points is found using the formula:
change in y coordinates
gradient  .
change in x coordinates
34 H
52
38 SI
Example: y  2 x  5
This is already written in the form y = mx + c.
-2 AN

So the gradient is 2 and the y-intercept is 5.

Example 2: x + y = 7
33 D

To find the gradient and y-intercept of this line, we need to rearrange to the form y = mx + c.
M.

We get:
y = -1x + 7.
So gradient is -1 and y-intercept is 7.

Example 3: 3 x  2 y  12
03

Rearranging: 2y = 12 – 3x
y = 6 – 1.5x.
So gradient is -1.5 and the y-intercept is 6.

Example 4: Find the equation of the line parallel to y = 3x – 1 that passes through the point (0, 5).

Solution: As the line is parallel to y = 3x – 1, it must have the same gradient, i.e. 3.
As our line must pass through (0, 5), the y-intercept is 5.
So the required equation is y = 3x + 5.

Example 5: Find the equation of the line parallel to y = 8 – 2x passing through the point (3, 7).

Solution: A parallel line has the same gradient i.e. -2.

The equation of the parallel line therefore is y = -2x + c.
In order to find c, we can use the coordinates of the point that we wish our line to pass through.
Substituting x = 3, y = 7 gives:
7 = -2×3 + c
c = 7 + 6 = 13.
So the equation is y = -2x + 13.

1
Examination question (Edexcel March 2003)
Find the gradient of the straight line with equation 5 y  3  2 x .

Examination question (Edexcel June 2004)

A straight line has equation y = 2(3 – 4x).
Find the gradient of the straight line.

34 H
52
38 SI
Examination question (Edexcel November 2004)
The straight line L1 has equation y = 2x + 3.
The straight line L2 is parallel to the straight line L1.
-2 AN

The straight line L2 passes through the point (3, 2).

Find an equation of the straight line L2.
33 D
03 M.

Example:
Find the equation of the line passing through the points (1, 5) and (5, -3).

Solution: The y coordinates have gone from 5 to -3, a change of -8.

The x coordinates have gone from 1 to 5, a change of 4.
8
So gradient is  2 .
4
The equation of the line therefore has the form y = -2x + c.
If we substitute in the coordinates of one of our points, for example x = 1, y = 5, we get:
5 = -2 + c
c = 7.
So the line has equation y = -2x + 7.

2
Examination question (Edexcel January 2005)
A straight line passes through the points (0, 5) and (3, 17).
Find the equation of the straight line.

Perpendicular lines
34 H
52
Two lines are perpendicular is their gradients multiply to give -1, i.e. the gradient of one line is the
38 SI
negative reciprocal of the gradient of the other.
1
So if one line has gradient m1, then the gradient of a perpendicular line must be .
-2 AN

m1
33 D

Example: Which two of the lines below are perpendicular to the line y = 4 – 2x.
M.

y = -2x + 5
y = 0.5x + 4
2y = x + 5
x + 2y = 7

Solution:
03

The gradient of the line y = 4 – 2x is -2.

1
A perpendicular line must therefore have gradient  0 .5 .
2
We now look to see which of the four lines given have a gradient of 0.5 by rearranging their
equations to the form y = mx + c.

Line Rearranged form Gradient

y = -2x + 5 - -2
y = 0.5x + 4 - 0.5
2y = x + 5 y  12 x  2.5 ½
x + 2y = 7 y  3.5  12 x -½

The lines perpendicular to y = 4 – 2x therefore are y = 0.5x + 4 and 2y = x + 5

3
Example 2: Find the equation of the line perpendicular to 3 y  5  2 x passing through the point
(4, 10).

Solution:
5 2
The equation 3 y  5  2 x is equivalent to y   x.
3 3
2
The gradient is therefore  .
3
3
A perpendicular line has gradient (i.e the negative reciprocal).
2
3
So our equation has the form y  x  c
2
Substitute in x = 4 and y = 10:
3
10 =  4  c
2
i.e. c = 4
3
So the perpendicular line has equation y  x  4 .
2
34 H
52
38 SI
Examination question (Edexcel November 2003)
A straight line, L, passes through the point with coordinates (4, 7) and is perpendicular to the line
with equation y = 2x + 3.
-2 AN

Find an equation of the straight line L.

33 D
M.

Examination question (Edexcel June 2004) y

03

ABCD is a rectangle. A is the point (0, 1). C is the point (0, 6).
6 C
The equation of the straight line through A and B is y = 2x + 1.

1 A
x
a) Find the equation of the straight line through D and C.
b) Find the equation of the straight line through B and C.

4
 1

Further Volume and Surface Area

Objectives
* To find the volume and surface area of spheres, cones, pyramids and cylinders.
* To solve problems involving volume and surface area of spheres, cones, pyramids and cylinders.

Section 1: Volume

Recap from grade B and C work

 Volume of cuboid = length × width × height

height

length
width

34 H
52
 Volume of prism = cross-sectional area × length
38 SI
cross-sectional
-2 AN

area

length
33 D
M.

 Volume of cylinder = r 2 h ,
where r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder.
height, h
03

radius, r

Example:
A cuboid measures 15 cm by 12 cm by 8 cm. Find the capacity of the cuboid.
Give your answers in litres.

Solution:
Volume = 15 × 12 × 8 = 1440 cm3.
As 1 litre = 1000 cm3, the capacity of the cuboid = 1.44 litres.
 2
Example 2:
A cylinder has a volume of 965 cm3. If the height of the cylinder is 16 cm, find the radius.
Give your answer to 2 significant figures.

Solution:
Substitute the information from the question into the formula for the volume of a cylinder:

Volume of cylinder = r 2 h
965 =   r 2  16
965 =   16 r 2
965 = 50.26548  r 2
19.198 = r 2
4.38156 = r

So the radius of the cylinder is 4.4 cm (to 2 SF)

Past examination question (Edexcel November 2003)

A can of drink has the shape of a cylinder.
The can has a radius of 4 cm and a height of 15 cm.
34 H
52
Calculate the volume of the cylinder.
38 SI
Give your answer correct to three significant figures.
-2 AN
33 D
03 M.

Past examination question (Edexcel November 2004)

Diagram NOT
accurately drawn

5 cm
4 cm

7 cm
3 cm
Calculate the volume of the triangular prism.
 3
Volume of a sphere

4 3
Volume of a sphere = r
3

(This formula is given on the GCSE formula sheet).

radius, r
A hemisphere is half a sphere.

Example

The radius of a sphere is 6.7 cm. Find the volume.

Solution:
Substitute r = 6.7 cm into the formula
4
Volume = r 3
3
34 H
52
6.7 cm
38 SI
4
V =    6 .7 3
3
V = 1259.833 (remember to use the cube button on your calculator)
-2 AN

V = 1260 cm3 (to 3 SF)

33 D
M.

Example 2:
Find the volume of the hemisphere shown in the diagram.

Solution:
The diameter of the hemisphere is 18.4 cm.
Therefore the radius is 9.2 cm.
03

1 diameter = 18.4 cm
Volume of the hemisphere =  volume of sphere
2
1 4
=  r 3
2 3
1 4
=     9 .2 3
2 3
1
=  3261.76
2
= 1630 cm3 (to 3 SF)
 4
Example 3:
A sphere has a volume of 86.5 cm3. Find the radius of the sphere.

Solution:
4 3
Substitute into the formula for the volume of a sphere: Volume = r
3
4 3
86.5 = r
3
So 86.5 = 4.18879r 3
i.e. 20.65035 = r 3
So r = 2.74 cm (to 3 SF) (cube rooting)

The sphere has radius 2.74 cm.

Examination style question

The object shown is made up from a cylinder and a hemisphere.
The cylinder has radius 5.0 cm and height 22 cm.
Find the volume of the object.

34 H
52
Solution:
38 SI
Volume of cylinder = r 2 h 22 cm
=   5 2  22
-2 AN

= 1728 cm3 (to nearest whole number)

The hemisphere must also have radius 5 cm.

33 D

1 5.0 cm
Volume of the hemisphere =  volume of sphere
M.

2
1 4 3
=  r
2 3
1 4
=     53
2 3
03

= 262 cm3

Therefore total volume of the object = 1728 + 262 = 1990 cm3.

Problem style example

A tank measures 15 cm by 10 cm by 10 cm
The tank is half-full of water.
10 cm

10 cm
15 cm
A solid metal sphere with radius 2 cm is placed into the tank.
Assuming that the sphere sinks to the bottom of the tank, calculate the amount by which the water
level in the tank rises.
 5
Solution
As the sphere will be completely submerged, it will displace its volume of water.

4 3 4
Volume of sphere = r =    23 = 33.51 cm3.
3 3

Therefore the water displaced is 33.51 cm3.

The water displaced has the form of a cuboid with measurements 15 cm by 10 cm by h cm, where h
is the height by which the water level rises.

So 15 × 10 × h = 33.51
i.e. h = 0.22 cm

The water rises by 0.22 cm.

Examination question (Edexcel November 1998)

A solid plastic toy is made in the shape of a cylinder which is joined to a hemisphere at both ends.

34 H
52
38 SI
5 cm
-2 AN

10 cm
33 D

The diameter of the toy at the joins is 5 cm.

The length of the cylindrical part of the toy is 10 cm.
M.

Calculate the volume of plastic needed to make the toy. Give your answer correct to three
significant figures.
03
 6
Examination question (Problem style) (AQA June 2004)
A water tank is 50 cm long, 34 cm wide and 24 cm high.
It contains water to a depth of 18 cm.

18 cm
24 cm

34 cm
50 cm

Four identical spheres are placed in the tank and are fully submerged.
The water level rises by 4.5cm.
Calculate the radius of the spheres.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
M.

Volume of a pyramid
03

Pyramids come in a range of shapes. They can have bases which are any shape e.g. triangular,
square, rectangular, circular etc.

The volume of any pyramid can be found using the formula:

1
Volume of pyramid =  base area  height
3

(This formula is NOT given to you in the exam – you will need to learn it!)
 7
Example: (non-calculator paper)
The pyramid shown has a square base.
The square has sides of length 12 cm.
The height of the pyramid is 10 cm.
Find the volume. 10 cm

Solution:
The area of the square base is 12 × 12 = 144 cm2
So, the volume of the pyramid is:
1
Volume =  144  10 12 cm
3
= 48 × 10
= 480 cm3.

Example 2:
The diagram shows a triangular-based pyramid.
The base of the pyramid is a right-angled triangle.
The volume of the pyramid is 325 cm3.
Find the height of the pyramid.

34 H
52
38 SI
Solution:
The base of the pyramid is as shown:
8 cm
-2 AN

9 cm
8 cm
33 D
M.

9 cm
1
The area of the base is  9  8  36 cm2.
2
Substitute information into the formula for the volume of a pyramid.
03

1
Volume of pyramid =  base area  height
3
1
325 =  36  height
3
325 = 12 × height.
So, height = 325 ÷ 12 = 27.08 cm (to 4 SF).

Volume of a cone
A cone is a pyramid with a circular base.

The formula for the volume of a cone is: height, h

1 2
Volume of cone = r h
3
where r is the radius of the cone and h is the height of the cone. radius, r
 8
Example 1 (non-calculator paper)
The base of a cone has a radius of 4 cm.
The height of the cone is 6 cm.
Find the volume of the cone. 6 cm
Leave your answer in terms of  .
Solution:
Substitute the information into the formula for the volume of a cone:
1 4 cm
Volume of cone = r 2 h
3
1
=    42  6
3
= 2    16 (start by finding 1/3 of 6)
volume = 32π cm3.

Example 2:
A cone has a volume of 1650 cm3.
The cone has a height of 28 cm.
Find the radius of the cone.

34 H
Give your answer correct to 2 significant figures.

52
28 cm
38 SI
Solution:
Substitute information into the formula:
1
-2 AN

Volume of cone = r 2 h
3
radius, r
1
1650 =    r 2  28
33 D

3
M.

1
1650 = 29.32153r 2 (evaluating    28 )
3
r 2  56.2726
i.e. r = 7.5 cm (to 2 SF)
The radius of the cone is therefore 7.5 cm.
03

Problem solving: Worked examination question (Edexcel June 2005 – non calculator paper)

The radius of the base of a cone is x cm and its height is h cm.

The radius of a sphere is 2x cm.

Diagrams NOT
accurately drawn

h cm

x cm 2x cm

The volume of the cone and the volume of the sphere are equal.
Express h in terms of x.
Give your answer in its simplest form.
 9
Solution:
1 2 1
The volume of the cone is r h = πx 2 h
3 3
4 3 4
The volume of the sphere is r   (2 x) 3 (note: the brackets around 2x are important)
3 3
4
=   8x 3 (cubing both 2 and x)
3
32 3
= x
3
As the sphere and the cone have the same volume, we can form an equation:
1 2 32
x h  x 3
3 3
x h  32x 3
2
(multiplying both sides by 3)
x h  32x
2 3
(dividing both sides by π)
h  32 x (diving both sides by x 2 )

Past examination question (Edexcel 1997)

A child’s toy is made out of plastic.
34 H
52
The toy is solid.
38 SI
The top of the toy is a cone of height 10 cm and base radius 4 cm.
The bottom of the toy is a hemisphere of radius 4 cm. 10 cm
-2 AN

Calculate the volume of plastic needed to make the toy.

33 D
M.

4 cm
03
 10
Volume of a frustrum
A frustrum is a cone with a smaller cone sliced off the top.

Examination style question

The diagram shows a large cone of height 24 cm and base radius 4 m.

1.5 cm

24 cm

4 cm

34 H
A small cone of radius 1.5 cm is cut off the top leaving a frustrum.

52
Calculate the volume of the frustrum.
38 SI
Solution:
-2 AN

1
The volume of the large cone is:    4 2  24  402.12 cm3
3
To find the volume of the small cone, we need its height.
33 D

1 .5 3
M.

The radius of the small cone is  of the radius of the large cone.
4 8
3
Therefore the height of the small cone is of the height of the large cone, i.e. the small cone has
8
3
height  24  9 cm
8
03

1
So the volume of the small cone is    1.5 2  9  21.21 cm3
3

The volume of the frustrum is 402.12 – 21.21 = 381 cm3 (to 3F)

Section 2: Surface Area

Recap: Grade B and C

You should be familiar with finding the surface area of prisms (such as cuboids, triangular prisms,
etc). The surface area of a prism is found by adding together the area of each face.
 11
Examination style question 3 cm
Find the total surface area of the solid prism shown in the diagram.
The cross-section is an isosceles trapezium. 5 cm

4 cm
8 cm

9 cm

Solution:
The prism has six faces – two are trapeziums and 4 are rectangles.

The area of the front and back faces are: The formula for the area of a trapezium
1 is:
(3  9)  4  6  4  24 cm2 1
2  (sum of parallel sides)  height
2
The two sides faces each have an area equal to
5 × 8 = 40 cm2
The area of the top face is
34 H
52
3 × 8 = 24 cm2
38 SI
The area of the base is
-2 AN

9 × 8 = 72 cm2

So the total surface area is 24 + 24 + 40 + 40 + 24 + 72 = 224 cm2.

33 D
M.

Surface area of cylinders, spheres, cones and pyramids

Cylinders
A solid cylinder has 3 faces – a circular face at either end and a curved
face around the middle:
03

Surface area of a cylinder = 2{  rh  2{  r2 height, h

curved area of top
surface area and bottom

(This formula is not on the formula sheet).

radius, r

Sphere
A sphere has a single curved face.
Surface area of a sphere = 4 r 2

(This formula is on the formula sheet)

radius, r
 12
Cone
A solid cone has two surfaces – the curved surface and the circular base.
The formula for the curved surface area is:
curved surface area =  rl slant length, l
height, h
where l is the slant length.

The values of l, r and h are related by Pythagoras’ theorem:

h2  r 2  l 2 .
radius, r

Pyramid
There is no general formula for the total surface area of a pyramid. Just take each face in turn and
use the relevant formula for finding the area of that face’s shape.

Worked example 1:
Find the total surface area of the solid hemisphere shown.
5.5 cm
Solution:

34 H
The hemisphere has a radius of 5.5 cm.

52
It has 2 surfaces – a circular base and a curved surface.
38 SI
The area of the circular base is  r 2    5.52  95.033cm 2
-2 AN

1 1
The area of the curved surface is  4{ r2   4    5.52  190.066 cm2
2 formula for surface 2
33 D

area of a whole sphere

2
So, total surface area = 285 cm (to 3 SF)
M.

Worked example 2
The diagram shows an object made from two cones, one on top of the other.
The top cone has a height of 8 cm and the bottom cone has a height of 10 cm.
Both cones have a radius of 5 cm.
03

Find the total surface area of the object. 8 cm

Solution:
The formula for the curved surface area of a cone is:  rl .

We can find the slant length, l, for each cone using Pythagoras’
theorem – we know the radius and the height of each cone.
10 cm
Top cone:
l 2  52  82  25  64  89
l  89  9.434cm
Therefore, 5 cm
Curved surface area =   5  9.434  148.2cm
 13
Bottom cone:
l 2  52  102  25  100  125
l  125  11.180cm
Therefore,
Curved surface area =   5  11.180  175.6cm

So total surface area is 324cm2 (to 3SF)

Worked example 3: (non-calculator)

A cylinder is made from metal.
It has a base but no lid.
The height of the cylinder is 8 cm. 8 cm
The radius of the cylinder is 3 cm.
Find the amount of metal required to make the cylinder.
Leave your answer in terms of  .
3 cm
Solution:
The area of the base is  r 2    32  9
34 H
The curved surface area is 2 rh  2    3  8  48

52
38 SI
So the area of metal required = 9  48  57 cm 2
-2 AN

Examination style question 1:

A solid object is formed by joining a hemisphere to a cylinder.
Both the hemisphere and the cylinder have a diameter of 4.2 cm.
33 D

The cylinder has a height of 5.6 cm.

M.

Calculate the total surface area of the whole object.

5.6 cm
Give your answer to 3 SF.
03

4.2 cm
 14
Examination style question 2:
A sphere has a volume of 356 cm3.
Calculate the surface area of the sphere.

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
03 M.
 Vectors
Vectors on grids:
* The vector   represents a line going 4 units to the right
4
 3 3
and 3 units up.
4
* The length of a vector (sometimes called the magnitude) can be found using pythagoras’ thm.
For example, the length of the above vector is 5.

2
*   is a vector 2 units to the left and 4 units down. Its length is (2)2  (4)2  20 = 4.47
 4 
(to 2 dp).

* Vectors can be added, subtracted and multiplied by a scalar (number):

 2   3  5   3   1   4   3   12 
e.g.  4    2    2  ; 7  6   1 4     .
             2  8 
uuur
34 H
52
* The notation AB (or AB) represents the vector needed to go from point A to point B. For
38 SI
uuur
example, if A is (4, 5) and B is (7, 2) then AB    (this can be found by subtracting A’s
3
 3 
-2 AN

coordinates from B’s).

33 D

Worked Examination Question [June 1998 Paper 6]

M.

A is the point (2, 3) and B is the point (-2, 0).

uuur
a) Find AB as a column vector.
uuur
C is the point such that BC    .
4
9
03

b) Write down the coordinates of the point C.

X is the mid-point of AB. O is the origin.
uuur
c) Find OX as a column vector.

Solution:
uuur 4
a) To get from A to B, we move 4 units left and 3 units down. So AB   
 3 

uuur
b) Since BC    , we know that to move from B to C we move 4 units right and 9 units up. B is
4
 
9
the point (-2, 0) so C is the point (2 , 9).

c) A is the point (2, 3) and B is (-2, 0)

Since X is the mid-point of AB, we find the coordinates of X by finding the average of the two x-
coordinates and the average of the two y-coordinates.
 2  (2) 3  0 
So X is the point  ,   (0, 1.5)
 2 2 
Worked Examination question (November 1999 Paper 6)
 2 1
p    and q    .
 
1  2 
a) Write down as a column vector … 2p + q and p – 2q.
uuur
A is the point (15, 15) and O is the point (0, 0). The vector OA can be written in the form cp + dq,
where c and d are scalars.
b) Using part (a), or otherwise, find the values of c and d.

Solution:
2p + q = 2              
2 1 4 1 5
a)

         
1 2 2 2 0

p – 2q =    2           
2 1 2 2 0

         
1 2 1 4 5

uuur
b) OA   
15
15 
34 H
52
So we need to find values c and d such that    c    d  
15 2 1
38 SI
15  1  2 
Reading across the top line: 15 = 2c + d (1)
-2 AN

Reading across the bottom line: 15 = c – 2d (2)

We can solve these simultaneous equations by multiplying the top equation by 2:

33 D

30 = 4c + 2d
M.

15 = c – 2d

Adding these equations gives 45 = 5c

So c=9
03

Therefore from equation (1): 15 = 18 + d

So d = -3

Examination Question 1 (June 1999 Paper 5)

uuur
A is the point (0, 4). AB    .
3
 2
a) Find the coordinates of B.
C is the point (3, 4). BD is a diagonal of the parallelogram ABCD.
uuur
b) Express BD as a column vector.
uuur
c) CE    . Calculate the length of AE.
1
 3 
Examination Question 2 (June 2001 Paper 5)
A is the point (2, 3) and B is the point (-2, 0).
uuur
a) i) Write AB as a column vector.
uuur
ii) Find the length of the vector AB .
uuur uuur uuur
D is the point such that BD is parallel to   and the length of AD is equal to the length of AB .
0
1
O is the point (0, 0).
uuur
34 H
52
b) Find OD as a column vector.
38 SI
C is the point such that ABCD is a rhombus. AC is a diagonal of the rhombus.
c) Find the coordinates of C.
-2 AN
33 D
03 M.
Vector Geometry
Example:
D Using the information in the diagram, find in terms of a, b
a
A and c:
uuur
b
a) DCuuur
c b) BC
uuur
c) DB
B C

Solution uuur
a) To find an expression for DC we look for a route that takes us from D to C.
uuur uuur uuur uuur
DC  DA  AC  a  b (the vector AC goes in the opposite direction to vector b and
so is negative)
uuur uuur uuur uuur
b) Likewise, BC  BA  AC  c  b (the vector BA goes in the opposite direction to vector c and
so is negative)
34 H
52
38 SI
uuur uuur uuur
c) DB  DA  AB  a  c
-2 AN

Note: The position vector of a point, is the vector from the origin to that point. So the position
uuur
vector of A is the vector OA . If A is the point (a, b) then the position vector of A is   .
a
33 D

b
M.

Worked Examination Question (June 2000 Paper 5):

P Q
OPQR is a trapezium. PQ is parallel to OR.
2a uuur uuur uuur
b OP  b, PQ  2a, OR  6a .
M is the mid-point of PQ
03

6a N is the mid-point of OR.

O R

uuuur uuuur
a) Find OM and MN in terms of a and b.
uuur
b) X is the mid-point of MN. Find, in terms of a and b, the vector OX .

uuuur uuur uuuur uuuur uuur

a) OM  OP  PM  b  a ( PM is half of the vector PQ , i.e. a).
uuuur uuur uuur uuur uuur uuur
MN  MP  PO  ON  a  b  3a  2a  b ( ON is half of OR )

b) Using the answers to (a) we see that:

uuur uuuur uuuur
OX  OM  1 MN  b  a  1 (2a  b)
2 2

 baa 1b
2

 2a  1 b
2
Further examination question (June 1997 Paper 5)
R

Q is the mid-point of the side PR and T

Q is the mid-point of the side PS of
triangle PRS.
a uuur uuur
PQ  a and PT  b.

P T S
b

(a) Write down, in terms of a and b, the vectors

uuur uuur uuur
(i) QT (ii) PR (iii) RS .
(b) Write down one geometrical fact about QT and RS that could be deduced from your answers
to (a).

34 H
52
38 SI
-2 AN
33 D
03 M.
 1

Transformations
A transformation changes the position or the size of a 2-D shape in a particular way. You will deal with the six basic ways of
using transformations to change a shape:

(1)translation, (4) enlargement,

(2) reflection, Isometric Transformations (5)stretch, Non-Isometric Transformations
(3)rotation, (shape and size of an image is the same as the original) (6)and shear.(shape and/or size of an image is not same as the original)

When a transformation is carried out, the shape’s original position is called the object and its ‘new’position is called the image.
For translations, reflections and rotations, the object and image arecongruent.

[1]Translation (T)
A transformation which moves all the points of a plane figure through the same distance and same direction is called
Translation.

It is sometimes called a ‘sliding’ transformation, since the shape appears to slide from one position to another.
The object shapetranslates to the image position.

+
+ = =
+

where is an object point (a, b)

is translation matrix

is an image point (a’, b’)

The shape and size of the image does not change under a translation.

Each point moves according to the following instructions:

The translation matrix is

to right if a is positve , to left if a is negative
to up if b is positive , to down if b is negative

Example 1Solution:
2
Find the image of ΔABC under the translation .
4

Instructions:

Each point will move 2 units to right and 4 units up.

 2

Example 2Solution:
4
Find the image of ΔPQR under the translation .
−3

Instructions:

Each point will move 4 units right and 3 units down.

To describe a translation, state the translation matrix.

Example 3
Describe fully the single transformation that maps triangle ABC onto
triangle A’B’C’.

Instructions:
Count the number of units moved horizontally and vertically to reach A’
6
from A. It is 6 units to right and 2 units up. So is the translation matrix.
2

Solution:
4
Translation with
3

Example 4

Describe fully the single transformation that maps quadrilateral ABCD onto
quadrilateral A’B’C’D’.

Solution:
−7
Translation with
−3
 3

Practice Questions:
Question 1:
Describe fully the single transformation that maps triangle ABC onto triangle A’B’C’.
(a)Solution:

(b)
Solution:

Question 2:
2
Find the image of triangle ABC under the translation
−4

Question 3:

0 A
(1) Find the image of triangle A under the translation and label it with B.
−6

−7
(2) Find the image of triangle A under the translation and label it with C.
−3

−10
(3) Find the image of triangle A under the translation and label it with D.
−12
 4

Question 4:Draw the image, using the given translation.

4 
(a)  
 3 

 3
(b)  
 3

Question 5: Use vectors to describe these translations.

(a) A to G

(b) C to F

(c) F to D

(d) B to E

(e) G to F
 5

[2]reflection(M)

A reflection is a transformation of a 2-D shape so that it becomes the mirror

image of itself.

Notice that each point on the image is the same perpendicular distance from the
mirror line as the corresponding point on the object.

So, if you could ‘fold’ the whole diagram along the mirror line, every point on
the object would coincide with its reflection.

The mirror line (axis of symmetry or line of reflection) is the perpendicular

bisector of a line joining any point to its image.

Points that lie on the mirror line are called invariant points. Invariant points are those points which are unaffected by
transformation.

The shape and size of the image does not change under a reflection.

Example1Solution:

Find the image of Δ PQR under reflection in the line

x = 3 and label it with P’Q’R’.

Instructions:

Draw the mirror line, mark image point P’ such that

the perpendicular distance of P and P’ from the mirror
line is same. Repeat the procedure with each point.

Example 2

Find the image of ΔABC under reflection in the line

y = 2x + 2 and label it with A’B’C’.

Instructions:

Draw the mirror line, mark image point A’ such that the perpendicular
distance of A and A’ from the mirror line is same. Repeat the procedure
with each point.

To describe a reflection, state the equation of line of

reflection.

Example 3
 6

Describe fully the single transformation that maps triangle A onto triangle B.

Instructions:

Mark the mid point between original point and its image. Repeat the procedure for each pair of points. All these three mid
points lie on a straight line. This line is a line of reflection.

Solution:
Reflection in the line x = − 1

Practice Questions:

Q1:

(a) Reflect the triangle A in the line y = 1 and label it with B.

(b) Reflect the triangle A in the line x = 0 and label it with C. A

(c) Reflect the triangle A in the line y = − x and label it with D.

Q2:Draw the image after a reflection in the given mirror line.

 7

Q3: Draw these figures on squared paper and then draw the reflection of each in the given mirror line.

[3]rotation (R)
A transformation which rotates all points of a plane about a point (called centre of rotation) through a given angle in clockwise
or anticlockwise direction is called rotation.
Point present on the centre of rotation is called invariant point.

Note:

• The turn is called the angle of rotation and

the direction is expressed as clockwise or
anticlockwise.

• The position of the centre of rotation is

always specified.

• The angles of rotation that occur in O Level

examinations are a turn or 90°, a turn

or 180° and a turn or 270°.

• The rotations 180° clockwise and 180°

anticlockwise are the same.

Example 1 Solution:

Rotate the given rectangle ABCD

through90 clockwise with
centre of rotation (0, −1) and label it A’B’C’D’.

Instructions:

Join A with centre of rotation, rotate this line through 90 in

clockwise direction, mark the new position of A with A’ at the
same distance away from centre of rotation. Repeat the
procedure with each of the given points. Join A’B’C’D’ to get
the shape on new position.
 8

To describe a rotation, state the direction (clockwise or anti- clockwise), the angle of rotation (e.g. , ). the
coordinates of the point which is centre of rotation.

Example 2
Describe fully the single transformation which maps triangle ABC onto triangle PQR.

Instructions:
Construct perpendicular bisectors of AP, BQ, CR (any two). The point of intersection of these perpendicular bisectors is centre of
rotation (−3, −2).
Now join any original point with its image point to find the direction and angle of rotation.

Solution:
Rotation, anticlockwise90 , centre of rotation (−3, −2).

Practice Questions:

Question 1:

Describe fully the single transformation which maps triangle

ABC onto triangle A’B’C’.

Solution:
 9

Question 2:

Describe fully the single transformation which maps triangle G onto

triangle H.

Solution:

Question 3:
(a)Find the image of triangle A under rotation with centre of rotation (0, 0),
through90 clockwise and label it with B.

(b)Find the image of triangle A under rotation with centre of rotation (0, 0),
through180 and label it with C.

(c)Find the image of triangle A under rotation with centre of rotation (0, 2),
through90 anticlockwise and label it with D.
 10

Question 4:
Find the image of triangle ABC under rotation with centre of rotation (4, 4),
through 90 anticlockwise.

Question 5: Draw each image, using the given rotation about the centre of rotation, X.

Question 6: In the given diagram:

(a)Rotate triangle XYZ through 90° anticlockwise about the point (1, –2).
Label the image P.

(b) Reflect triangle P in the x-axis. Label this triangle Q.

(c) Describe the transformation that maps triangle Q onto triangle XYZ.
 11

[4]Enlargement(E)
An enlargement changes the size of a shape to give a similar image. It always has a centre ofenlargement and a scale factor.
Every length of the enlarged shape will be
=Original length × Scale factor

The distance of each image point on the enlargement from the centre of enlargement will be

=Distance of original point from centre of enlargement × Scale factor

 The diagram shows the enlargement of triangle ABC by scale factor 3

about the centre of enlargement X.
 The image obtained under enlargement is always similar to the original
shape.
Area of image = × Area of object.
Where k is the scale factor.( k = here k = )

Note:

• Each length on the enlargement A′B′C′ is three times the corresponding length
on the original shape. This means that the corresponding sides are in the same
ratio: AB:A′B′ = AC:A′C′ = BC:B′C′ = 1:3
• The distance of any point on the enlargement from the centre of enlargement is
three times longer than the distance from the corresponding point on the
original shape to the centre of enlargement.

There are two distinct ways to enlarge a shape: the ray method and the coordinate method.

Ray method
 This is the only way to construct an enlargement when the diagram is not
on a grid.
 Enlarge triangle ABC by scale factor 3 about the centre of enlargement X.
 Notice that the rays have been drawn from the centre of enlargement to
each vertex and beyond.
 The distance from X to each vertex on triangle ABC is measured and
multiplied by 3 to give the distance from X to each vertex A′, B′ and C′ for
the enlarged triangle A′B′C′.
 Once each image vertex has been found, the whole enlarged shape can
then be drawn.
 Check the measurements and see for yourself how the calculations have
been done.
 Notice again that the length of each side on the enlarged triangle is three times longer than the length of the
corresponding side on the original triangle.

Counting squares method

Enlarge the triangle ABC by scale factor 3 from the centre of enlargement (1, 2).

 To find the coordinates of each image vertex, first work out the horizontal
and vertical distances from each original vertex to the centre of enlargement.
 Then multiply each of these distances by 3 to find the position of each image
vertex.
 For example, to find the coordinates of C′ work out the distance from the
centre of enlargement (1, 2) to the point C(3, 5).

horizontal distance = 2
vertical distance = 3
Make these 3 times longer to give
new horizontal distance = 6
new vertical distance = 9
So the coordinates of C′ are (1 + 6, 2 + 9) = (7, 11)
Notice again that the length of each side is three times longer in the enlargement.
 12

Negative enlargement

A negative enlargement produces an image shape on the opposite side of the centre of
enlargement to the original shape…..

Triangle ABC has been enlarged by scale factor –2, with the centre of enlargement at
(1, 0).

You can enlarge triangle ABC to give triangle A′B′C′ by either the ray method or the
coordinate method.

You calculate the new lengths on the opposite side of the centre of enlargement to the
original shape.

Notice how a negative scale factor also inverts the original shape.

Fractional enlargement

Strange but true … you can have an enlargement in mathematics that is

actually smaller than the original shape!

Triangle ABC has been enlarged by a scale factor of about the centre of
enlargement O to give triangle A′B′C′.

To describe an enlargement, state: The scale factor, k. The centre of enlargement (invariant point)

Example 1:
Enlarge the rectangle WXYZ by scale factor ̶2 about the origin.
Instructions:
 Join the point W with origin using a dotted line.
Extend this line further to get point W’ such that
OW’=2OW.
 Repeat the procedure with all the pairs of
corresponding points.
 As scale factor is negative the actual point and its
image will be at opposite sides of centre of
enlargement.
 If the scale factor is positive both the actual and
image points will be on the same side of centre of
enlargement.

Example 2:

Describe fully the single transformation which maps

Triangle ABC onto triangle A’B’C’.

Instructions:
 Join point B with B’ and extend it.
 Join point C with C’ and extend it.
 These two extended lines will cross each other
at (0, 0). This is the centre of enlargement.
 k= ;k= = =

Solution:
Enlargement ; centre of enlargement (0, 0) ; scale factor =
 13

Practice Questions:
Question1:
(a) Enlarge the rectangle A by scale factor about the origin.
Label the image B.

(b) Write down the ratio of the lengths of the sides of rectangle A to the
lengths of the sides of rectangle B.

(c) Work out the ratio of the perimeter of rectangle A to the perimeter of
rectangle B.

(d) Work out the ratio of the area of rectangle A to the area of rectangle B.

Question2:

(a) Enlarge A by a scale factor of 3 about a centre (4, 5).

(b)Describe fully the transformation that maps the triangle A onto

triangles B.

(c)Describe fully the transformation that maps the triangle B onto

triangle A.

[5] Stretch (S)

A transformation which shifts the object points to new positions in the following way:
 Distance of A’ from invariant line = Stretch factor × distance of A from invariant line
 A’ will move perpendicular to the invariant line.
 The shape and size of the image changes under a stretch.
 the direction of stretch (always perpendicular to the invariant line.)
 Area of image = k × Area of object
Where k is the stretch factor.

Example 1:

Stretch the triangle ABC by the scale factor 3. The line x=0
(y axis) is the invariant line.
The coordinates of points are A(1, 5), B(2, 3) and C(1, 1).

Instructions:

 The perpendicular distance of point A is 1 unit

from the invariant line.
 Distance of A’ from invariant line=
Stretch factor × distance of A from invariant line
Distance of A’ from invariant line= 3 × 1 = 3
 The image of point A will move on a line
perpendicular to the invariant line so A’ is 3 units
away from invariant line.
 Repeat the procedure for each point of the
triangle ABC.
 14

To describe a stretch, state

The stretch factor k, equation of invariant line.

Example 2:

Describe fully the single transformation which maps

Triangle ABC onto triangle A’B’C’.

Instructions:
 The image points are moving on lines perpendicular
to x-axis. So x-axis or some horizontal line will be an
invariant line for this stretch.
 Join A with A’ and extend to x-axis, join B with B’ and
extend.
 If we think that x-axis is invariant line, then we will
verify it by calculating stretch factor for each pair of
corresponding points. If x-axis is not invariant line,
we will look for any other horizontal line.
 Now if x-axis is invariant line;
For A and A’:
Stretch factor=k =
K= =3
For B and B’:
K= =3
For C and C’:
K= =3

Solution: Stretch, stretch factor = 3, invariant line is x-axis.

Practice Questions: Solution:

Question1: Find the image A’B’C’D’ when the shape ABCD is stretched to
A’B’C’D’with a stretch factor 2 and the x-axis invariant.

Question2:
Solution:

Find the image A’B’C’D’ when the shape ABCD is stretched with a stretch
factor 2 and the x- axis invariant.

(Note: The point C is below the invariant line and will move in downward direction)
 15

[6] Shear (H)

A transformation which shifts the object points to new positions in the following way:
 AA’ = Shear factor × distance of A frominvariant line
(where AA’ is distance between A and A’.)
 A’ will move parallel to the invariant line.
 The size of the image does not change under a shear.
 The shape will change under a shear.

Example 1:
Find the image ΔA’B’C’ when the
shape ABC is transformed under
shear with a shear factor 2 and the
x- axis is invariant line.
The coordinates of points are A(1, 1),
B(2, 2) and C(1, 3).

Instructions:

 AA’ = shear factor × distance

of point A from invariant
line.
AA’ = 2 × 1 = 2
Point A will move on a line
Invariant line
parallel to the invariant line
and AA’ = 2
 BB’ = shear factor × distance of point B from invariant line.
BB’ = 2 × 2 = 4
Point B will move on a line parallel to the invariant line and BB’ = 4
 CC’ = shear factor × distance of point A from invariant line.
CC’ = 2 × 3 = 6
Point C will move on a line parallel to the invariant line and CC’ = 2
Join the image points to get the new shape.

To describe a shear, state

(1) Shear factor,
(2) invariant line (write equation if possible),
(3) direction of invariant line (always parallel to the invariant line.)

Example 2:
Describe fully the single transformation which maps
triangle ABC onto triangle A’B’C’.

Instructions:
 You can observe that the size of the image is
not changing but only the shape is changing. So
it is shear transformation.
 Extend AC and A’C’ to get a point of
intersection P. (A’C’ is the image length of AC)
 Extend BC and B’C’ to get a point of
intersection Q. (B’C’ is the image length of BC)
 Join P and Q two points to make a straight line.
This line is an invariant line.
 Shear factor = = =2
Shear factor = = =2
Shear factor = = =2

Solution:This isShear transformation, shear factor = 2, invariant line is x-axis

 16

Practice Questions:

Question1:

(a) Describe fully the transformation which maps ΔABC onto ΔABC’.

(b) What can you say about the area of triangle ABC and triangle ΔABC’?

Solution:

(a)

(b)

Question2:

Describe fully the transformation which maps ABCD onto A’B’C’D’.

Solution:

Question3:

(a) Find the image of the rectangle ABCD under a shear factor 2
with the y axis invariant. Label it with P.

(b) Find the image of the rectangle ABCD under a shear factor 2
with the x axis invariant. Label it with Q.

Question3:

Describe fully the transformation which maps ABCD onto ABC’D’.

Solution: