MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

III Semester (3ME4-22)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Govt. Engineering College, Ajmer
 ENGINEERING COLLEGE AJMER
Ajmer, Rajasthan, India

Department of Mechanical Engineering

LAB MANUAL
Name of the Course : MATERIAL TESTING LAB

Course Code : (3ME4-22)

Year & Semester : 2ND Year IIIrd Semester

Lab Coordinator : Dr. Jai Kishan

Prerequisite :

1. Vision of the Institute:

To foster harmonious value oriented environment for all in an efficient innovative manner to
contribute nation through excellence in academics and research.

2. Mission of the Institute:

• To nurture value oriented competent professionals through conceptual, analytical and

technical knowledge for overall sustainable societal development.
• To achieve academic excellence in engineering, technology and science by imparting
quality based education.
• To strengthen managerial and entrepreneurial skills to start new ventures.
• To inculcate inquisitive and research oriented approach.

3. Vision of Mechanical Engineering Department:

To contribute towards building technically competent, socially aware and professionally ethical
mechanical engineers.

4. Mission of Mechanical Engineering Department:

➢ To develop core competency by imparting sound theoretical, analytical and practical
know how
➢ To enhance employability skills and develop entrepreneurship aptitude of the students

➢ To educate and develop human resources for industry, academia, research and
development
5. Program Education Objectives (PEOs):

➢ To impart conceptual and fundamental knowledge of design, thermal, production,

industrial and other interdisciplinary streams
 ➢ To enable students to apply fundamentals of mechanical engineering in solving
practical problems by working in a team
➢ Students shall be groomed for employability and entrepreneurship by involving
experts from academia and industry
➢ Students shall be capable of solving industrial and experimental problems using
software and other associated skills
6. Program outcomes (POs):

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

PO1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.

PO2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems

and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.

PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.

PO7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.

PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.

PO9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

PO10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.

PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

PO12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

7. Mechanical Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs):

PSO1: Students shall be capable of applying fundamental knowledge in solving problems in
the domain of mechanical engineering
PSO2: Ability to design mechanical components, develop their production process and
evaluate performance on quality, environment and economic measures
PSO3: Students shall be capable of applying analytical, practical and soft skills in solving
problems in the domain of mechanical engineering
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Experiment No. 1

Objective:

(a) Study of various crystal structures through models BCC, FCC, HCP, tetrahedral and
octahedral voids.

FCC. BCC and HCP Metals

Introduction
The majority of common metals have either a Face Centre Cubic Structure, fig la, a Body Centred
Cubic Structure, fig.lb or an Hexagonal Close Packed structure fig.lc. These are usually abbreviated
to FCC, BCC or HCP structures respectively. The major differences between these structures is the
Unit Cell, the building block. These are shown in fig.l. The different cells leads to different physical
properties of bulk metals. For example, FCC metals, Cu, Au, Ag, are usually soft and 'ductile',
which means they can be bent and shaped easily. BCC metals are less ductile but stronger, eg iron,
while HCP metals are usually brittle. Zinc is HCP and is difficult to bend without breaking, unlike
copper. Many other features depend upon the crystal structure of metals, such as density,
deformation processes, alloying behaviour, and much more. Thus, it is important to understand
metal structures.

Face Center Cubic Structure

Face Center Cubic Structure consists of an atom at each cube corner and an atom in the center of
each cube face. A hard sphere concept can be used to describe atomic packing in unit cells. The
FCC structure is shown in fig.la. The distance along unit cell edges is called the lattice parameter,
OQ. For cubic crystals the lattice parameter is identical in all three crystal axes. If a corner atom of
the FCC unit cell is removed, six atoms are revealed in a hexagonal array. These atoms are closed
packed, ie they cannot be packed any tighter, and each atom touches its neighbor in any direction.
Since a close packed plane such as this can be achieved by removing each of the eight corner atoms
and because eight such planes form an octahedron, they are called the 'Octahedral' planes. Thus the
FCC structure has four sets of two parallel planes. As parallel planes with the same atomic
arrangement are equivalent the FCC structure has four equivalent close packed planes. Using Miller
indices from the previous crystallography experiment show them to be {111} planes. Thus the FCC
structure has four {111} close packed planes. The atomic arrangement is shown in fig.2a. Three
close packed directions are shown as well.These correspond to (110) directions diagonally across
cube faces. There are three of these for each {111} plane. Therefore, FCC structures have twelve
possible combinations of {111} and (110).

Body Centered Cubic Structure

In this structure, atoms exist at each cube corner and one atom is at the center of the cube, fig lb.
Comparison of figs, la and lb show that the BCC is much emptier than the FCC structure. In this
case there are no close packed planes only close packed directions. Fig.2b shows the atomic
arrangement of {110} planes in a BCC structure which are the planes of highest atomic density.
There are 6 planes of this type, and each contains two close packed directions. Consideration of fig.
1b and 2b shows the closed packed direction joins diagonally opposite corners of the BCC unit cell.
It is therefore a (111) direction. As there are two (111) for each {110} plane there is a total of 12
possible combinations of {110} and (111).

Hexagonal Close Packed Structure

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The hexagonal structure is shown in fig. lc. A close packed plane at the bottom and top of the unit
cell is separated by 3 atoms in the cell center, which are also part of a closed packed plane. Closed
packed planes are of the {001} family of which there is only 1 equivalent type. Fig.2c shows the
atomic arrangement and directions of close packing. These are of the (2TTO) family and there are
three for each {0001}. Thus, hexagonal structures have only three combinations of {0001} and
(2TTO). It should be noted that the lattice parameter differs with direction in HCP structures. Along
a1,a2 and a3, the lattice parameter is identical, but along the c axis it is always greater. This gives
rise to the c/a ratio.

Stacking Sequence

FCC
An FCC structure has close packed octahedral planes, but these are tilted relative to the crystal
axes. The FCC structure is made up of layers of octahedral,-type planes. These stack in a sequence
ABC ABC as shown in fig.3a. A, B and C are atom center sites relative to a close packed layer. If
atoms in the first-close packed layer sit in position A they form the arrangement shown in fig. 3a.
The next row of atoms will sit in troughs between the hard sphere atoms, positions B or C.
However both positions cannot be occupied. For FCC structures, the second layer of atoms chooses
site B. Troughs left after the second layer are A or C, see fig.3a. Choice of C produces a stacking
sequence of ABC, the FCC structure Stacking Faults in FCC Structures.
The packing of ABC ABC can inadvertently be upset by a wrong stacking sequence. For example
after AB, the atoms have choice of A or C positions. If it chooses A, the stacking sequence will be:
ABCABCAB ABCABC
The dashed line is where the stacking is out of the FCC sequence. A layer of C atoms is missed.
This is called an 'instrinsic1 fault as a layer is missed. An 'extrinsic' fault is from addition of a layer,
eg. ABCAB A CAB
In this case a layer of A atoms was added. Stacking faults are very important to dislocation
dynamics in FCC metals.

BCC
BCC structure has no closed-packed planes and therefore does not have a stacking sequence.
Neither does at have stacking faults

HCP
HCP structures have closed packed planes. If the first layer at the bottom of the unit cell is the A
position, the second layer of three atoms in the center of the unit cell has a choice of B or C. It
chooses B. The third layer, ie the top plane of the unit cell, can choose A or C, but chooses A. So
HCP has a stacking sequence of AB AB AB.
Atoms Per Unit Cell When considering atoms per unit cell, remember some atoms are shared by
other cells in the structure in planes above and below as well as the same plane as the unit cell
being considered.
FCC
FCC has eight comer atoms shared by eight other cell and six face center atoms shared by two cells.
Thus the # of atoms per cell is
8x1/8 + 6 x 1 / 2 = 4 atoms per cell for FCC BCC
Again eight corner atoms shared by eight cells and 1 center atom fully contained in the unit cell. So
the # of atoms per cell for BCC is
8x1/8 + 1 = 2 atoms per unit cell for BCC HCP

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12 corner atoms shared by six unit cells each, two center face atoms shared by two cells and three
atoms fully contained by the unit cell. Thus,
12 x 1/6 + 2 x 1/2 + 3 = 6 atoms per unit cell for HCP.
Coordination Number
Coordination number relates the number of equidistant nearest neighbours an atom has, and is
different for FCC, BCC, and HCP structures

FCC
The atom in the center of a close packed plane, such as fig.3a, has six nearest neighbours in the
octahedral plane above (ie B positions), and 3 below, (ie C positions).
Therefore the coordination number of FCC structures is 6 + 3 + 3 = 12.

BCC

BCC structures have no close packed planes. Its coordination number is just the number of
equidistant neighbours from the atom in the center of the unit cell. BCC coordination number is
therefore 8, as each cube corner atom is the nearest neighbour.

HCP
HCP is a closed-packed structure and therefore, by the same argument as that used for FCC, it has a
coordination number of 12 (provided the c/a ratio shown in fig. lc is 1.633. A c/a = 1.633 is
required for perfect packing of spheres. Magnesium is nearest to the perfect number with 1.62 c/a
ratio.
Interstitial Sites
Consideration of the packing of spheres shows gaps will exist. These are called Interstitial Sites.
Two types exist, octahedral and tetrahedral. The six atoms surrounding an octahedral interstitial site
form a regular octahedron, and similarly the atoms around a tetrahedral site form a regular
tetrahedron. These sites are shown in fig.4 the three most common metallic structures.

(C) Closed packed hexagonal (A3)

Fig 1 Atomic arrangement of the commonest metallic structures.

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Exp 1 (B) Materials and Equipment’s Required:

Material identification of, say, 50 common items kept in a box.

Theory:

Introduction to Eng.Materials:

Since the earliest days of the evolution of mankind, the main distinguishing features
between human begins and other mammals has been the ability to use and develop materials to
satisfy our human requirements. Nowadays we use many types of materials, fashioned in many
different ways, to satisfy our requirements for housing, heating, furniture, clothes, transportation,
entertainment, medical care, defense and all the other trappings of a modern, civilized society. Most
materials doesn't exist in its pure shape, it is always exist as a ores. During the present century the
scope of metallurgical science has expanded enormously, so that the subject can now be studied
under the following headings:

a) Physical metallurgy

b) Extraction metallurgy

c) Process metallurgy

In the recent years studying the metallurgy science gave to humanity an ever growing range of
useful alloys. Whilst many of these alloys are put to purposes of destruction, we must not forget
that others have contributed to the material progress of mankind and to his domestic comfort. This
understanding of the materials resources and nature enable the engineers to select the most
appropriate materials and to use them with greatest efficiency in minimum quantities whilst causing
minimum pollution in their extraction, refinement and manufacture.

Selection of materials:

Let’s now start by looking at the basic requirements for selecting materials that are suitable for a
particular application. For example shows a connecter joining electric cables. The plastic casing
has been partly cut away to show the metal connector. Plastic is used for the outer casing because it
is a good electrical insulator and prevents electric shock if a person touches it. It also prevents the
conductors touching each other and causing a short circuit. As well as being a good insulator the
plastic is cheap, tough, and easily moulded to shape. It has been selected for the casing because of
these properties – that is, the properties of toughness, good electrical insulation, and ease of
moulding to shape. It is also a relatively low cost material that is readily available.

The metal joining piece and its clamping screws are made from brass. This metal has been chosen
because of its special properties. These properties are good electrical conductivity, ease of
extruding to shape, ease of machining (cutting to length, drilling and tapping the screw threads),
adequate strength and corrosion resistance. The precious metal silver is an even better conductor,
but it would be far too expensive for this application and it would also be too weak and soft.

Thus the reasons for selecting the materials in the above examples can be summarized as :

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Commercial factors such as: Cost, availability, ease of manufacture.

Engineering properties of materials such as: Electrical conductivity, strength, toughness, ease of
forming by extrusion, forging and casting, machinability and corrosion resistance.

Classification of Engg. Materials:-

Metals- Metals are elemental substances capable of changing their shape permanently. They are
good conductors of heats and electricity. These may be of ferrous or non-ferrous type. The behavior
and properties of ferrous metals depend on the percentage and the form (phase and constitutes) of
carbon present in them.

Non-ferrous metal- Non-ferrous metals contain Fe and C as there constituent. Aluminum, copper,
silver, nickel, zinc etc. are some examples. They are good conductors of electricity. Ag is most
malleable. Au is most ductile.

Ceramics- Ceramics are generally metallic or non-metallic oxides physically separable and
chemically homogenous constituent of material consisting of phases are also ceramics. Rocks,
glasses, fireclay and firebricks are ceramics.

Organic polymers- they are relatively inert and light, and generally have a high degree of
plasticity. These are derived mainly from the hydrocarbons. These consist of covalent bonds
formed by carbon, chemically combined with oxygen and hydrogen. Ex- Bakelite, polyethylene,
nylon.

Composites- Composites may be inorganic or organic. They have two or more constituent of
dissimilar properties. The two major constituent may be metals and ceramics, or metals and
polymers, or ceramics and polymers.

Alloys- Alloy is a combination of two or more metals. They possess properties quite different from
those of their constituent metals. An alloy is prepared for a specific purpose to make the particular
requirement of an application.

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STEEL and IRON on the basis of percentage of carbon

Percentage of carbon Specific names Abbreviated names Steel or iron

Purest to 0.05 Wrought iron WI

0.05 to 0.1 Dead mild steel DMS

0.10 to 0.30 Mild steel MS PLAIN CARBON

0.30 to 0.70 Medium carbon steel MCS STEEL

0.70 to 1.50 High carbon steel HCS

1.50 to 2.00 Semi steel --

2.00 to 4.50 Cast iron CI

4.50 to 6.67 Pig iron PI IRON

6.67 to more Ore --

Classified group of materials with examples and uses:-

s.no Group of materials Examples Uses

1. Ferrous metals Iron and steel Structures, machines, alloy

macking, tools

2. Non-ferrous metals Cu, Al, Si, Sb, Co Conductors, semiconductor

3. Ferrous alloys Invar, stainless steel, alnico, Precision measuring

high speed steel (HCS) tapes,magnets, cutting tools

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4. Non-ferrous alloys Phospohor bronze, brass, Bushes of bearings, springs,

duralumin, babbits utencils

5. Ceramics ZrO2, SiO2, B2O3, Na2O, Al2O3 Refractories and furnace

lining, lens

6. Organic polymers Polyethylene, nylon, epoxy, Domestic articles,

polystyrene biomedical uses, composites

construction

7. Inorganic polymers Reinforced cement concrete Bridge structure, multi-

stroyed buildings

8. Rubber fibre composites Metals, carbon or polymer Tyres, brake lining,

reinforced rubber

9. Metal ceramic Cermet Space going vehicles,

particulate rockets, missiles

10. Fibrous polymeric Polymer reinforced with the Automobiles, sports,

composites fibres of glasses, carbon, boron, structures, aircrafts, bodies

graphite, Kevlar of computer and radar

11. Metal-metal composites Aluminium conductor steel Conductor in high voltage

reinforced(ACSR) transmission and

distribution

12. Polymer-cement Polymer cement concrete Marine works, desalination

composites (PCC) system, chemical industries

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Structure levels, dimensional range, examples and magnification of visualization

Structure level Dimensional range Example Magnification (x)

Macro 10-1 to 10-3 Fractured pieces of Naked eye to 10 x
metals, internal
symmetry of quartz
Micro 10-4 to 10-6 Crystals 200 x to 1500 x
Sub 10-6 to 10-8 Crystals imperfection 10000 x to 100000 x
Crystal 10-8 to 10-10 Unit cells X-ray diffraction
technique
Electronic 10-10 Electrons in the Spectroscopic
outermost shell of the techniques
atoms
Nuclear Still smaller Protons and neutrons Nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR)
techniques

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Classification of materials

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Identification of metal and alloys:-

Physical Al Cu Pb Brass CI WI Mild steel Platinum HSS Ag Ni

Properties

Colour Dull Reddish Bluish Yellow Grey -- Bit bluish Shiny Medium White Yellowish
silver brown grey brown metallic grey white

Sound Dull Dull Dull Slight Very Dull Slight Ringing Low -- --
ringing dull ringing ringing

Weight 2.69 8.91 11.4 -- 7.22 7.72 7.60 22.17 -- 10.0 8.61
Magnetic No No No No Yes Yes Yes -- Yes No Yes

Blending Good Very Very Good Brittle Very good Good Brittle Very less
good good good good

Filing Soft Soft Very Fairly Brittle Soft Soft Soft Brittle Very Less soft
soft soft soft

Spark -- --- -- -- White White Light -- Chrome -- --

spark spark straw yellow
colour spark
spark

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Experiment No. 2

Objective:

Specimen preparation for metallographic examination/micro structural examination-cutting, grinding, polishing,

etching.

Materials and Equipment’s Required:

1. Metallurgical microscope (magnification at least up to 500X)

2. Polishing and grinding machine.

3. Specimens.

Introduction

There are two examination methods in metallography:

I) Macroscopy

2) Microscopy

Metallurgical Microscope

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In macroscopy the examination of the structural characteristics or chemical characteristics of a metal or an alloy
is done by the unaided eye or with the aid of a low-power microscope or binocular, usually under l0x. In
microscopy similar examination is done with the prepared metal specimens, employing magnifications with the
optical microscope of from 100x to as high as 2000x.

Specimen preparation

1. Cutting :

When cutting a specimen from a larger piece of material, care must be taken to ensure that it is representative of
the features found in the larger sample, or that it contains all the information required to investigate a feature of
interest. One problem is that preparation of the specimen may change the microstructure of the material, for
example through heating, chemical attack, or mechanical damage. The amount of damage depends on the
method by which the specimen is cut and the material itself. Cutting with abrasives may cause a high amount of
damage, while the use of a low-speed diamond saw can lessen the problems. There are many different cutting
methods, although some are used only for specific specimen types. MTI provides the SYJ-150 low speed
diamond saw for cutting OM (optical microscope), SEM (scanning electron microscope), and even TEM
(transmission electron microscope) specimen.

2. Grinding : A small piece of specimen is cut by a metal-cutting-saw. After cutting operation, burrs on the
edges of the specimen should be carefully removed by a fine file or coarse grinding paper. The silicon carbide
grinding papers are held flat in a unit containing water facility for lubrication purpose. Each unit contains four
grades of papers, starting with grade 400 (coarse) and finishing with grade 1200 (fine). Grinding of the work
piece is done by starting with the coarse papers and then continuing with the fine papers. In each stage, grinding
is done by rubbing the specimen backwards and forwards on the grinding paper in one direction only, until the
surface is completely ground, that is, until only grinding marks due to this particular paper can be seen to cover
the whole surface. The specimen is washed thoroughly to remove coarse silicon carbide particles before
proceeding to a finer paper. The direction of grinding is changed from paper to paper, so that the removal of
previous grinding marks is easily observed. The extra time spent on each paper should be increased as the finer
papers are used. At the end of the grinding sequence, the specimen is washed thoroughly and dried. Now, the
specimen is ready for polishing.

3. Polishing

The polishing is done on rotating wheels covered by a special cloth. Alumina is employed as polishing agent.
The 1-micron size is commonly used, but the total polishing time shortened by starting on the 7 or 3 micron
grade. The pad should be kept well supplied with lubricant. The specimen should be held firmly in contact with
the polishing wheel, but excessive pressure should be avoided. During polishing the specimen should be rotated
or moved around the wheel so as to give an even polish. The specimen should be thoroughly cleaned and dried
between each wheel.

4. Etching

Before etching, it is essential to ensure that the polished surface is grease and smear free. If the final polishing
has involved the use of magnesia (in the form of an aqueous paste of fine magnesia) or alumina (in the form of
an aqueous suspension of fine alumina), then thorough washing followed by drying off with acetone or alcohol
will give a suitable surface, although it must not be fingered afterwards. Etching is generally done by swabbing.
Etching times will vary from specimen to specimen, however, a good general, procedure is to observe the
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surface during etching, and to remove the specimen when evidence of the grains first appears. Microscopical
examination will then reveal whether the degree of etching is sufficient. Further etching can then follow to
strengthen up the details as required. After each etching, the specimen should be thoroughly washed in running
water, followed by drying off with acetone or alcohol

* As a guide the following etchants are commonly used:

Alcoholic Ferric Chloride - copper alloys

Mixed Acids - aluminum alloys

Nital (ethyl alcohol+ 2% HN03) - iron and steel

Dilute HCI - zinc alloys

Theory:

MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION

The microstructural study of a material can provide information regarding the morphology and distribution of
constituent phases as well as the nature and pattern of certain crystal imperfections. Optical metallography is a
basic tool of material scientists, since the equipment is relatively inexpensive and the images can be obtained and
interpreted easily. Distribution and morphology of the phases can be studied and, if their properties are known, a
quantitative analysis of the micrographs provides some information about the bulk properties of the specimen. A
limited study of line and surface informations is also possible with the optical microscope. In order to obtain
reproducible results, with good contrast in the image, the specimen surface is polished and subsequently etched
with appropriate reagents before microscopic examination. In a polished specimen, the etching not only
delineates grain boundaries, but also allows the different phases to be distinguished by differences in brightness,
shape, and color of the grain. Differences in contrast may result from differences in light absorption
characteristics of the phases. Etching results in preferential attack or preferential colouring of the surface. The
preferential attack is electrochemical corrosion; it is well known that different materials corrode at different
rates. Grain boundaries are often anodic to the bulk metal in the interior of the grain and so are etched away
preferentially and delineated. Staining is produced by the deposition of solid etch product on the specimen
surface. This is formed by chemical reaction between the etchant and the specimen. Under favorable conditions
the use of a proper etchant enables the identification of constituents. Failure analysis depends a great deal on
metallographic examination.

Microstructural examination can provide quantitative information about the following parameters: 1) The grain
size of specimens 2) The amount of interfacial area per unit volume 3) The dimensions of constituent phases 4)
The amount and distribution of phases.

Magnifications up to 1000x can be obtained with a resolution of 2 Vm. For grain size measurements, the grains
along a line, circle, or within a known area are counted. It would be useful to obtain an average value of grain
diameter from a microstructural section. In linear intercept method, the grains intercepted by a theoretical line on
the specimen surface are counted (Fig. 1). The number of grain boundaries intersected per unit length of a test
line (nL) can be noted. The average grain size is indicated by the inverse of nL, corrected for the magnification,
M, of the micrograph. In general, then, the average grain diameter, d, is given by

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the average grain diameter, d, is given by d= C/nL.M where C is some constant greater than 1 ( Typically, a
value of C=1.5 is adequate).

Fig.1 Linear intercept method for grain size determination

Experimental

Specimens are going to be polished and etched as explained above. With an unmounted specimen, even if it is
almost level, it is best to fix it on a glass or metal slide by means of a piece of plasticine. The prepared surface is
made level by means of a suitable levelling device. The correct procedure is to start with low power examination
in order to obtain an overall picture, and then successively higher magnifications are used to resolve the fine
details. In focusing, the stage is gradually moved towards the objective and when the image appears, focusing is
completed with the fine adjustment.

It is almost good practice to examine specimens first in the polished condition

as certain features, such as the presence of inclusions, cracks, porosity, and sometimes even the different phases,
are revealed. This is followed by an examination in the etched condition. Do not examine one or two fields only.
It should always be remembered that the structure of a given specimen exists in three dimensions, whereas the
prepared surface represents a two-dimensional picture in the plane of the micro-section. This fact should be
taken into account in the interpretation of the geometry of any particular configuration.

Procedure:

1. Prepare the specimen.

2. Mount the specimen on the table of metallurgical microscope. Record the objective magnification and eye
piece magnification and determine total magnification.

3. Focus the surface of polished and etched specimen using coarse adjustment and then fine adjustment.

4. Observe the microstructure and record it.

5. Compare the microstructure with the standard .

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Results : The investigation result of the optical microscopy is going to be recorded as follows:

1. Examine each specimen and sketch typical microstructure

2. Estimate the carbon content of the steels.

3. Calculate the average grain diameter of the micrograph, using linear intercept method.

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Experiment no. 3
Objective:
Comparative study of microstructures of different given specimens (mild steel, gray C.I., brass, copper etc.)
Theory:
A. MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION
The microstructural study of a material can provide information regarding the morphology and distribution of
constituent phases as well as the nature and pattern of certain crystal imperfections. Optical metallography is a
basic tool of scientists, since the equipment is relatively inexpensive and the images can be obtained and
interpreted easily. Distribution and morphology of the phases can be studied and, if their properties are known, a
quantitative analysis of the micrographs provides some information about the bulk properties of the specimen. A
limited study of line and surface informations is also possible with the optical microscope. In order to obtain
reproducible results, with good contrast in the image, the specimen surface is polished and subsequently etched
with appropriate reagents before microscopic examination. In a polished specimen, the etching not only
delineates grain boundaries, but also allows the different phases to be distinguished by differences in brightness,
shape, and color of the grain. Differences in contrast may result from differences in light absorption
characteristics of the phases. Etching results in preferential attack or preferential colouring of the surface. The
preferential attack is electrochemical corrosion; it is well known that different materials corrode at different
rates. Grain boundaries are often anodic to the bulk metal in the interior of the grain and so are etched away
preferentially and delineated. Staining is produced by the deposition of solid etch product on the specimen
surface. This is formed by chemical reaction between the etchant and the specimen. Under favorable conditions
the use of a proper etchant enables the identification of constituents. Failure analysis depends a great deal on
metallographic examination.

Microstructural examination can provide quantitative information about the following parameters:
1) The grain size of specimens
2) The amount of interfacial area per unit volume
3) The dimensions of constituent phases
4) The amount and distribution of phases.

Experimental
Specimens are going to be polished and etched as explained above. With an unmounted specimen, even if it is
almost level, it is best to fix it on a glass or metal slide by means of a piece of plasticine. The prepared surface is
made level by means of a suitable levelling device.
The correct procedure is to start with low power examination in order to obtain an overall picture, and then
successively higher magnifications are used to resolve the fine details. In focusing, the stage is gradually moved
towards the objective and when the image appears, focusing is completed with the fine adjustment.
It is almost good practice to examine specimens first in the polished condition, as certain features, such as the
presence of inclusions, cracks, porosity, and sometimes even the different phases, are revealed. This is followed
by an examination in the etched condition. Do not examine one or two fields only. It should always be
remembered that the structure of a given specimen exists in three dimensions, whereas the prepared surface
represents a two-dimensional picture in the plane of the micro-section. This fact should be taken into account in
the interpretation of the geometry of any particular configuration.

Results
The investigation result of the optical microscopy is going to be recorded as follows:
1. Examine each specimen and sketch typical microstructure
2. Estimate the carbon content of the steels.
3. Calculate the average grain diameter of the micrograph, using linear intercept method.

B. Metallography EXAMINATION

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Metallography is essentially the study of structural characteristic of metals or alloys. It deals with the
microscopic examination of a prepared metal specimen employing magnifications from 100 X to as high as 2000
X. By studying the microstructure of metals & alloys, its grain size, shape & distribution of secondary phases &
non metallic inclusion can be seen, all of which profoundly influence the mechanical properties.
Equipment:
1. Metallurgical microscope (magnification at least up to 500X)
2. Polishing and grinding machine.
3. Specimens.
Procedure:
1. Prepare the specimen.
2. Mount the specimen on the table of metallurgical microscope. Record the objective magnification and eye
piece magnification and determine total magnification.
3. Focus the surface of polished and etched specimen using coarse adjustment and then fine adjustment.
4. Observe the microstructure and record it.
5. Compare the microstructure with the standard.

MICRO STRUCTURE

Micro-structure image of various materials :

Low The light coloured region

Carbon of the micro structure is
Steel the ferrite. The grain
boundaries between the
ferrite grains can be seen
quite clearly

Gray cast Microstructure reveals

iron dark flake type graphite in
the metallic matrix of
ferrite and pearlite. Ferrite
appears white and is
observed more in vicinity
of graphite. Pearlite is well
resolved at many location
showing lamellar structure.

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tool steel Bright spherical carbides
and alloy carbides are
observed in dark matrix
matrix of pearlite.
Carbides are precipitated
during spheroidising
annealing.

Low-carbon A typical two phase

steel structure is observed.
Ferrite is bright phase
whereas pearlite is dark
phase. Ferrite occupies
about 25% volume and
pearlite is the balance.
Grains of ferrite phase are
polygonal and equiaxed.

Medium- A typical two phase

carbon steel structure is observed.
Ferrite is bright phase.
Ferrite occupies about
50% volume and pearlite is
the balance is the balance.
Grains of ferrite phase are
polygonal and equiaxed.
Pearlite is unresolved.

Pure iron The dark regions are the

pearlite.
Small spots within the
ferrite grains are inclusions
or impurities such as
oxides and sulphides

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carbon Carburising is a heat
steels treatment in which the
surface of the low carbon
steel is enriched with
carbon by diffusion
process at high
temperature. The structure
is the cross section of the
carburised mild steel
structure in the surface
region.

Brass The microstructure of the

cast tin bronzes consists of
cored dendrites, they have
a composition gradient of
increasing tin as they
grow. The last liquid to
solidify is enriched with
tin upon cooling, and
forms alpha and delta
phases.
High- Secondary phases are
carbon steel mainly retained austenite
and martensite-austenite
constituents, and cementite
can be ignored for low
carbon content (0.086%
maximum). The volume
fraction of MA tends to be
higher in steel B than that
in steel A. A large number
of M-A islands in steel B
are fine and dispersed
Copper- Nominal Composition:
Nikel Cu 85.35-88.35, Ni 8.5-
10.5, Sn 1.2-2.8, Fe 0.6,
Zn 0.50, Pb 0.05

Copper-nickel, 10% Ni,

2% Sn

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Aluminum Recrystallized grains in the
alloys weld nugget of an Al2024
friction stir weld (Pouget
(Al6061 & Reynolds, 2008)
alloy)

Magnesium optical microstructure of

alloys as-cast Mg–10Gd–6Y–
Mg–10Gd– 1.5Zn–0.5Zr alloy. It can
6Y–1.5Zn– be seen that eutectic
0.5Zr alloy compounds are distributed
at grain boundaries, and
the average grain size is
approximately 80 µm

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EXPERIMENT No: - 04

Aim:
Heat treatment experiments such as annealing, normalizing, quenching, case hardening and comparison of
hardness before and after.
Theory:
Heat treatment of steel is a process of heating and cooling in the solid state to achieve desired mechanical
properties. This involves heating the steel to a specific temperature, soaking it for a certain period & then cooling
it at a suitable rate. The different types of heat treatment process in this experiment covered are process
annealing to soften the steel by heating below critical temp. (650-700C) & air cooling; hardening for increasing
hardness & mechanical properties by heating above upper critical temp (830-860C) and quenching in oil/ water.

Equipment required:

1. Muffle furnace with on-off controller & temp. indicator- temp up to 10000C
2. Oil quenching tub, water quenching tub & fan.
3. Tongs, safely gloves & goggles
4. Rockwell hardness tester

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Procedure:

1. Measure the Rockwell hardness of steel specimen as follows:

1.1 Place the semi-polished specimen on the platform.
1.2 Insert the diamond cone indentor for C scale & 1/16 “steel ball for B scale inside the sleeve & tighten the
screw. Check that there is no movement of indentor.
1.3 Set the required load (150kg for C scale & 100kg for B scale) by turning the knob provided by the side of the
machine.
1.4 Bring the specimen into contact with indentor by rotating the elevating screw by rotating the star handle. By
further elevating the specimen, the minor load of 10kg is applied such that pointer indicates ‘σ’ on the smaller
graduated arc scale & the longer pointer indicates on the outer C scale & ‘B 30’ on the inner ‘B’ scale.
1.5 Now turn the lever away from the observer slowly. The longer pointer moves away & when it comes to rest,
wait 8 to 10 seconds for the entire application of major load.
1.6 Now turn the lever slowly to-words the observer i.e., to the original position. Now the entire load is being off
from the specimen.
1.7 Now the longer pointer moves back and when it comes to a rest position, note the reading on the outer black
dial ( C scale) & on the inner red dial (B scale).
1.8 The reading on the 3 trial readings are taken at separate locations on the surface of the specimen. The
average value of these three readings gives the true Rockwell hardness number which is reported as HRC &
HRB for Rockwell in C scale & Rockwell in B scale respectively.
1.9 The results are tabulated as follows:

Sl. No. Material Type of Std. Load in Hardness Average

Indentor Kg HRC/HRB
Major Minor T1 T2 T3
1

2. Keep the cylindrical specimen of EN8/ EN24 in the muffle furnace using tongs & wearing safety gloves &
goggles. Set the temp for respective heat treatment processes as below.
Annealing- 650-700C
Normalizing – 830-860C
Hardening- 830-860C
3. Heat the specimen at the rate of approx. 100C -1500C/ hr. till it reaches the temp set for respective heat
treatment process.
4. Sock for 15-20 minutes at this temp.
5. Cool the specimen as follows.
Process Annealing- Furnace cooling up to 200C & then remove using tongs & gloves.
Normalising – Remove specimen using tongs gloves & cool in still air by using a fan up to room temp.

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Hardening – Remove specimen using tongs & gloves & quench in a tib of water for EN8 and a tub of oil for EN
24 steel
6. After attaining room temp., clean the specimen using emery cloth & remove rough surface with emery belt
driven by a motor.
7. Measure the Rockwell hardness. The difference in hardness before & after heat treatment indicates the effect
of heat treatment.
Record the results as below.

Observation:
Sl. No. Material Temp 0 C Cooling / Hardness Remarks
Quenching RHN
Medium
Before heat treatment /After heat treatment

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EXPERIMENT No: - 05

Aim: Study of Microstructure and hardness of steel at different rates of cooling. Microstructure examination of
white cast iron.
Theory:
INTRODUCTION
Mechanical properties of steels are strongly connected to their microstructure obtained after heat treatments that
are generally performed in order to achieve a good hardness and/or tensile strength with sufficient ductility
(Mebarki et al., 2004). Currently, there is a strong interest in the effect of cooling rate on the mechanical
properties and microstructure of industrial processed steels. In considering the microstructure, the influence of
cooling on the microstructure of vanadium bearing HSLA steels has been investigated by transmission electron
micro- scopy (Bangaru and Sachdev, 1982). It has been shown that oil quenching produce an essentially ferrite-
mar- tensie dual phase structure with about 4 volume pct of fine particle and thin film retained ausenite. In
contrast, the slower air cooling results in a larger amount (about 10 volume pct) of retained ausenite in addition
to the ferrite and martensite phases. On the other hand, with the applied cooling rate increasing, the transformed
structure evolves from granular bainite, lower bainite, self-tem- pered martensite, to finally martensite without
self- tempering (Qiao et al., 2009). Among them, self-tem- pered martensite, obtained in the transformed
specimens cooled with rates of 25 - 80°C/min, exhibits the highest hardness values due to the precipitation of
fine carbides.
Because of the technological importance, the tensile behavior and microstructure of bulk, Sn-3.5 Ag solders as a
function of cooling rate have been studied (Bochoa et al., 2003). It has been shown that yield strength increases
with increasing cooling rate, while ultimate tensile strength and strain-to-failure is unaffected. Although many
papers have been published on the effect of cooling rate on the tensile behaviours of steel (Chao and Gonzales-
Carrasco, 1998; Perdrix et al., 2000; Serre and Vogt, 2008), there has been little research on the effects of
cooling rate on the microstructure and microhardness (Nagpal and Baker, 1990; Lu et al., 2009). Especially, the
effect of cooling rate on the microhardness of low (AISI 1020) and medium carbon (AISI 1040, AISI 1060)
steels are rarely reported. The present study is aimed at under- standing the effect of cooling rate on the micro-
hardness and microstructure of these steels.

Experimental method

Chemical compositions of these steels are given in Table 1. The substrates were cut from a 2 x 2 x 20 mm3 steel
plate and annealed at 900 K for 10 h to remove potential residual stresses before micro-hardness tests. Then, the
samples were heat treated at 1250°K for 4 h and subsequently were cooled by three different methods. Different
cooling rates, namely at room condition water quenching, at room condition air cooling and at furnace condition
temperature cooling were applied to steels to observe the effect on the microstructure and microhardnes of steel.
The microstructure was observed by optical microscope. To determine the hardness of steels, a Vickers
microhardness tester with a load of 100 g was used. Many indentations were made on the surfaces of steels to
check the reproducibility of hardness data. Furthermore.

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Table 1. The chemical composition of steels.

Steel type C Si Mn Cr Ni P S Fe
AISI 1020 Steel 0.20 0.22 0.66 0.055 0.18 0.015 0.028 Bal.
A
AISI 1040 Steel 0.40 0.23 0.65 0.054 0.13 0.09 0.030 Bal.
B
AISI 1060 Steel C 0.60 0.22 0.67 0.059 0.19 0.014 0.034 Bal.

Figure 2(a) The microstructure of water quenched

Figure 1(a). The microstructure of AISI 1020 AISI 1020 steels.
steels.

Figure 2(b). The microstructure of air cooled

Figure 1(b). The microstructure of AISI 1040 AISI 1020 steels.
steels.

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Figure 1(c). The microstructure of AISI 1060 Figure 2(c). The microstructure of furnace
steels. cooled AISI 1020 steels.

Figure 2(d). The microstructure of water Figure 2(h). The microstructure of air cooled
quenched AISI 1040 steels AISI 1060 steels.

Figure 2(i).The microstructure of furnace cooled

Figure 2(e). The microstructure of air cooled
AISI 1040 steels.
AISI 1040 steels.

Figure 2(f). The microstructure of finance

Figure 2(g). The microstructure of water
cooled AISI 1040 steels
quenched AISI 1060.

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A mean cooling rate is defined as the time derivative of the spatial mean temperature, Q(t)
dT (x, t) / dt . This
cooling rate is a function of time but it is considered approximately constant, since the
function T (x, t) is found to be approximately linear in the temperature range in which most
of the segregation occurs (Craievich and Olivieri, 1981; Maveety et al., 2004). In the
present study, AISI 1020 (steel A), AISI 1040 (steel B) and AISI 1060
(steel C) have a microstructure of ferrite and pearlite (FP) two-phase in the normalized state
(Figures 1a, 1b and 1c). Microstructural characteristics of these steels were parameterized
by the pearlite volume (dark region) fraction. The microstructure of steel A, B and C
contained pearlite 25, 50 and 75 % depending on the carbon content, respectively (Figures
1a, 1b and 1c). The percentages were determined by optical microscopy. As seen in these
figures, the percentage of pearlite changes with change in carbon content of steels. The
percentages of phases obtained using the optical microstructure photographs (Figures 2a,
2b, 2c, 2d, 2e, 2f, 2g, 2h, and 2i) of steels after heat treatments were given in Table 2. From
Table 2 we see that the ferrite and pearlite percent- tages changes with cooling rate and
carbon content.

Equipment required:

1. Muffle furnace with on-off controller & temp. Indicator- temp up to 10000C
2. Oil quenching tub, water quenching tub & fan.
3. Tongs, safely gloves & goggles
4. Rockwell hardness tester

Procedure:

1. Measure the Rockwell hardness of steel specimen as follows:

1.1 Place the semi-polished specimen on the platform.
1.2 Insert the diamond cone indentor for C scale & 1/16 “steel ball for B scale inside the sleeve
& tighten the screw. Check that there is no movement of indentor.
1.3 Set the required load (150kg for C scale & 100kg for B scale) by turning the knob provided
by the side of the machine.
1.4 Bring the specimen into contact with indentor by rotating the elevating screw by rotating the
star handle. By further elevating the specimen, the minor load of 10kg is applied such that
pointer indicates ‘σ’ on the smaller graduated arc scale & the longer pointer indicates on the
outer C scale & ‘B 30’ on the inner ‘B’ scale.
1.5 Now turn the lever away from the observer slowly. The longer pointer moves away & when it
comes to rest, wait 8 to 10 seconds for the entire application of major load.
1.6 Now turn the lever slowly to-words the observer i.e., to the original position. Now the entire
load is being off from the specimen.

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1.7 Now the longer pointer moves back and when it comes to a rest position, note the reading on
the outer black dial ( C scale) & on the inner red dial (B scale).
1.8 The reading on the 3 trial readings are taken at separate locations on the surface of the
specimen. The average value of these three readings gives the true Rockwell hardness number
which is reported as HRC & HRB for Rockwell in C scale & Rockwell in B scale respectively.
1.9 The results are tabulated as follows:

Sl. No. Material Type of Std. Load in Hardness Average

Indentor Kg HRC/HRB
Major Minor T1 T2 T3
1

2. Keep the cylindrical specimen of EN8/ EN24 in the muffle furnace using tongs & wearing
safety gloves & goggles. Set the temp for respective heat treatment processes as below.
Annealing- 650-700C
Normalizing – 830-860C
Hardening- 830-860C
3. Heat the specimen at the rate of approx. 100C -1500C/ hr. till it reaches the temp set for
respective heat treatment process.
4. Sock for 15-20 minutes at this temp.
5. Cool the specimen as follows.
Process Annealing- Furnace cooling up to 200C & then remove using tongs & gloves.
Normalising – Remove specimen using tongs gloves & cool in still air by using a fan up to room
temp.
Hardening – Remove specimen using tongs & gloves & quench in a tib of water for EN8 and a
tub of oil for EN 24 steel
6. After attaining room temp., clean the specimen using emery cloth & remove rough surface
with emery belt driven by a motor.
7. Measure the Rockwell hardness. The difference in hardness before & after heat treatment
indicates the effect of heat treatment.
Record the results as below.

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Observation:
Sl. No. Material Temp 0 C Cooling / Hardness Remarks
Quenching RHN
Medium
Before heat treatment /After heat treatment

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Experiment No. 6
Aim:
To perform Tensile/Compressive/Shear/torsion test on a given material and to determine its
various mechanical properties under tensile/compression/Shear/torsional loading
Theory:
The tensile test is widely used to provide basic design information on the strength of
materials and as acceptance test for specification of materials. In the tensile test, a tensile
specimen as per agreed standard is subjected to continually increasing uni-axial tensile force
while simultaneous observations are made of the constructed from the load, elongation
measurement. The following parameters are found from stress-strain curves.

i)Elastic limit: The limiting load beyond which the material no longer behaves elastically
(recovery of original dimensions when load is removed).
ii) Ultimate tensile stress: maximum load divided by the original cross sectional area of
specimen.

iii) Yield stress: Stress required producing a small specified permanent deformation (0.2 %
permanent strain).

iv) % Elongation: It is measured of ductility of material. It is obtained by measuring the

difference in length before fracture & after fracture & dividing by the original length.
v) Modulus of elasticity: It is a measure of stiffness of material. The greater the modulus the
smaller the elastic strain from the given application of stress. The slope of the initial position of
stress-strain curve is the modulus of elasticity or youngs modulus.

Equipment required:
i) Universal testing machine.
ii) Tensile test specimens.
iii) Extensometer dial gauge.
iv) Steel scale, slide calipers & micrometer.
v) Support blocks.

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Universal Testing Machine.

1. Upper cross head.
2. Extensometer with dial gauge.
3. Tensile specimen.
4. Inter mediate cross head.
5. Bottom cross head.
6. Load dial gauge.
7. Speed control valves.
Procedure:
1. Measure the initial diameter(d1)and mark the initial gauge length(I1)on the specimen.
2. Fix the upper end of the specimen inside the shackles of the upper cross head and bring
the shackle of the intermediate cross head into contact with bottom of the specimen and
the bottom end is fixed inside the shackle.

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3. Mount the extensometer dial gauge (L.C=0.01mm) on the lower cross head bring the
indicator of external dial gauge , elongation scale and load dial gauge to zero reading .
4. Start the machine and for every 400 kg increase, note the elongation (count the number
of division on dial gauge X L.C).
5. When the load crosses the elastic point or yield point (this could be observed by the
rapid movement of indicator of the extensometer dial gauge )note the reading on the
elongation scale . Continue loading decreases the area of specimen and fails at particular
load . Note the breaking load and elongation .
6. Remove the fractured specimen and measure the final gauge lengths(I2)and final
diameter(d2)and observe the fracture.
7. Plot a graph of load V/s elongation . The results are tabulated as given below.

Table of tensile test result:

Table 1

Sl. Material Initial Initial Final Final dia Original Final

No. gauge Dia Gauge (d2)mm Cross area mm2
length (d1)mm length section area
(11)mm (l2)mm mm2

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Table 2

Sl. Load in N Elongation Actual Stress = Strain Youngs

No. No. of reading n* Load / modulus
l.c Original area (t) E=Stress /
of dial of cross Strain N/MM2
gauge section
N/mm2

Precautions:
1. The rate of loading should be uniform to get correct valve of various parameters.
2. The machine (UTM)Should be calibrated if deviations are found out.
Calculation:
Initial diameter of specimen = d1 mm
Final diameter of specimen = d2 mm
Initial gauge length = L1 mm
Final gauge length = L2 mm

Initial area of specimen(A1) = 12 /4 mm2

2
Final area of specimen (A2) = 2/4 mm2

(L2-L1)

% Elongation = ------------------- 100

L1 =A1-A2

%Reduction in area = ------------------ 100

A1
Yield stress = Yield load /original area of cross section,
N/mm2
Ultimate tensile stress =
maximum load /original area of cross section
(UTS) N/mm2
Breaking stress = Breaking load /Original area of cross
or failure stress section, N/mm2
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Practical Importance:
The basic data on mechanical properties of a ductile metal are from a tension test, in
which a suitably designed specimen is subjected to increasing axial load until it fractures. The
general behavior of materials under load can be classified as ductile or brittle depending on
whether or not the material exhibits the ability to undergo plastic deformation. Yielding occurs
when elastic limit has been exceeded and produces permanent change of shape which may
prevent the part for functioning properly and longer. In ductile metal under static loading
condition, yielding rarely results in fracture because the metal strain hardens as it deforms.

Indian Standards:
1. Mechanical testing of metal-IS: 1608-1975 tensile testing

Viva Questions:
1. What is the significance of tensile testing?
2. Which property in a tension test is an indication of stiffness of material?
3. Define the term: Elastic limit, Yield point, Resistance and Toughness
4. What is breaking stress? How it is different from maximum stress
5. What is the difference between proportionality limit and elastic limit?
6. What is the correlation between tensile strength and hardness?
7. What factors should be considered in selecting gauge length
8. St

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(B) COMPRESSION TEST

Aim: To conduct compression test on ductile and brittle materials.
Theory:
The compression of short cylindrical specimen between anvils of ductile metals
results in barrel shape after reaching the maximum compression load. No fracture taken
place for brittle materials there will be no change in cross section or height of specimen. On
reaching the max compression load, the specimen suddenly fractures.
Equipment required:
1. Universal testing machine.
2. Cylindrical test specimen.
3. Dial gauge of L.C=0.01MM.
4. Vernier calipers.
5. Compression plates (Top & bottom)

Universal Testing Machine.

1. Upper cross head.
2. Extensometer with dial gauge.
3. Tensile specimen.
4. Inter mediate cross head.
5. Bottom cross head.
6. Load dial gauge.
7. Speed control valves.
Procedure:
1. Fix the lower and upper compression plate above the bottom cross head and below

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the intermediate cross head.

2. Measure the initial diameter (d1) and height of specimen (h1)
3. Place the compression specimen at the center of bottom plate and bring the top of
specimen in contact with the top plate by moving the intermediate cross head
downwards
4. Mount the compression dial gauge on the lower cross head bring the indicator to zero.
Bring the indicator of load dial gauge also to zero
5. Load the specimen in intervals of 400 kg for MS and 200 kg for brittle material like
cast iron and record the compression dial gauge reading(No. of division on dial gauge
XLC).
6. The experiment is continued till the specimen attains a barrel shape on reaching max
load for ductile metals or fracture for brittle materials. Measure the final Dia d2 and

final height h2 for ductile metals. The readings are tabulated as follows.

and failure compressive stress for brittle materials).

Table: Result of compression test:

Load in Compression in mm Compression Compression Modulus in compression

Kg N X 0.01MM Strain Stress = Compression Stress /
Deflection Compression Strain
N/mm2

Calculation:
Initial diameter of specimen = d1 mm
Final diameter of specimen = d2 mm
Initial height of specimen = h1 mm
Final height of specimen = h2 mm
1 2 mm2 Initial area of specimen (A1) =
--------

4
2 2 mm2
Final area of specimen (A2) = -------
4
A2- A1
% increase in area = ---------- x 100

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A1
h1- h2
% decrease in height = --------
h1
Compression stress = load up-to elastic point / A1
Compression strain =
-h2
= compressive stress / compressive strain
N/mm2 (slope of load v/s compression
graph).
Max compressive stress (for = Max compression load /
ductile materials) Original area of cross section = N/mm2

Max compressive stress = Failure load / A1=N/mm2

at failure (for brittle
material)
Viva questions:
1. Draw the compression Vs strain of brittle material & ductile material and indicate the
differences.
2. List some uses of the compression test
3. What are some of the materials used for compression load on machinery and justify the
use of same
4. Explain compression fracture of mild steel and cast iron
5. Why is that compression test is difficult to perform compare to tension test
6. Resistance to compression load is important in which application

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SHEAR STRENGTH TEST

Aim: To determine ultimate shear strength in single & double shear for ductile material.

Theory:
Shear stress is caused by a force which acts parallel to an area of cross section and
tends to produce sliding of one portion part another portion. If the force in resisted by failure
through a single area then the material is said to be in single shear. If two areas resists the
fracture, then the material is said to be in double shear.

In single shear the shear strength = failure load / area of cross section
of specimen
failure load In double shear, shear strength = ---------------------2 X area of cross section
Where d= dia of specimen, P= failure load
Equipment required:
1. UTM
2. Shear shackles for single and double shear
3. Vernier / Micrometer
4. Shear specimen of MS, Brass & Aluminium.

Universal Testing Machine.

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1. Upper cross head.

2. Extensometer with dial gauge.
3. Tensile specimen.
4. Inter mediate cross head.
5. Bottom cross head.
6. Load dial gauge.
7. Speed control valves

Procedure:
1. The diameter of specimen is measured using vernier / micrometer.
2. The specimen is then inserted inside appropriate shear shackles and the specimen
with shackles is placed inside the shear center plate.
3. The entire assembly is placed on the lower cross head of UTM
4. The adjustable intermediate cross head is then moved down till it makes contact with
the top of the center plate.
5. The machine is started and the load is applied gradually.
6. The load at which two specimen brakes in single shear / double shear is recorded
from the load dial gauge.
7. The reading is tabulated as shown.
Calculation:
In single shear, shear strength = 4P/ 2
2
In double shear, shear strength =
Where d = Dia of specimen in mm P= Failure load in N.

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Table of results:

Sl. Material Area of Max. Shear Load N Max Shear strength N/

No cross mm2
section in Single Double Single Double
mm 2

Viva questions:

1. What is significance of shear testing

2. Give 3 examples of shear load is mechanical engineering application
3. How to increase shear strength of materials
4. What is a Universal testing machine, describe briefly mechanism of loading
5. Compare the shear fracture of ductile and brittle materials
6. Draw a neat sketch of shear shackles and explain the shearing action

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TORSION TEST

Aim: To determine the behavior of Mild steel when subjected to Torsion & obtain the
following torsional properties: (1) Modulus of rigidity (2) Elastic shear strength

Theory:
A method of finding the shear properties of a material is by the use of torsion test. Torsional
shear stress on circular cross section varies from zero at the axis of twist to a maximum at the
extreme fibres. Within elastic range, the general equation is

T=G =
J l r

Where, T is the torsional moment in N-mm

Jp is the polar moment of inertia in mm4 (= d4)
32
G is the modulus of rigidity inN/mm2
is the angular distortion in radians
l is the gauge length in mm
2

From the above equation, for the solid rod,

3/16

Equipment:

i) Torsion testing machine

ii) Micrometer
iii) Scale

Specimens: Torsion testing specimen is generally circular in cross-section, either solid or

hollow. For solid rod, the length of the specimen is recommended to be 10 times the diameter.
The ends are such that they can be securely gripped without developing stresses, sufficiently
localized to cause failure in the grips. In order to obtain an approximately uniform stress and
strain distribution along the cross-section, this test is usually performed on a thin tubular
specimen.
Torsion fracture is the shear fracture and is quite distinct from tension or compression fracture,
there is no localized reduction of area or elongation. When a ductile material is subjected to a

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46 Material Testing Lab

twisting moment, the fracture is plane and perpendicular to the axis. One end of the specimen
usually makes several complete revolutions relative to the other before fracture takes place.
Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter d of the specimen at several sections micrometer to get
mean value.
2. Measure the gauge length 1.
3. Adjust the torsion machine to read zero and then insert the specimen into two
chucks.
4. Apply the load at load at slow speed(15rpm).
5. Note down the reading of wattmeter and simultaneously calculate torque T and

angle
Tabulations:

Sl. Length of Diameter Wattmete Torque No. of No. of = {n+ (csd

r
No. Specimen of Reading T= 60p revolutions divisions 100
1mm Specimen PW on counter on
n
d/mm circular
scale
(CSD)

Figure Torsion Testing Machine.

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47 Material Testing Lab

Experiment No. 7

Aim: To determine Rockwell/ Vickers/Brinell hardness of a given material

Theory:

Hardness is a material characteristic which can be defined as resistance to deformation

(penetration, wear, compression etc.)

In Rockwell hardness test, a standard load (based on type of material) is applied

through a standard indentor (cone or ball) for a specified duration, on the material & depth of
impression / indentation is directly measured and read as hardness number on a dial gauge.

Rockwell Hardness Tester.

Equipments:

1. Rockwell hardness tester.

2. Cone diamond indentor (1200
3.

4. Hardness testing specimen.

5. Standard hardness test block. ( for B& C scales).

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48 Material Testing Lab

Procedure:

1. Place the semi polished specimen on the platform.

2. inside the

sleeve and tighten the screw. Check that there is no movement of indentor.

3. Set the required load (150Kg for C scale and 100Kg for B scale) by turning the knob
provided by the side of the machine.
4. Bring the specimen into contact with the indentor by rotating the elevating screw by
rotating the star handle. By further elevating the specimen, the minor load of 10Kg is
graduated arc scale and the longer
pointer indicates on the outer C scale and 30 on the inner B scale.
5. Now turn the lever away from the observer slowly. The longer pointer moves away
and when it comes to rest, wait 8 to 10 sec for the entire application of major load.
6. Now turn the lever slowly to the observer i.e. to the original position. Now the entire
load is being lifted off from the specimen.
7. Now the longer pointer moves back and when it comes to a rest position, note the
reading on the outer black dial (C scale) and on the inner red dial (B scale)
8. The reading on the dial indicates directly hardness number (RHN) which is
dimensionless.
9. A minimum of 3 trial readings are taken at separate location on the surface of the
specimen.
The average value of these 3 readings gives the true Rockwell hardenings number
which is reported as HRC and HRB for Rockwell in C scale and Rockwell in B scale
respectively

10. The results are tabulated as follows

Table of Results:

Sl. No. Material Type of Std. Load in Kg Hardness HRC / HRB Average

Indenter

Major Minor T1 T2 T3

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Precautions:

1. The condition of the test surface, because of very small impression normally produced, must
necessarily be smoother & free from surface imperfections such as scale, rust etc., It should
be preferably polished with emery cloth before placing on the machine.
2. Since the penetration of indentor is a very small (< 0.05 mm) the thickness of specimen
should be at least 10 X thickness of penetration.
3. Standardization of Rockwell machines is secured by use of standard test blocks. Test blocks
calibrated initially are frequently used to check any deviation from normal readings.
Practical importance:

Because of its simplicity, accuracy & extremes versatility, the Rockwell hardness test is
more widely used than any other hardness test. It permits measurement of wide range of hardness
(soft, medium & hard).

Standards:

1. Rockwell hardness test (scales A, B & C) methods : IS:1586-1988

Viva Questions:

1. What is Hardness?
2. What is the significance of minor load in Rockwell method of hardness testing
3. What are the advantages and limitations of Rockwell method of hardness
testing.
4. Where are Rockwell hardness test and Brinell hard test employed
5. Which method hardness is employed to check hardness of thin strips.

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VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

Aim: To determine the Vickers hardness of hard materials such as hardened steel and
moderately hard materials such as brass, copper and aluminium.

Theory:

It is similar in principle to Rockwell hardness test, but utilizes a different indentor and
different magnitudes of loads. The indentor used is a square based diamond pyramid with the angle
between opposite faces of the pyramid is 1360. The indentor is forced into polished specimen by a
specified load (P) and the diagonals of the square impression measured and averaged. The Vickers
hardness number is calculated as the ratio of applied load to the surface area of impression. For
1360 square based pyramid, the hardness number is calculated as (Hardness Vickers)

HV=1.854X P/D2

Where, P=load in kg, D=average of diagonal length in mm of the square Impression.

The principle advantage of the Vickers type of test is that geometrically similar indentations
are always obtained regardless of the load applied. It can measure hardness of very hard material to
very soft materials.

Vickers hardness tester.

Equipment:

1. Vickers hardness tester.

2. Square based diamond pyramid indentor.
3. Hardness testing specimen.
4. Standard ickers hardness test blocks.

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Procedure:

1. Place the polished specimen on the platform of the machine. Switch on the bulb.
2. Fix the pyramid indentor inside the sleeve.
3. Turn the inner wheel till the indentor sleeve makes contact with the specimen.
Turn the upper wheel slowly till the surface of the specimen is reflected clearly
on the focusing screen.
4. Now, apply the load (30kg for steel &5kg for aluminum) on the specimen by pressing the
respective push button corresponding to Vickers load.
5. Now, push the button provided at the base of the machine, so that the indentor is brought
into contact with the specimen & the required load is being applied on the specimen. When
the load is being applied, the hand lever automatically raises to an upward position. When it
comes to this position, completely, wait for 8-10 seconds (std. time) for complete
application of load.
6. Then depress the lever by pressing the lever down-words, so that the load is lifted off the
specimen & the indentor comes to the original position.
7.

the micrometer screw. Bring one edge of

square base impression into coincidence to main scale division by operating the focusing
screen screw. Count the No. of MSD from the coincided edge to the division near the un-
coincided edge. This gives main scale reading MSR. Now, turn the micrometer till the right
edge coincides with next forward main scale division. Now count the vernier scale division
from 0 of main scale to 0 of vernier scale. Record the number of division on micrometer
scale which is ahead &above 0 index mark. Hence diagonal width d1=MSR + VSR +
Micrometer reading. Similarly diagonal d2 is also measured & average of (d1+d2 ) is taken
in mm.

Three trial readings are taken for each specimen at different locations and average is taken.

The results are tabulated as follows.

Tabulation of results:.

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Trial No. Material Std. Load Diagonal Width mm HV/VHN*

(P) Kg Kg/mm2

d
1 d2 d=(d1+d2)/2 1.854Xp/d2

*The Vickers hardness no. can be directly read from table given by manufacturer.

Note: Brinell hardness can be checked in the same machine by changing to ball indentor and load
2
- d2) P=Load in kg,
d=Diameter of spherical indentation, D=Diameter of steel ball

Precautions:

1. The condition of test surface must be very smooth free from scale rust etc., a polish
approaching that of a metallographic specimen in recommended for correct result.
2. Thickness of the specimen should be at least 1.5 diagonal length of impression.
Practical importance:

Since geometrically similar indentation are always obtained with pyramidal indentor,
decrease in load permits a satisfactory test on thin materials, thus permitting test to be
applied over a range of thickness (thin to thick) and over a wide range of hardness (soft to
hard). It is a precise hardness measurement.

Indian standard:

Vickers hardness test is: 1501(part 1)-1984 Part-1 method for HV 5 to HV100.

Viva Questions:

1. Why Vickers method of hardness testing is accurate compared to Rockwell method

2. What are the advantage and limitation of Vickers method of hardness testing.
3. Which method hardness test is employed to check hardness of thin strips

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BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

Aim: To study the Brinell hardness tester and determine the hardness number of the given
specimen
Theory:
Hardness is usually defined as the resistance to permanent indentation. Hardness test consists of
measuring the resistance to plastic deformation of layers of metal near the surface of the specimen.
In the process of hardness determination when the metal is indented by a special tip(steel ball), the
tip first overcomes the resistance of the metal to elastic deformation and then a small amount of
plastic deformation. Upon deeper indentation of the tip, it overcomes large plastic deformation.
This fact enables relation to be established between the hardness and ultimate tensile strength of
ductile metals.
Brinell hardness is one of the oldest and most used type. Brinell tests are static indentation test
using relatively large indenters. The principle feature of a typical hydraulic operated Brinell testing
machine are shown in the figure.

Equipment:
1. Brinell hardness tester
2. Micrometer
3. Microscope
Procedure:
1. Place the specimen to be tested on the anvil
2. Raise the anvil by steel screw operated by the large hand wheel
3. Make the contact between the specimen and the ball indentor by turning the hand wheel
4. Apply the load by pumping the oil into the main cylinder which forces the main piston
downwards and presses the ball into the specimen.

5. When the desired load is applied, the balance weight on the top of the machine is lifted by action
of small piston, to avoid overload to the ball.
6. After applying the load on the ball for particular time(30sec), remove the load and measure the
diameter of the indentation using a micrometer, microscope

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The hardness number is defined as the ratio of load in kg to the surface area of the indentation in
mm2
.∙. Brinell hardness
= 2F = F .
πD (D-√D2-d2) πdt
Where, F= load in kgf, D is the diameter of the ball in mm, d is the diameter of the impression in
mm and t is the depth of indentation in mm.

Tabulation:

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Sl. No. Material Load F kgf Time of Diameter of HB =

application of indentation . 2F .
load sec mm πD (D -√D2-
d2)
kgf /mm2

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EXPERIMENT No: - 08

AIM: - To perform Impact test on a given material and to determine its resilience.

APPARATUS: - 1. Impact testing machine

2. A steel specimen 75 mm X 10mm X 10mm

DIAGRAM:-

THEORY:-

An impact test signifies toughness of material that is ability of material to absorb energy during
plastic deformation. Static tension tests of unnotched specimens do not always reveal the
susceptibility of a metal to brittle fracture. This important factor is determined by impact test.
Toughness takes into account both the strength and ductility of the material. Several engineering
materials have to withstand impact or suddenly applied loads while in service. Impact strengths are
generally lower as compared to strengths achieved under slowly applied loads. Of all types of
impact tests, the notch bar tests are most extensively used. Therefore, the impact test measures the
energy necessary to fracture a standard notch bar by applying an impulse load. The test measures
the notch toughness of material under shock loading. Values obtained from these tests are not of

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much utility to design problems directly and are highly arbitrary. Still it is important to note that it
provides a good way of comparing toughness of various materials or toughness of the same
material under different condition. This test can also be used to assess the ductile brittle transition
temperature of the material occurring due to lowering of temperature.

PROCEDURE:
(a) lzod test
1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, firmly hold the steel specimen in
impact testing machine’s vice in such way that the notch face the hammer and is half inside and
half above the top surface of the vice.
2. Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position unless it is already there, and lock it at
that position.
3. Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the operating manual
supplied with the machine.
4. Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through its momentum,
the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen. Then it continues to swing. At its topmost height
after breaking the specimen, the indicator stops moving, while the pendulum falls back. Note the
indicator at that topmost final position.
5. Again bring back the hammer to its idle position and back.
OBESERVATION:-
Izod Test.
1. Impact value of - Mild Steel ------------N-m
2. Impact value of - Brass ------------N-m
3. Impact value of - Aluminum ------------N-m

RESULT:- i. The energy absorbed for Mild Steel is found out to be Joules.
ii. The energy absorbed for Brass is found out to be Joules.
iii. . The energy absorbed for Aluminum is found out to be Joules

PRECAUTION:-
1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully.
2. Hold the specimen (lzod test) firmly.
3. Note down readings carefully.

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Experiment No. 9

Aim: To study and perform Fatigue test on a given material and to determine fatigue strength of
the material.

Equipment: Fatigue testing machine and micrometer caliper.

Theory:
Failure due to repeatedly applied load is known as fatigue. The physical effect of a
repeated load on a material is different from that of a static load, failure always being brittle
fracture regardless of whether the material is brittle or ductile. Mostly fatigue occur at stress well
below the static elastic strength of the material. If the applied load changes from any magnitude
in one direction to the same magnitude in the opposite direction, the loading is termed
completely reversed, whereas if the load changes from one magnitude to another (the direction
does not necessarily change), the load is said to be a fluctuating load. Fatigue testing machine is
shown in figure.
A specimen of circular cross-section is held at its ends in special holders and loaded
through 2 bearings equidistant from the center of the span. Equal loads on these bearings are
applied by means of weights that produce a uniform bending moment in the specimen between
the loaded bearings. The specimen is rotated by a motor. Since the upper fibers in tension, it is
apparent that a complete cycle of reversed stress in all fibres of the beam is produced during each
revolution. A revolution counter is used to find the number of cycles the specimen is repeatediy
subjected to the load. For simply supported beam, maximum bending moment is at the centre.
Bending moment M=FL/4 and bending stress S=M/z

Where L is the length of the specimen and z is the sectional modulus. In rotating
cantilever beam type, the specimen is rotated while a gravity load is applied to the free end by
means of a bearing. For cantilever specimen the maximum bending moment is at the fixed end.
M=FL and S=M/z
The testing technique is subjected to a series of identical specimens to loads of different
magnitude and note the number of cycles of stress ( or load) N necessary to fracture the
specimen. The data are plotted on a graph sheet, the stress S being plotted on y-axis and the
number of cycles N on X-axis.

This is known as stress-cycle (S-N) diagram and the fatigue limit can be determined from

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the diagram fatigue limit or endurance limit is the stress below which a material can be stressed
cyclically an indefinitely large number of times without failure. The fatigue strength is the stress
at which a metal fails by fatigue after a certain number of cycles. Fig. shows the S-N diagram for
MS.
Specimens:
All specimen should be taken from the same rod, each specimen should receive same kind
of a machining and heat treatment. The specimens for tests of the metal have no sharp stress
raisers. The surface of the specimen is polished.

Fracture Appearance:

Under repeated loading, a small crack forms in a region of high localized stress, and very
high stress concentration accompanies the crack. As the load fluctuates, the crack opens and
insufficient cross section left to carry the load and the member ruptures, the failure being fatigue
failure. Therefore fractured surface shows two surfaces of distinctly different appearance. 1. A
smooth surface where the crack has spread slowly, and the walls of the crack are polished by
repeated opening and closing. This surface usually shows characteristic beach or clam shell
markings. 2. A crystalline or fibrous surface where sudden failure occurred.

Procedure:
Measure the diameter d and the length L of the specimen. Securely fasten the specimen in the
chucks of the testing machine. Set the maximum load. Set the counter to zero, the start the
machine. Note the number of cycles N the specimen experiences before fracture. Repeat the
above test on the other specimens with gradually reduced loads. Draw the S-N diagram and
obtain the endurance limit.

Observations and Tabulation:

Sl. Load No. of Cycles N Bending moment Stress

No. F M=FL/4 S=M/
N(kgf) N-mm(kgf-mm) z
N/mm2(kgf/mm
2)

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Material =
Diameter of the specimen d(mm) =
Length of the specimen L (mm) =
3/32=

Fatigue Testing Machine.

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Experiment No. 10

BENDING TEST

AIM: To conduct the bending test on mild steel and thereby to obtain:

i) Modulus of elasticity
ii) Maximum bending stress
APPARATUS: Scale, UTM, dial gauge and specimen.

THEORY:

If forces act on a piece of material in such a way that they tend to induce compressive
stresses over one part of a cross section of the piece and tensile stresses over the remaining part,
the piece is said to be in bending. The common illustration of bending action is a beam acted on by
a transverse loads; bending can also be caused by moments or couples such as from eccentric loads
parallel to longitudinal axis of a piece.

In structures and machine, bending my be accompanied by direct stress, transverse shear or

torsional shear. For convenience, however, bending stresses may be considered separately and in
tests to determine the behavior of materials in bending, attention is usually confined to beams.

The bending stress equation is M = fb = E

I y R

Where M = Max, bending moment; for point load M = WL

I = Moment of inertia = bd3

12

Fb = bending stress = 3WL

2bd2

for square section, Fb = 3WL

2d3

Y = D/2 = distance from neutral

axis

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E = modulus of elasticity

R = radius of curvature

The modulus of elasticity is calculated as follows:

The maximum deflection for a point load acting at the center of the beam is given by

WL3 or E = WL3 (w/

48EI 48
Procedure:

1. The length, breadth and depth of the specimen were measured.

2. The specimen was placed on the UTM platform n simply supported position

3. The top platform of UTM was brought down such that the load was applied at the centre of
the specimen.

4. Before the application of the load the dial gauge was fixed to measure the deflection.

5. The load was applied in increment of 200Kg and the deflection in the dial gauge was noted
until the specimen fails.

6. The graph of load Vs deflection is plotted, and w/

portion of the curve
Observation & Tabulation

Breadth of specimen, b

depth of specimen, d

Length of specimen, L

Calculations:

Maximum bending stress, fb = 3WmaxL N/mm2

2bd2

Moment of Inertia, I = bd3 mm4

12

Modulus of elasticity E = WL3

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Table of load Vs deflection.

Load in Deflection in dial Deformation in mm x least

Kg N indicator count

INFERENCE:

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Experiment No. 10

BENDING TEST

AIM: Creep testing on creep testing machine

Requirements: Lead sample, Screw gauge, Vernier calliper
Principle
Crystalline materials may undergo plastic deformation by (i) slip, (ii) twinning, (iii) diffusion
assisted atomic migration and (iv) grain boundary sliding. Among these methods, mechanisms of
plastic deformation by diffusion assisted atomic migration and grain boundary sliding occur at high
temperature [T/TMP > 0.4] where TMP is the melting point of the material. The other two
mechanisms, i.e. the slip and the twinning may occur at low as well as room temperatures. The two
high-temperature deformation mechanisms are time-dependent. Therefore, if a material is loaded at
high temperature, even if below its yield strength, it will deform and accumulate strain with respect
of time. The high-temperature time-dependent deformation of a material occurring at constant
stress is called creep. Creep occurs in materials due to an increased high-temperature mobility of
atoms (by diffusion) as well as that of dislocations (by mechanism of climb). The creep test
measures the dimensional changes that occur due to the applied load at an elevated temperature.
Creep behavior of a material is the most important consideration for choosing it for high
temperature application.
Creep Curve:
Creep properties of a material are generally determined by means of a test in which a constant
uniaxial load or stress is applied to the specimen, which is maintained at high temperature, and the
resulting strain is recorded as a function of time. Typical shape of a creep curve is shown in Fig.1.
When the load is applied, an instantaneous strain develops in the material and gives rise to the
strain 0 at time t = 0. The material initially deforms at a very rapid rate (d /dt), but as time
proceeds the rate of deformation progressively decreases and becomes constant. This regime of
deformation is referred to as the first-stage of creep or the primary creep. In the second-stage of
creep, generally referred to as the secondary creep or the steady-state creep, the strain rate remains
constant for a long time. Although considerable deformation can occur under the steady-state creep
conditions, the strain rate eventually begins to accelerate with time and the material enters the third-
stage or the tertiary creep. Deformation then proceeds at an ever-faster rate until the material can
no longer support the applied stress and fracture occurs. The material thus shows the minimum
creep rate, d /dt, in the steady-state regime. This minimum creep rate is considered as the
engineering design parameter in selecting a material for high-temperature applications.

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Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of Creep-curve shapes

Variations in the shape of the creep curve are caused by (a) extrinsic parameters such as
changes in test temperature and the stress applied [Fig. 2] and (b) intrinsic material
parameters such as (i) strain hardening/softening processes (recovery /recrystallization/
precipitate coarsening etc. and (ii) internal damage processes (cavitation and cracking).
As shown in Fig. 2, higher temperatures and stresses reduce the extent of the primary creep
and practically eliminate the second stage, with the result that the creep rate accelerates
almost from the beginning of the loading. In contrast with the decrease in temperature and/or
the stress, the first two stages become clearly defined.

Fig 2 Creep curves obtained at different temperatures and/or stress

Equipment:

Fig. 3 Schematic of the Creep testing Machine

Important Parameter and Equation:

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Fig. 4 Lead Sample

Engineering Stress (N/mm2)= Load (in Kg)*9.81(m/sec2)/(thickness (m)*width (m))
Strain ( )= Elongation (mm)/Gauge Length (mm)
One full rotation of the big dial of extensometer= single step movement in small dial = 1mm
Experimental Procedure:
1. Mark the sample for the reduced gauge length (uniform width)
2. Measure the dimensions (gauge length and width by vernier caliper and thickness by screw
gauge) of the given lead sample
3. Fix the ends of the sample up to mark in the jaws of the machine
4. Support the load pan from bottom till the first reading
5. Put the specified load on the load on load pan
6. Adjust the extensometer position on the load such that needle on small and big dial is at „0‟
position
7. Slowly remove the bottom support from the load pan and start take readings till sample breaks,
of the big dial after every 10 second. Add 100 when small dial needle moves a single step
8. Convert dial readings into extension (mm)
Report:
1. Write sample readings and calculate stress
2. Plot strain vs time
3. Calculate the creep rate as a function of time and identify the various stages of creep
4. Report the minimum creep rate at each stage
Questions:
1. Can you do the creep test on steels using the same set up? Explain your answer.
2. What is the importance of minimum creep rate?
3. What are the precautions to be taken during creep testing?
4. What is effect of Grain size on the creep behavior of materials?

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