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Specifics of VVER Reactor Facility

The document provides information about a training course on the specifics of the VVER-1200 reactor facility. It discusses the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant, which uses two VVER designs - the AES-91 active design currently in operation, and the passive VVER-640 design under development. The course objectives are to explain the VVER-1200 reactor design and identify features of modern Russian NPPs using VVER-1200 reactors. Topics covered include VVER technology advantages and disadvantages, components like the steam generator and pumps, and natural circulation principles. Diagrams show the general layout of an NPP and the two coolant cycles of the VVER, with the primary circuit circulating radioactive coolant through the reactor and steam generator to

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
180 views29 pages

Specifics of VVER Reactor Facility

The document provides information about a training course on the specifics of the VVER-1200 reactor facility. It discusses the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant, which uses two VVER designs - the AES-91 active design currently in operation, and the passive VVER-640 design under development. The course objectives are to explain the VVER-1200 reactor design and identify features of modern Russian NPPs using VVER-1200 reactors. Topics covered include VVER technology advantages and disadvantages, components like the steam generator and pumps, and natural circulation principles. Diagrams show the general layout of an NPP and the two coolant cycles of the VVER, with the primary circuit circulating radioactive coolant through the reactor and steam generator to

Uploaded by

Nafis Fuad
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Rosatom State Atomic Energy Coproration & National Research Nuclear University “MEPhI”

Course: 
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor

Module 3: Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Prepared by:  Anton Diachenko


Reviewed by:  Vladimir Artisyuk
Based on materials prepared by:  Rosatom Technical Academy (RosatomTech)
May, 2019
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed


NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor
3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

The third part of the course has the following terminal training objectives: first, to
explain the VVER-1200 reactor facility design, and second, to identify the features
of Modern Russian designed NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor. The corresponding
enabling training objectives are:

t o identify the principle of The following topics are covered in this part of the course:
electricity production at a
nuclear power plant with 1. I ntroduction to VVER technology, its advantages and
VVER-1200; disadvantages;

t o describe the primary circuit 2. V


 VER fuel, absorbers used for VVERs, and relevant reactor
flow diagram; physics;

t o list the main equipment 3. V


 VER components: steam generator, main circulation pumps,
of VVER-1200 nuclear steam etc.—their operation and main parameters of the components;
supply system;
4. I ntroduction to natural circulation: natural circulation in VVER,
t o describe the natural and principles of its arrangement in practice.
circulation features of VVER.
5. V
 VER operation: operational modes and states of VVER.

2
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

3.1.  Introduction to VVER technology

The Leningrad nuclear power plant (NPP) is an example of Modern


Russian designed NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor technology. This
NPP is based on two different VVER designs: the first one is Tainwan
NPP (China) with VVER-1000, which is now in operation. This design
is called AES-91. The second unit which the Leningrad NPP takes into
account is VVER-640 (V-407), a passive design of VVER. In passive
design (VVER-640), safety functions are generally ensured by using
passive safety systems. In active design (AES-91), all safety functions
are provided by active safety system. So, the active design is currently in
operation, and the passive design is now under development. Of course,
the solutions for passive safety system are proven to be effective and are
Figure 3.1.1. NPP with VVER 1200 now commissioned for the Leningrad NPP’s units 5 and 6.
Figure 3.1.2 presents a general layout of an NPP with main buildings
marked in different colors. First, there is a reactor building (red): the place
where main general equipment of reactor facility is located. Second, there
is a turbine building (grey), where the turbine, the generator, the deaerator,
reheaters, and other additional equipment is located. The safety building
(yellow, near the reactor building) is a special building which is designed
for safety systems. It is a controlled access zone with pumps, tanks, and
other components of safety systems. The auxiliary building (yellow, in
front of the reactor building) is the building where auxiliary equipment
required for the operation of the reactor is located. For example, reactor
facilities are required to provide water treatment: to clean the coolant or
to add boric acid to ensure the plant operation. For this purpose, a special
building is designed, with the elements and components of the reactor
auxiliary systems inside. Finally, there is a control building (yellow, in
front of the turbine building): a place where the main control room is
Figure 3.1.2. One of the options for building arrangement located, and where the operator supervises all activities during the oper-
of the NPP with VVER 1200: general plan. ation of NPP.

3
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

VVER scheme Two coolant cycles of VVER are shown in Figure 3.1.3.
The first one maintains the circulation of coolant of the
primary circuit. There is the main circulation pump (in some
countries it might be called the primary circuit pump or
reactor coolant pump). It takes the water and pumps it to
the reactor. This coolant comes through the reactor core,
heats up, and after that goes to the steam generator, where
the heat is transferred to the coolant of the secondary
circuit. There is no direct connection between the coolant
of the primary circuit and the coolant of the secondary
circuit: they are connected through the walls of pipes
of the steam generator. This means the primary circuit
coolant can be radioactive—as there is some radiation in
the reactor core. But the coolant of the secondary circuit
is non-radioactive, because it does not come into direct
contact with the coolant of the primary circuit.
Returning to the coolant of the primary circuit: after
the heat is transferred in the steam generator to the
secondary circuit, this coolant comes through the main
circulation pump and is pumped again to the reactor
core. It is a closed cycle that does not require adding or
removing coolant.
It is possible to have different operation modes, such as
startup or shutdown of the plant, during which an area
where the coolant of primary circuit can boil should be
available. The boiling of coolant inside the reactor core is
Figure 3.1.3. VVER scheme. highly dangerous and cannot be allowed. For this reason,
there is a special piece of equipment called pressurizer. It
is a huge tank; the coolant of the primary circuit is in
one part of it and steam is in another. This is the place
where the boiling process of the primary circuit coolant
could be seen all the time.
4
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

The steam generator is the place where the heat the primary circuit and the secondary circuit, so
of the primary circuit coolant is transferred to the secondary circuit is non-radioactive. Which
the secondary circuit coolant. The coolant of the means that the secondary circuit is operated
secondary circuit is pumped by the feedwater according to different rules ensuring radiation
pump. The cold coolant is pumped into the steam protection compared to the primary circuit. In
generator and boils inside. The steam is collected nuclear facility or NPPs, radiation control and
in the steam collector and goes to the steam turbine. radiation monitoring are ensured on the steam
The steam rotates the steam turbine, which has lines and in the secondary circuit: there are
an electric generator connected to it, resulting in sensors which show signals in the main control
the generation of electrical power. The steam room, and the operator can see the radiation
becomes a mixture of steam and water after going parameters of the coolant in the secondary
through the turbine; it is very difficult to ensure circuit. During the operation, these data are
the pumping of this mixture. That is why it needs taken into account all the time.
to be cooled down—a condenser is used for this
purpose. It is a huge heat exchanger with a supply
of cold water—for example from a cooling pond, Sources of the secondary
cooling towers, sea, or lake. circuit coolant

Radiation status of the primary Depending on the requirements in different


and secondary circuits countries, there can be different sources of cold
water. For example, Russian legislation forbids
There is an important aspect in the operation of direct use of water from natural resources, such
these circulation lines. Coolant of the primary as seas, lakes, or rivers, for cooling purposes in
circuit can be radioactive. In general, water is the condenser. That is why all Russian NPPs now
a non-radioactive material: it is not possible use either artificial ponds or cooling towers. The
to have radiation inside water. But during the Leningrad NPP has one cooling tower for each
operation process, water can produce corrosion unit, for example. The Balakovo NPP has sprinkler
products in the primary circuit, which in turn can pools on site. The NPP in Jordan has different
be activated due to the neutron flux in the core. design: cold water is pumped from a long distance;
These corrosion products are the main source of there are cooling towers and cooling lakes. There
radiation in the primary circuit. As mentioned can be different solutions, and there is reference
above, there is no direct connection between experience in implementing many of them.

5
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

3.2.  Reactor technical specifications Table 3.2.1 shows preliminary technical specifications
of a VVER plant (the data are taken from several
databases for different designs of NNPs). A VVER-
type reactor is a pressurized water reactor (PWR), which
Preliminary technical specifications means, first, the primary circuit is a high pressurized
closed loop. The average pressure for VVER facilities is
Description Value and unit about 15.7 to 16.2 megapascals (MPa). And second, the
coolant used for PWRs is water. VVER is a water-cooled
Reactor Pressurized water reactor water-moderated energy reactor, which means that
the moderator in the reactor is water.
Installed capacity
1,190-1,270 MW Installed capacity of an NPP with VVER 1200 unit is gen-
for AES-2006 unit erally around 1,200 MW. Depending on size and other
conditions, it can range from 1,190 to 1,270 MW. The
Net/gross electric power 1,150/1,200 MW
difference between net and gross electric power is about
Rated thermal power 50 MW; in some cases it can be increased to 100 MW.
3,200 MW It is the power required for NPP operation in different
of the reactor modes. The generator produces 1,200 MW and some of
them are spent for NPP operation.
Capacity factor 92%
Thermal efficiency 35.9% The thermal power of the reactor in general is 3,200
MW. Depending on the I&C (instrumentation and con-
Fuel/max burnup UO2 / 70 MWd/kgU trol) system, several other parameters of the design,
and the rules of the country in which the NPP is com-
Annual energy production 9 TWh missioned, these specifications can vary.
slow-speed turbine
Turbine speed The capacity factor is 92%. Based on the implementa-
(1,500 rpm)
tion experience, the capacity factor of about 85-87% is
achieved for VVER-1000. Modern Russian designed NPP
Table 3.2.1. Preliminary technical specifications of VVER.
with VVER 1200 power reactor can be operated with re-
Source: http://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsalstom-to-supply-turbine-
fueling period of 1-1,5 years (up to 2 years), which al-
for-finlands-hanhikivi-1-npp-4974318, http://www.fennovoima.fi/userData/
lows an increase of the capacity factor from the current
fennovoima/doc/yva/yva2013/EIAreport2014.pdf, WANO data base.
85-87% up to 92-93%.

6
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Thermal efficiency varies around 35.9%. During the com- Flow sheet of VVER
missioning, this parameter is adjusted depending on
the parameters of pooling water. If the water is real-
ly cold—like in the northern countries such as Russia
and Finland—this parameter can be higher. If the NPP
is constructed in countries with warm climate like Ban-
gladesh, Jordan, Egypt, or Turkey, this parameter can be
lower. The maximum possible cooldown of the water in
the condenser has to be ensured, which might present
a possibility to increase thermal efficiency of the plant.
Fuel burnup is a parameter used to control the efficiency
of burning fresh fuel. Fresh fuel is received on site of NPP
in special fuel assemblies. During the operation, some
part of this fuel is burned. For the first VVERs, fuel bur-
nup reached only 25 megawatt-days per kg of uranium
(MWd/kgU). In modern designs, this parameter reaches
70 MWd/kgU. This result shows high efficiency of using
the fuel, and the evolution of using the fuel year to year.
Annual energy production for one unit can be about 9
terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity per year. That is a
lot of power. To compare, 300 wagons of coal need to
be burned every day for 330 days to receive a similar Figure 3.2.1. Flow sheet of VVER.
amount of energy in electricity grid.
The last parameter in Table 3.2.1 is the speed of turbine Figure 3.2.1 presents a flow sheet of a VVER reactor.
used for NPP with VVER. It can be a low-speed turbine There is a reactor, a steam generator, and a coolant pump,
and high-speed turbine. For low-speed turbine, the which circulates the coolant of the primary circuit.
rotation speed is 1,500 rotations per minute (rpm), for There are two nozzles in the VVER reactor vessel: for
high-speed turbine—about 3000 rpm, which results in the inlet (“cold” leg) and outlet (“hot” leg) of coolant
50 Hz frequency in the electricity grid. This is the nor- of the primary circuit. Suction lines are connected to the
mal frequency which is used for all equipment and for reactor coolant pump. The reactor coolant pump takes
all electricity customers.

7
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

the cold coolant from the steam generator and pumps it to the reactor for
Description Value and unit heating up. The hot coolant comes back to the steam generator, where the
heat is transferred to the secondary circuit, and goes through the suction
Coolant temperature,
298.2 ˚C line to the reactor coolant pump.
reactor inlet
The main parameters of the primary circuit are presented in Table 3.2.2.
Coolant temperature,
328.9 ˚C The inlet temperature of the cold coolant is about 300 ˚C, and the hot
reactor outlet
coolant is about 330 ˚C, which is not ‘cold’ and ‘hot’ in everyday meaning
Reactor coolant of the words. The pressure parameter of the primary circuit is important:
16.2 MPa as mentioned above, boiling in the closed loop of the primary circuit is
pressure
prohibited. Consequently, the pressure should be very high to ensure that
Table 3.2.2. Main parameters of the primary circuit. the coolant stays in liquid state. The pressure in the primary circuit of
VVER-1200 is 16.2 MPa, which is more than 160 atmospheres (atm).
In general, VVER has four such loops as described above. In each loop,
there is one steam generator, one main circulation pump, main inlet
and outlet circulation pipelines. The loops are connected: they have one
pressurizer, and in case of occurrences when steam or coolant should be
removed from the primary circuit, one relief tank. In case of emergencies,
pressure relief valves could be opened and steam from the primary circuit
is released into this tank.
Modern Russian designed NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor has another
four hydro-accumulators. They are a passive part of the emergency core
cooling system. The volume of each tank is about 60 m3. 50 m3 are filled with
a mixture of water and boric acid. Pressurized nitrogen (60 atm) is in the
other 10 m3. These tanks are directly connected to the reactor vessel. Two
of them are connected to the top part of the reactor vessel, and the other
two—to the bottom of the reactor vessel, i.e. the level of inlet lines and
nozzles. Based on the basic design of VVER, it is not possible to make any
Figure 3.2.3. VVER Nuclear Steam Supply System. Light nozzles lower than the level of inlet nozzles of the reactor vessel. The four
Water Reactor VVER-1200/V-522. Source: Proekt AES-2006 emergency core cooling system tanks are connected directly. There are
– tekhnologia i philosophia bezopasnosti [AES-2006 Project: one-way valves on the connection line, which are activated automatically
Technology and philosophy of safety]. Jershov G.A., if pressure in the primary circuit is reduced to less than 60 atm. If in case
Atomproekt. Budapest, 2015. of emergency, there is a leakage of coolant of the primary circuit—LOCA

8
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Description Value and unit

Primary circuit loops, with one steam


4
generator per loop
Coolant flow rate through the reactor 86,000 m3/h
Coolant temperature, reactor inlet 298.2 oC
Coolant temperature, reactor outlet 328.9 oC
Reactor coolant pressure 16.2 MPa

Table 3.2.3. VVER nuclear steam supply system.


Light water reactor VVER-1200/V-522 specifications.

(loss of coolant accident) type of leakage—the pressure in the primary circuit is dramatically reduced
very quickly. In this case, the coolant from the tanks is supplied to the reactor core automatically,
without any signals or actions by the operator (according to so-called passive principle).
During emergencies, it is possible to shut down the reactor. But the disadvantage of nuclear
energy production is that the shutdown is not immediate: the level of power of the reactor cannot
be immediately reduced to zero. When the reactor is just shut down, the nuclear chain reaction is
stopped, but residual heat is still continuously produced. To illustrate, one day after shutdown, the
level of power is 0.5% of the nominal level of power before shutdown. As mentioned above, the
thermal power of VVER-1200 is 3,200 MW. 0.5% of 3,200 MW is about 16 MW, which is a normally
generated level of power for small power plants. It means that in one day after shutdown, the residual
heat production is comparable to a low-capacity thermal power plant.
To summarize, there are four similar coolant loops with combined flow rate of approximately 86,000
m3/h (about 20-22,000 m3/h for each loop); the inlet coolant temperature is approximately 300 ˚C,
outlet—330 ˚C; the pressure is 16.2 MPa.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

3.3.  Reactor vessel


Reactor design

Different parts of the reactor are assembled in the reactor


facility. The reactor unit and reactor top head are at the top of
the reactor. The reactor head ensures the airtightness of the
reactor. In the upper unit, stepper motor, I&C equipment—
equipment which is required to operate and monitor the
parameters of the reactor—is located.
Reactor pressure vessel forms an airtight system with the reactor
top head.
Protective tube unit is a steel structure with a lot of tubes inside
the reactor, which is used to arrange lines connecting stepper
motor and control rods. Its secondary purpose is to ensure that
the fuel assemblies stays in place. Without it, fuel assemblies
might be removed from the reactor core.
Inside the reactor vessel, there is the reactor barrel, inside
that is the core baffle, and in the core baffle are fuel assemblies.
There are about 163 fuel assemblies combined in the reactor
core. For VVER, the arrangement of assemblies is hexagonal.
But the reactor vessel is a cylinder, so fuel assemblies need to
Figure 3.3.1. VVER-1200 reactor arrangement, where be combined into a cylindrical form. The core baffle is used
1 – upper unit, 2 – reactor top head, 3 – reactor pressure for this purpose; it is a metal structure which helps to keep
vessel, 4 – protective tube unit, input and output nozzles, fuel assemblies in a circular form. Reactor barrel is a reactor
5 – reactor barrel, 6 – core baffle, 7 – fuel assemblies, internal pit which provides an opportunity to arrange the inlet,
control rods. outlet, and circulation of coolant through the reactor.

10
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Figure 3.3.2. Reactor components,


assembled and disassembled.

Figure 3.3.2 illustrates an assembled and a disassembled reactor. In the center, there is
the assembled reactor with the upper unit and the reactor top head at the top. Inside
the reactor, there is a protective tube unit. At the level of the reactor core, there is a core
barrel; core baffle and 163 fuel assemblies are inside the core barrel.

11
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

To understand the dangers and the sheer power


Rate of coolant temperature change and power of the reactor, the reactor specifications and
capacity should be considered in more detail.
As mentioned in the previous section, the
inlet coolant temperature is about 300 ˚C and
the outlet temperature is 330 ˚C; the coolant
flow rate is approximately 86,000 m3/h. The
total height of the reactor core is about 3.7
m. It means that every hour 86,000 m3 of
coolant flow into the reactor, circulate through
the reactor, and come out. The increase of
temperature is about 30˚C during the way. If
the configuration of the reactor core is taken
into account, the average speed of coolant is
about 5-7 m/s, or, in terms of temperature
change, 50 ˚C/s.
To compare, imagine a water heater which
produces boiling water in two seconds. It is
not possible to find a heater for household use
with such characteristics. Normal heaters take
two to three minutes to boil water. It takes
only two seconds in the reactor: there is a huge
amount of power and huge amount of heat
produced in the reactor.
Another example is the residual heat mentioned
Figure 3.3.3.VVER-1200 reactor vessel and fuel elements. in the previous section. 15 MW of residual heat
are produced one day after shutdown —how
much is that? 15 MW is 15,000 kW. The average
power consumption of a clothes iron is 2 kW.
So, 7,500 irons are powered by a box 3.7 m high
and 3.5 m in diameter. This is a lot of power.

12
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

3.4.  VVER fuel

Figure 3.4.1. Control rods.

The next topic of discussion is VVER fuel; the focus is on actor core is roughly 87 tonnes. A 5 cm × 5 cm × 2 cm box
TVS-2006. TVS-2006 is a special type of fuel designed of fuel can provide power for two families for 30 years. So,
for VVER (NPP with VVER 1200). It is based on the fuel for with 87 tonnes there is a large amount of fuel inside one
VVER-1000, which is called TVS. TVS can be translated reactor core, which produces a large amount of power.
directly from Russian as ‘the fuel assembly’.
Control rods are used to ensure stability of the reactor
TVS-2006 is assembled from the fuel pellets made from and operation on different levels of power; some of
uranium dioxide (UO2). The pellets are assembled in fuel rods them are inside the reactor core and others are on top
about 3.7 m in length, inside a tube. The tube is produced of the reactor core. The total number of control rods
from a zirconium-niobium alloy (E110, E635). 312 fuel rods which can be used for one reactor facility is 121—there
are arranged in a fuel assembly. One fuel assembly contains is no space to install more control rod drives. Sensors
approximately 500 kg of uranium dioxide in total. of in-core monitoring system are arranged in some fuel
assemblies. They measure neutron flux in different levels
The NPP with VVER 1200 reactor core contains 163 fuel of the reactor core, monitor the level of temperature and
assemblies. The total weight of uranium dioxide in the re- the level of coolant in the core.

13
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Core criticality

Ensuring stable, controlled state of reactor operation If positive reactivity is added, chain reaction and
is paramount. But unforeseen occurrences happen the power of the reactor are increased; if negative
during the operation. For example, pumps could reactivity is added, chain reaction is reduced.
shut down unexpectedly, and as a result, the amount Processes which need compensating actions are:
of coolant in the primary circuit could be reduced. plutonium formation, the reactivity effects, fuel
So, a controlled slow-down of chain reaction and burnup, steady xenon poisoning, and other processes
controlled regulation of the amount of neutrons in in the reactor core.
the core should be possible. During such occurrences,
a lot of parameter changes happen in the core which For these purposes and to ensure the safety of the
should be compensated for. Equipment to add positive core during operations, a control and protection
or negative reactivity is needed for this purpose. system (CPS) is designed for VVER plants and for
nuclear facilities in general. Three main functions
are identified for this system. The first one is
emergency protection: in case of occurrences, the
reactor needs to be shut down immediately, or as
quickly as possible. The second function is reactor
power regulation: CPS can be used to change the level
of power, to add positive or negative reactivity. The
third function is compensation of excess reactivity. At
the startup of the reactor, there are about 87 tonnes
of uranium inside the core. The primary circuit is
closed—it is not possible to open the reactor and
add fresh fuel during the operation. A large amount
of fuel has to be put inside the reactor on the first
loading, which then operates for several years. It
means there should be an additional amount of fuel
in the core at the commissioning stage to maintain
chain reaction. Some of the control rods can be used
for that. During operation, they can be removed
Figure 3.4.2. Processes which influence core criticality, where Kef from the core, compensating for fuel burnup, adding
denoted neutron multiplication factor, and ρ denotes reactivity. positive reactivity, and sustaining chain reaction.

14
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Neutron absorption speed

The ways to control reactivity are


shown in Figures 3.4.4 and 3.4.5. It
is not possible to change neutron
generation speed or neutron leakage
speed, which are fixed physical
parameters. Neutron absorption
speed can be regulated by control
rods. But generally, not only solid
control rods can be used for that.
Figure 3.4.3. Control and protection system (CPS) functions.
In VVER, the second method is
application of boric acid. Boron is
a very good material for catching
neutrons, reducing chain reaction,
and adding negative reactivity. In
VVER, boric acid is added to the
Figure 3.4.4. Reactivity control: sources. primary circuit coolant. During the
fuel burnup, the concentration of
boric acid is reduced the whole time
before reloading.
Liquid reactivity control in VVER –
achieving a certain concentration
of Н3ВО3 in the primary circuit to
compensate excess reactivity margin
(at an operating reactor) or to transfer
the core to a subcritical state (shut
down, repair, nuclear fuel reloading).

15
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

As a result, at the startup of the reactor


or after reloading the concentration of
boric acid is high, about 8 g/L, which
is designed to compensate the high
reactivity due to the excess of fuel over
the critical mass. By the end of the fuel
cycle H3BO3 is completely removed and
its concentration equals zero.
The high concentration of boric acid in
the primary circuit contributes to a quick
decrease of the pH level to unity (1),
which results in increased corrosion in
the primary circuit. This process should
be compensated for, by adding another
reagent into the primary circuit to ensure
that the pH level in the primary circuit is
natural.
Figure 3.4.6. The concentration of boric acid during the operation
cycle, where CН3ВО3 – concentration of boric acid. The last way to compensate for burnup
and to change reactivity is to put
additional burnable absorbers inside
the reactor core. For example, some
of fuel assemblies can contain pellets
with gadolinium, with gadolinium
concentration of, for example, 5-8 g per
kg. During the operation, this absorber is
burned: e.g. if one tonne of gadolinium
is put in the reactor at startup, the whole
amount is gradually burned until, after
about six months, there is no gadolinium
in the core. The operation can be continued
using other methods of compensation.

16
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

3.5.  VVER components Steam generator

Figure 3.5.1. Steam generator PGV-1000MPK.

The biggest and the most important component of VVER previous sections, the pressure in the primary circuit is
nuclear power plants is VVER reactor, which is discussed 16.2 MPa. In the secondary circuit, however, the pressure
in previous sections. The next one is steam generator. is lower—about 7 MPa (~70 atm).
It is a horizontal tank with two collectors, hot and cold,
On the top of the steam generator, there is a big area of
with about 10,000 pipes connecting them. The diameter of
evaporation, where a large amount of steam is produced.
the pipes is approximately 1.2-1.5 cm; the length of each The steam comes through a perforated sheet of steel,
pipe is about 10 m. The radioactive coolant of the primary where particles of water are accumulated. The steam
circuit is circulated inside these pipes. The coolant of the is collected in the steam header and is routed to the
secondary circuit is in the whole area of steam generator steam generator. Total steam production capacity of one
outside the pipes. It is much colder than the coolant of steam generator is about 1,600 t/hr. As a result, nominal
the primary circuit. The temperature of this coolant, power capacity of each steam generator is 800 MW. The
feedwater coolant, is about 225 ˚C. As mentioned in the characteristics are summarized in Table 3.5.1.

17
Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Parameter Value

Feedwater temperature 225 °С


Design pressure 7.0 MPa
Steam production capacity 1600 t/hr
Nominal power capacity 800 MW

Table 3.5.1. Characteristics of the secondary circuit.

The coolant of the primary circuit is radioactive.


Therefore, during the operation it is not possible to have
direct contact with the steam generator. The airtightness
and proper functioning of the steam generator should be
ensured before startup; it is not possible to check them
during the operation because it is not safe for workers.
According to Russian requirements, it should be possible
to transfer main components of NPP by railroad. Reactor
vessel and steam generator have to be transportable by
railroad—there are special wagons and routes for this
purpose.

Figure 3.5.2. Steam generator transported by rail-


road. Source: Parogeneratory reaktornyh ustanovok
VVER dlya atomnyh ehlektrostancij [Steam generators
for NPPs with VVER]. Moscow, Akademkniga Publ.,
2004. – FGUP OKB Gidropress.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Main circulation pump

Description of GCNA-1391 Value

Pump delivery rate, m3 22,600


Pump head, MPa 0.624
Inlet pump pressure, MPa 16
Coolant temperature, °C 300
Power consumption:

hot coolant, kW, as max. 5,250


cold coolant, kW, as max. 7,200
Rotor speed, rpm 1,000 / 750
Figure 3.5.3. Main circulation pump
Table 3.5.2. Main circulation pump GCNA-1391 characteristics. GCNA-1753, GCNA-1391.

GCNA (ГЦНА) can be directly translated from Russian contains water. Oils were used in previous designs.
as ‘main circulation pump’. In some countries, it might Considering oils present fire hazard for the operation of
be called ‘primary circuit pump’ or ‘reactor coolant the reactor, water is used now as a lubricant for the main
pump’—it is the same piece of equipment with different circulation pump and all parts of the plant.
titles. There main parameters of the GCNA-1391 pump
are presented in Table 3.5.2: pump delivery rate, pump The power consumption of each main circulation pump
head, inlet pump pressure, coolant temperature, power is approximately 6 MW. It is an electrically driven pump
consumption, and rotor speed. A new pump is installed and requires a lot of electrical power for operation. As the
for the Modern Russian designed NPP with VVER 1200 coolant density is different in hot and cold state, different
power reactor. There are different designs of the pump, amount of power is required for hot coolant pumping vs.
and modern ones have advantages. For example, there cold coolant pumping. Maximum power consumption for
is a special circuit of coolant for pump cooldown which hot coolant is about 5.2 MW, and for cold coolant—7.2 MW.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Pressurizing system

Figure 3.5.5. Pressurizing system.

The pressurizer is a big tank which is directly connected to the primary


circuit. The hot line goes directly from the bottom of the tank to loop 4
(Figure 3.5.5). The cold line is connected to the line of the main circulation
pump 1 (MCP-1). Cold water can be pumped from the primary circuit by
this pump, injected directly into the top level of the pressurizer, and
sprinkled there. As mentioned before, the pressure in the primary circuit
is about 16.2 MPa. In the pressurizer, the temperature of the coolant is
about 350 ˚C (356 ˚C), which is saturation temperature for the coolant.
Some part of the coolant in the pressurizer is in liquid state and some part
is in steam state. The area with liquid coolant is connected directly to loop
4 and the area with steam is connected directly to loop 1.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Therefore, if the valve on the top line is opened, the cold coolant (the cold
line’s temperature is about 300 ˚C) could be sprinkled at the top of the
pressurizer. This coolant’s temperature is lower than 350 ˚C, so the process
reduces the amount of steam in the steam area and consequently, reduces
the pressure in the primary circuit.
For the purpose of increasing the temperature in the primary circuit, there
are electric heater assemblies in the pressurizer. If they are turned on, more
heat is produced, the liquid is boiled more intensively, and more steam is
produced, which presses more on the coolant. So, the pressure is increased.
This means the pressurizer can be used to control pressure in the primary
circuit during operation. Pressure can be increased or reduced depending on
particular requirements. In case of emergency, it is possible to remove some
amount of steam by opening pressure relief valves and transfer it to the
relief tank.
During startup, it is not possible to activate main circulation pumps with
normal pressure (1 atm) in the primary circuit. Additional pressure has to be
established. For this purpose, nitrogen gas is supplied to the top level of the
pressurizer during startup at 2 MPa. This helps to create the 2 MPa pressure
in the primary circuit, which is enough for startup of main circulation pumps.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Layout of the primary circuit system

Figure 3.5.6. General view and layout of the system of primary circuit.
The system of primary circuit and its components are located in the containment.

The layout of the main equipment of the primary circuit inside the containment is presented in
Figure 3.5.6. There are four steam generators, four main circulation pumps, one pressurizer, one
relief tank, a reactor in the center, and four tanks of the emergency core cooling system. Based on
Russian experience, similar rules are prescribed for handling nuclear fuel and spent nuclear fuel
inside the reactor. Considering the dangers of handling this type of elements of the NPP, it is much
safer to keep spent fuel assemblies inside the containment. That is why in Figure 3.5.6, inside the
containment there are two spent fuel pools, which are combined into one piece of equipment.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

3.6.  Introduction to natural circulation

As mentioned in section 3.5, there is large area for evaporation of the secondary
circuit coolant in the steam generators. The main reason for these tanks to
have a large evaporation area is to arrange natural circulation in the primary
circuit for cooling down the reactor without use of circulation pumps. The
pressure in the secondary circuit is lower than in the primary circuit. The
secondary circuit coolant can be supplied to cool down the steam generator. If
natural circulation in the primary circuit is arranged, cool down of the reactor
during the residual heat removal is possible, especially during the shutdown
in case of blackout—that is, without any electricity support on site.

 atural circulation is a process by which fluid motion is driven by a


N
density difference and no external source of energy is required.
 heat source, a heat sink, and the pipes connecting them with the
A
essential hardware of a natural circulation system.
 he pipes are connected to the heat source (heater) and heat sink
T
(cooler) in such a way that they form a continuous circulation path.
 hen the flow path is filled with working fluid, circulation can start
W
automatically following the activation of the heat source under the
influence of a body field such as gravity.
 ith both the source and sink conditions maintained constant, a steady
W
condition is expected to be achieved, which can continue indefinitely if
the integrity of the closed loop is maintained.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

How can natural circulation be arranged? Two heat exchangers


are needed: one heat exchanger produces heat, another removes
heat. One is a heater, the other is a cooler. These heat exchangers
should be on different levels: one should be lower than the other.
The densities of coolant in the connection lines should also be
different. Additional requirement is to ensure sufficient flow
rate—resistance in the connection lines has to be low. If these
requirements are met, it is possible to have natural circulation.

 ue to the difference in densities between the vertical legs,


D
a pressure difference is created between stations ‘a’ and
‘b’ (Figure 3.6.1) which is the cause of the flow.
 t a steady state, the driving buoyancy force is balanced by
A
the retarding frictional force thus providing a basis for the
estimation of the flow rate.
Figure 3.6.1. Working principles
of natural circulation.  he flow rate through the loop is limited by the sum of the
T
resistances in the components and interconnecting piping
g H(ρc – ρh) = RW2 / 2, where g – acceleration due to gravity,
m/s2; R – hydraulic resistance, m-4; W – mass flow rate,
kg/s.
 atural circulation flow is enhanced by the loop height
N
and the difference in densities.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

 he primary function of a natural circulation loop is


T
to transport heat from a heat source to a heat sink.
 he main advantage of the natural circulation
T
system is that the heat transport function is achieved
without the aid of any fluid moving machinery, e.g.
pumps. The absence of moving/rotating parts while
generating the motive quantity of force (motive force)
for flow makes it less prone to failures reducing the
maintenance and operating costs.
 he motive force for the flow is generated within
T
the loop simply because of the presence of the heat
source and heat sink.

Figure 3.6.2. VVER-1200 coolant


circulation scheme.

The amount of heat that can be removed from the core also not possible to send operators inside the containment
due to natural circulation and the amount of coolant that just after operation—the level of radioactivity is too high.
needs to be supplied to the secondary circuit for cooldown But it is possible to send operators to the turbine building.
of the steam generators should be assessed. Calculations In the turbine building, feedwater pumps can supply cold
for VVER confirm that it is possible to arrange natural water to the secondary circuit, cool down steam generator,
circulation in the primary circuit and cool down the reactor and consequently, the reactor.
without additional supply of cold coolant to the primary
circuit during blackout. It could be done while keeping At the design stage, the possibility of replacing old
the primary circuit airtight and pressurized. Supplying steam generator with a new one during the lifetime of
coolant to the primary circuit implies access inside the NPP should be taken into account. For Russian VVER,
containment. As mentioned before, access to the steam the replacement is possible because the steam generator
generator and reactor is not possible during operation. It is is smaller in comparison to other types of PWRs.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

3.7.  VVER operation


VVER normal operation conditions

The last topic in the specifics of VVER facility section is reduced to minimal level. It can be less than 1%,
is the operation conditions of VVER. In usual sense of which depends on the quality of the I&C system and
the word ‘normal’, there is only one operation mode sensors inside the reactor core—the level of neutron
on nominal level of power. In actuality however, there flux can be identified and the minimal level of power
are no less than eight operation modes for VVER, as can be assessed and controlled. The k-factor is near
could be seen in Table 3.7.1. the criticality. The reactor thermal power is less than
1%. The concentration of boric acid is from 20 g/
The first condition is on-load operation. The operation
dm3 to operational, because the same conditions can
is in a steady state; the level of power in the core
is stable. K-factor equals unity (1), which means be identified during the startup of the reactor. The
the nuclear core and chain reaction are in critical temperature in the primary circuit is more than 260
state. Boric acid concentration is operational and, as ˚C (hot). And primary circuit is sealed; more than one
mentioned in section 3.4, decreases during operation control rod group is not at a lower position in the core.
from about 8 g/L to zero. The primary circuit coolant
The third condition can be identified as the hot state. It
temperature is more than 280 ˚C, which means the
means the k-factor is less than 0.99—subcriticality is
reactor and the primary circuit are hot. The primary
more than 1%. Boric acid concentration is lower than
circuit is sealed. The level of power is 5% and
everything is operating normally. 20 g/dm3, which is a shutdown concentration of boric
acid in the primary circuit coolant. Primary circuit
The second operational condition is reactor at temperature is more than 260 ˚C (hot). Primary circuit
minimum controlled power level. After having worked is sealed; and all control rods are at a lower position
at 5% of nominal level of power, the level of power in the core. It is a subcritical state, but the core is hot.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

Reactor Boric acid


Primary
thermal concentration in
# Condition k-factor circuit coolant Additional conditions
power, primary circuit
temperature, °С
% coolant, g/dm3
On-load
1 1 >1 operational ≥ 280 - Primary circuit sealed
operation

Reactor at - Primary circuit sealed


minimum from 0.99 from 20
2 ≤1 ≥ 260 - More than one control rod
controlled to 1 to operational group not at a lower position
power level in core
- Primary circuit sealed
3 Hot < 0.99 - from Сmin to 20 ≥ 260 - Control rods at a lower
position in core
4 Cold < 0.98 - from Сmin to 20 ≤ 60 - Primary circuit sealed
Shutdown for
5 < 0.98 - 16 ÷ 20 ≤ 60 - Primary circuit unsealed
repair
- Primary circuit unsealed
6 Refueling < 0.98 - 16 ÷ 20 ≤ 60 - Coolant level in sump tank
25.45 m
7 Heating-up < 0.98 - from Сmin to 20 60 ÷ 260 - Primary circuit unsealed
Shutdown
8 < 0.98 - from Сmin to 20 260 ÷ 60 - Primary circuit sealed
cooling

Table 3.7.1. VVER normal operation conditions.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

After that, the reactor can be cooled down to a cold state. It means subcriticality
is approximately 2% and k-factor about 0.98. Concentration of boric acid is
lower than 20 g/dm3. The temperature of the primary circuit coolant is less
than 60 ˚C (cold). The primary circuit is sealed.
Shutdown for repair condition has the same parameters, apart from the
concentration of boric acid, which is increased; as might be expected, the
primary circuit is unsealed.
During refueling condition, the coolant levels in the spent fuel pool inside the
reactor are changed to ensure that it is possible to transfer spent fuel from
the reactor core to the spent fuel tank.
After refueling, the primary circuit can be sealed and heating-up can begin.
The heating-up of the primary circuit is an interesting process. As mentioned
in section 3.5, there are electric heaters inside the pressurizer, which can be
turned on; however, it takes a lot of time to heat up the primary circuit this
way. Nitrogen can be supplied to the pressurizer to increase the pressure
in the primary circuit to 2 MPa and to turn on main circulation pumps.
One main circulation pump requires 5 or, in case of cold coolant, 7 MW of
power, which means a lot of heat is produced during the operation of main
circulation pumps. As a result, no less than three main circulation pumps
and electric heaters in the pressurizer are used during heating-up. In total,
the temperature of coolant in the primary circuit can be increased 15 ˚C per
hour. So, the transition between the cold state and hot state requires no less
than 16-17 hours.
The operation cycle of NPP requires the shutdown cooling condition to be
implemented once every 1-1,5 years depending on the type of fuel cycle
chosen for the NPP. Cooldown of the reactor is required to provide refueling,
maintenance, and other works. After that, the reactor is heated up and comes
back to operational condition.

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Fundamentals of Modern Russian designed
NPP with VVER 1200 power reactor > 3. Specifics of VVER Reactor facility

NPP with VVER 1200 layout

Figure 3.7.1 presents the


general layout of Modern
Russian designed NPP
with VVER 1200 power
reactor. On the right, there
is the containment and on
the left, turbine building,
with lines connecting the
equipment of the primary
and secondary circuits.
These are the two main
parts of NPPs; one of
them is covered in this
section, the other—in the
next section.

Figure 3.7.1. NPP with VVER 1200 layout.


Source: www.atomic-energy.ru/articles/2015/05/22/57088
29

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