refineries show large differences. Why’ + Large differences is due to the re ¥ difference in properties of the crude oil delivered ¥ requirements of the market ¥ environmental considerations present legislation related to minimizing the environmental impact is the major drive for process improvement and the development of novel processes. + Especially for fuels in the transport sector, ¥ extensive processing is required in order to obtain products with satisfactory performaneThe coke-forming tendencies of heavier distillation products can be reduced by removal of by means of extraction, generally appears to be the most suitable solvent, but are also commonly applied + Propane deasphalting is based on the 5 of hydrocarbons in propane.| ‘Alkanes that are present in the feed dissolve in the propane. whereas the asphaltenic materials, the “coke precursors”, do not dissolve, (a a ee4 When heating a hydrocarbon to a sufficiently high temperature, 4 This Is often referred 10.5 “pyrolysis” (In particular In the processing of coal) ‘and, “steam cracking” (pyratysis of hydrocarbons in the presence of steer.) + The same process is applied in oll conversion processes 4 Three thermal cracking processes that Is “visbreaking”, delayed coking, and the more recent process, Thermal processes are flexible but a disadvantage is that, in principle, 4 This is the reason for Innovations like the4 When heating a hydrocarbon to a sufficiently high temperature, tt 4 This Is often referred to as “pyrolysis” (In particular In the processing of coal) ‘and, “steam cracking” (pyrolysis of hydrocarbons in the presence of steer.) + The same process is applied in oll conversion processes 4 Three thermal cracking processes that Is “visbreaking”, delayed coking, and the more recent process Thermal processes are flexible but a disadvantage is that, in. principle, 4 This is the reason for Innovations like the CO ee ee ee oe ee oeVisbreaking, that is, is a relatively mild thermal cracking process in which the + The severity of the visbreaking process depends on temperature (710- 760 K) and reaction time (1-8 minutes). % Usually, ‘ The main product 2, which is of lower viscosity than the vacuum residue.‘Moder crude distillation unit consisting of atmospheric and vacuum distillationWhen heating a hydrocarbon to a sufficiently high temperature, 4 This is often referred to as “pyrolysis” (in particular in the processing of coal) and, “steam cracking” (pyrolysis of hydrocarbons in the presence of steam.) % The same process is applied in oil conversion processes. % Three thermal cracking processes that is “visbreaking”, delayed coking, and the more recent process, % Thermal processes are flexible but a disadvantage is that, in principle, 4 This is the reason for innovations like the* Delayed coking is a . making it much more “As a consequence, a solid residue, , is also formed gas heavyfeed <> liquid ~* petroleum coke # for electrodesSchematic of the delayed coking process (ec) Neots (C5Cy) Height | -25 m Diameter: 4.9 m remot (2 Cy) © Acoke drum ison aream for 16-24 hours, during which ft becomes filed with porous coke, “The feed is subsequently introduced in the second coke drum, while coke is removed from the first drum with high-pressure water jes.Flexicoking + The Flexicoking process has been developed by Exxon to production a rcs oo. of coke | Gas liquid and more coke goon Is formed due to thermal 4 cracking. Coke (30% of | ess ete ste cracking products) fluidized bed “Transfer heat from gasifier to reactorFlexicoking The Flexicoking process has been developed by Exxon to minimize coke eae TH Gas liquid and more coke Is formed due to thermal cracking. Coke (30% of| (5 cracking products)is a relatively mild thermal Mgging process in which The severity of the vi process depends on temperature (710- Usually, The mai . which is of lower viscosity than the vacuum residue.¢ In the reactor feed is roduce gas, liquids, and more coke by thermal cracking. + Coke constitutes ~30 wt% of the cracking products. The coke particles are transported to a heater, which is also a fluidized bed, * The primary function of the heater Is to transfer heat from the gasifier to the reactor. + Part of the hot coke is recirculated to the reactor, while another part is fed to the gasifier, which too is a fluidized bed. Here the coke is gasified by reaction with steam and oxygen C+04/H:0 + H,CO,CO2,CHs, pollutants¢ In the reactor feed is roduce gas, liquids, and more coke by thermal cracking. + Coke constitutes ~30 wt% of the cracking products. The coke particles are transported to a heater, which is also a fluidized bed, * The primary function of the heater Is to transfer heat from the gasifier to the reactor. + Part of the hot coke is recirculated to the reactor, while another part is fed to the gasifier, which too is a fluidized bed. Here the coke is gasified by reaction with steam and oxygen C+04/H:0 + H,CO,CO2,CHs, pollutants+ Catalytic processes are the In fact, from this sector have had tremendous impact on. the + The most important catalytic processes in the oil refinery, in terms of throughput, areTypical octane numbers of gasoline base stocks Gasoline MON" Light staightrun gasoline o fsomerate FCC Tight gasoline 82 FCC heavy gasoline 85 Allglate Reformat 99} cy “ Octane number is the percentage of isooctane by volume in a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane. ‘+ Itindicates the anti-knock propiky of the fuel. Higher the octane number, the less tendency of knocking, + The most common type of octane rating worldwide is the Research Octane Number (RON). **It s possible to have a fuel having octane number greater than 100? “IF it 50, how itis possible and what is the meaning? ‘What i the difference between RON and MON? a we O.+ The octane number is a measure of the quality of the gasoline. + Modern gasoline-powered cars require a Gasoline with a (damage to the engi 2/ Why catalytic cracking ane hydrocracking simportan?{~”) + The amount of gasoline obtained from simple dsilation| God, Par # Therefore, either high-octane number compounds have to be added or+ Diesel is another important transportation fuel + The diesel equivalent of the octane number is the cetane number, hydrocracking process% Moreover, the octane number of “straight-run” gasoline is much wer en eed fydroes to yep ators of her octane e number and ee ee) @-50% Moreover, the octane number of “straight-run” gasoline is much lower than required. + Therefore, steps like ee eo)(Cetane number 100" alkanes 70-110 fo-alkanes 30-70 alkenes 0-60 eyelo-alkanes 40-70 akylbenzenes 20-60 raphthalenes 020 e-methyl naphthalene o SIGE gas HT 0-50 CC cycle oll 025 Thermal gas oil 30-50 iydrocracking gas oll 55-60 % Celane numbers are highest fot lingar_alkanes) while (naphthalene aromatic compounds, have the lowes-cetararnaribers, "Note that this situation is the opposite for ociane numbers.Objective: = gor ‘ Originally cracking was performed thermally but nowadays cracking in the presence of a catalyst predominates. ~ Feoiocs are hen factions tpt Cracking is catalyzed by solid acids, which promote the rupture of bonds. - a ‘The crucial intermediates are carbocations Zz4 Besides C-C bond cleavage a large number of other reactions occur ¥ isomerization; ¥ protonation, ¥ deprotonation: ¥ alkylation; ¥ polymerization ¥ cyclization, ¥ condensation (eventually leading to coke formation). * Catalytic cracking: @ complex network of reactions, both intramolecular andFlexicoking + The Flexicoking process has been developed by Exxon to m production ne nsf stills . Alt Hot fluidized bed of coke Gas liquid and more coke Is formed due to thermal cracking. Coke (30% of cracking products) fluidized bed fer heat from gasifier to reactor