Hydrology

HDROLOGY
MODULE 2

Created by: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Hydrology

 School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Hydrology

Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic
Cycle
After this chapter, the student should be able to
Objective  Discuss and solve Evaporation from Free Surface
 Analyze and solve Transpiration and Evapotranspiration problems
 Explain Depression Storage

This chapter focuses on:

Content • Evaporation, Transpiration, Interception and Depression Storage
• Evaporation from Free Surface:
o Water Balance Method,
o Energy Balance Method,
o Mass-Transfer Method,
o Penman Equation,
o Empirical Methods and Direct Measurement
• Transpiration and Evapotranspiration.
• Depression Storage

Related  https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/

Readings
J. E. Gribbin, P.E., (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology with
References Applications for Stormwater Management. New York, USA: Delmar, Cengage
Learning
W. Brustsaert, (2005). Hydrology an Introduction. Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK:
Cambridge University Press, New York

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Hydrology
 Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
Evaporation, Transpiration, Interception and Depression Storage

Evaporation from Free Water Surface

Water Balance Method

In the natural environment, water is almost constantly in motion and is able to change state
from liquid to a solid or a vapor under appropriate conditions. Conservation of mass requires that,
within a specific area over a specific period of time, water inflows are equal to water outflows, plus
or minus any change of storage within the area of interest. Put more simply, the water entering an
area has to leave the area or be stored within the area. The simplest form of water balance equation
is as follows:

𝑃 = 𝑄 + 𝐸 ± ∆𝑆

Where, P is precipitation, Q is runoff, E is evaporation and ∆S is the storage in the soil,

aquifers or reservoirs.

In water balance analysis, it is often useful to divide water flows into ‘green’ and ‘blue’ water.
‘Blue’ water is the surface and groundwater that is available for irrigation urban and industrial use
and environmental flows. ‘Green’ water is water that has been stored in the soil and that evaporates
into the atmosphere. The source of ‘green’ water is rainfall or ‘blue’ water has been used for irrigation.

A Water Balance Analysis Can Be Used to:

 Assess the current status and trends in water resource availability in an area over a
specific period of time.

 Strengthen water management decision-making, by assessing and improving the

validity of visions, scenarios and strategies.

Water balance estimates are often presented as being precise. In fact, there is
always uncertainly, arising from inadequate data capture networks, measurement errors and the
complex spatial and temporal heterogeneity that characterizes hydrological processes. Consequently,
uncertainty analysis is an important part of water balance estimation as is quality control of
information before used.

When the data sources are imprecise, it is often possible to omit components that
do not affect changes. For example, it is possible to omit storage from an annual water balance if
year-on-year storage changes (such as reservoirs) are negligible.

Some common problems that occur when water balance estimations are made include:

 Temporal and spatial boundaries are not defined.

 The quality of input data is poor.

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 Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
 Double counting of water flows when water flows within an area added to water flow exiting
area.
 Inappropriate extrapolation of field level information to a larger scale. Many hydrological
relationships are scale dependent (e.g. runoff as a proportion of rainfall is almost always
higher at smaller spatial and temporal scales).
 Intuition (often based on popular myths) is used rather than good quality information.
 The storage term(s) of the water balance is omitted.
 Political or other pressures result in unreliable estimates that have been manipulated.

Materials and Resources

Techniques for carrying out water balance estimation range from very simple ‘back of the
envelope’ estimates to highly complex computer-based models. A sound knowledge of hydrological
processes of a prerequisite of water balance estimation. It is often advisable for a project or program
to employ the services of a specialist to produce water balance estimates or, at the very last, to provide
specialist advice as and when it is needed. Access to a quality-controlled information base is a good
starting point for water balance estimation.

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 Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
Energy Balance Method

The potential evaporation by the Energy Balance method is given by:

𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝑛
𝐸𝑟 = =
𝜌𝑤 𝑙𝑣 𝐿

Where L = 𝜌𝑤 𝑙𝑣 is the Latent Heat factor given in the table below:

Temp (°C) Water Density (kg/m3) Latent Heat (J/kg) L (W/m2) /(mm/day)
0 1000 2500000 28.94
5 1000 2499988 28.94
10 1000 2499976 28.93
15 999 2499965 28.91
20 998 2499953 28.88
25 997 2499941 28.85
30 996 2499929 28.82
35 994 2499917 28.76
40 992 2499906 28.70

Example:

On 24 January 2013, in the Upper Brushy Creek watershed, the net radiation averaged over
the day from the National Land Data Assimilation System, is 52 W/m2. The average air temperature
through the day is 17°C. Compute the corresponding potential evaporation rate using the energy
balance method.

𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝑛
𝐸𝑟 = =
𝜌𝑤 𝑙𝑣 𝐿

𝑊
( 2)
𝑚
𝐿 = 28.89 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑊
𝑅𝑛 = 52
𝑚2

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 Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
𝑊
52
𝐸𝑟 = 𝑚2
𝑊
( 2)
𝑚
28.89 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝑟 = 1.80
𝑑𝑎𝑦

Mass Transfer Method

Evaporation driven by
–Vapor pressure gradient
–Wind speed
𝐸 = 𝑓(𝑢)(𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 )

𝐸 = (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑢)(𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 )

Where:

eS = saturation vapor pressure at temperature T of the water surface

ea = vapor pressure at some fixed level above the water surface
u = wind speed at some level above surface
a,b = empirical constants

Some formulas use a zero value for the constant “a”in the formula due to the small local air
movements with velocities insufficient to remove excess vapor from a above a pan surface. Harbeck
and Meyers (1970) present the following equation.

𝐸 = (𝑏𝑢2 )(𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒2 )

Where:
E = Evaporation (cm/day)
eS = vapor pressure at water surface (mb)
e2 = vapor pressure 2 m above water surface (mb)
u2 = wind speed 2 m above water surface (m/s)

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 Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle

Penman Equation

The penman formula is a semi-empirical equation combining mass transfer (Ea) and energy
budget (H) methods. The formula was developed by Penman in 1948 and is still widely used for
calculating the potential evaporation using synoptic meteorological data.

According to Penman the potential evaporation Eo (in mm/day) can be calculated as:

∆
𝐻 + 𝐸𝑎
𝛾
𝐸𝑜 =
∆
+1
𝛾
∆
Where 𝛾 is an empirical parameter depending on temperature.

H is calculated as H = (1-r)Rin – Ro where Rin (incoming radiation) in given by:

𝑛
(1 − 𝑟)𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 0.95𝑅𝑎 (0.18 + 0.55 )
𝑁
Where:

Ra is the solar radiation,

Ro is the outgoing radiation,
r is the albedo (0.05 for water), and
n/N is the ratio between actual sunshine hours and possible sunshine hours.

The term n/N can also be estimated using the cloudiness, e.g., a cloudiness of 60 %
gives an n/N of 40 % (= 100 - 60). Ro is calculated by:

𝑛
𝑅𝑜 = 𝜎𝑇𝑎 4 (0.56 − 0.09√𝑒𝑑 )(0.10 + 0.090 )
𝑁
where ed is the actual vapor pressure, and
σTa4 is the theoretical black body radiation

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 Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
Ea is calculated by:
Ea = 0.35(0.5 + u2/100)(ea – ed)
where u2 is the wind speed in miles/day (1 mile = 1609 m) and
ea is the saturation vapor pressure
*Remember that the relative humidity RH = ed/ea.

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Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle

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 Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle

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 Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle

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 Phase 4
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Empirical Methods and Direct Measurement

Most of the available empirical equations for estimating lake evaporation are a Dalton type
equation of the general form

(1) Meyer’s Formula

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 Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
(2) Rohwer’s Formula - Accounts for the effect of pressure in addition to the wind speed effect

Transpiration and Evapotranspiration

Transpiration

Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plants. It occurs chiefly at the leaves while
their stomata are open for the passage of CO2 and O2 during photosynthesis.

Importance of Transpiration

Transpiration is not simply a hazard of plant life. It is the "engine" that pulls water up
from the roots to:

 supply photosynthesis (1%-2% of the total);

 bring minerals from the roots for biosynthesis within the leaf;

 cool the leaf.

Environmental factors that affect the rate of transpiration

1. Light

Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light
stimulates the opening of the stomata (mechanism). Light also speeds up transpiration by
warming the leaf.

2. Temperature

Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperatures because water evaporates more rapidly
as the temperature rises. At 30°C, a leaf may transpire three times as fast as it does at 20°C.

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 Phase 4
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3. Humidity

The rate of diffusion of any substance increases as the difference in concentration of the
substances in the two regions increases. When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of water
out of the leaf goes on more rapidly.

4. Wind

When there is no breeze, the air surrounding a leaf becomes increasingly humid thus reducing
the rate of transpiration. When a breeze is present, the humid air is carried away and replaced
by drier air.

5. Soil water

A plant cannot continue to transpire rapidly if its water loss is not made up by replacement
from the soil. When absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with the rate of
transpiration, loss of turgor occurs, and the stomata close. This immediately reduces the rate
of transpiration (as well as of photosynthesis). If the loss of turgor extends to the rest of the
leaf and stem, the plant wilts.

. Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration (ET) is the combination of evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation

is water movement from wet soil and leaf surfaces. Transpiration is water movement through the
plant. This water movement helps move vital nutrients through the plant.

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 Phase 4
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
Depression Storage

Depression storage refers to small low points in undulating terrain that can store precipitation
that otherwise would become runoff. The precipitation stored in these depressions is then either
removed through infiltration into the ground or by evaporation. Depression storage exists on pervious
and impervious surfaces alike; however, depression storage is much greater on undisturbed, pervious
surfaces.

Standard design and construction practices remove these natural depressions in order to
promote drainage, which reduces depression storage.

References:

https://sswm.info/sswm-university-course/module-4-sustainable-water-supply/further-resources-water-
sources-software/water-balance-estimation

https://iahs.info/uploads/dms/16761.12-52-56-344-05-Ershadi_etal_JH2_v5CORR.pdf

https://www.caee.utexas.edu/prof/maidment/CE374KSpr13/Evaporation/EvaporationExample.pdf

http://www.uobabylon.edu.iq/eprints/publication_1_2387_723.pdf

https://www.biology-pages.info/T/Transpiration.html

https://www.pca.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/p-gen3-12e.pdf

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 School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Hydrology

Phase 5
Important Phases of Hydrologic
Cycle
After this chapter, the student should be able to
Objective  Analyze the different Surface and Subsurface Runoff Phenomenon
 Calculate the Flood Prediction using Graph Analysis
 Construct the flow route using different Flow Routing Techniques

• Surface and Subsurface Runoff Phenomenon

Content • Rainfall-Runoff Processes:
o Mechanisms,
o Cycle, Water Stage-Discharge Relationship
o Measurement and Interpretation
• Graph Analysis:
o Flood Prediction Characteristics,
o Unit Hydrograph Theory,
o Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph,
o Synthetic Unit,
o Hydrographs,
o Applications.
• Flow Routing Techniques:
o Channel Routing (Muskingum Method and Reservoir outing),
o Hydraulic Routing (St. Venant Equations and Numerical
Solutions),
o Block-Box Models.

Related  https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/

Readings
J. E. Gribbin, P.E., (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology with
References Applications for Stormwater Management. New York, USA: Delmar, Cengage
Learning
W. Brustsaert, (2005). Hydrology an Introduction. Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK:
Cambridge University Press, New York

Hydrology
 Phase 5
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
Surface and Subsurface Runoff Phenomenon
Surface runoff is water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources, that flows over the land surface, and
is a major component of the water cycle.

 Runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called overland flow.

 A land area which produces runoff draining to a common point is called a watershed.

 When runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants such as petroleum,
pesticides, or fertilizers that become discharge or overland flow.

 Urbanization increases surface runoff, by creating more impervious surfaces such as pavement and
buildings do not allow percolation of the water down through the soil to the aquifer.

 It is instead forced directly into streams, where erosion and siltation can be major problems, even
when flooding is not.

 Increased runoff reduces groundwater recharge, thus lowering the water table and making droughts
worse, especially for farmers and others who depend on water wells.

Subsurface runoff is the water that infiltrates in the vadose zone (unsaturated zone), from rain,
snowmelt, or other sources, and moves laterally towards the streams. Vadose zone extends from the top of
the ground surface to the water table. It is one of the major components in the water cycle. Subsurface runoff
can be expressed in water volume (or mass) per unit of area per unit of time.

Rainfall-Runoff Processes

Mechanisms

Runoff is generated by a combination of two mechanisms, saturation excess and infiltration

excess (Yang et al., 2015).

Saturation excess occurs when the soil becomes fully saturated with water, exceeding the
water holding capacity of the soil; when the surplus rainfall can no longer be held in the soil, the
water is directed to another location through overland flow (Johnson et al., 2003).

Infiltration excess occurs when rainfall intensity exceeds the maximum rate that water can
infiltrate into the soil, and water must flow over land to a different area (Yang et al., 2015).

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Cycle, Water Stage-Discharge Relationship

Continuous records of discharge at gaging stations are computed by applying a

discharge rating to stage data. The discharge rating curve transforms the stage data to a continuous
record of stream discharge. The rating curve is also used to transform forecasted flow hydrographs
into stage hydrographs. The discharge rating curve may be simple or complex depending on the
river reach and flow regime. The objective of this lesson is to examine simple stage discharge
concepts where the discharge is only a function of stage. A typical simple stage discharge
relationship is shown in Figure 6.1.

Discharge models, also known as rating curves, stage ratings or stage-discharge relations are
typically developed empirically from periodic measurements of stage and discharge. Discharge is
computed current meter data. These data are plotted versus the concurrent stage to define the rating
curve for the stream. For new gaging stations, many discharge measurements are needed to develop
the stage discharge relation throughout the entire range of streamflow data.

Generally periodic measurements are needed to validate the underlying stage-discharge

relationship and to track changes or shifts in the rating curve. The USGS recommends a minimum
of 10 discharge measurements per year, unless it has been demonstrated that the stage discharge
relation is invariant in time. Of extreme importance is the capability of the stage-discharge relation
to be applicable for flood or extreme flow conditions and for periods when the rating shifts as a
result of ice formation.

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Discharge measurements are usually lacking in the definition of the upper end of the rating
curve. As a result, the extrapolation of the lower parts of the rating curve is used to "approximate"
the higher stages of the river. The extrapolation of these data are subject to serious error that can
have significant implications for flood planning and the attendant loss in human life and property.
The extrapolation issues can be circumvented if indirect methods of determining unmeasured peak
discharge are used. Without such data, some of the uncertainty can be reduced by estimating
discharge associated with these stage values.

The stage discharge relation is controlled by a station control, a section or reach of channel
downstream from the gage. The control may be natural or man-made. A section control is usually
effective only at low discharges. At medium and high discharges, section controls are completely
submerged, and the relationship between stage and discharge is governed by channel control. Channel
control is the set of all physical features of the channel that dictate the river stage at a given point for
a given flow rate. The features include size, slope, roughness, alignment, constrictions and
expansions, and the channel shape. The channel reach that functions as a control may lengthen as the
discharge increases, introducing new features in the stage discharge relationship.

The development of the rating curve when there is more than one control effective and when
data are limited, requires judgment in both interpolation and extrapolation of the data. This situation
is partially aggravated when the controls are not permanent; the various discharge measurements are
then representative of changes in the positioning of the segments of the rating curve.

Measurement and Interpretation

Development of Rating Curves

The discharge and stage measurements are plotted on either rectangular (arithmetic)
coordinate or logarithmic plotting paper. Discharge is plotted as the abscissa; gage height or stage,
the ordinate. The discharge measurements are numbered consecutively in chronological order to
facilitate the identification of time trends.

Hand drawn curves are typically used to fit the stage and discharge measurements to produce
a rating curve. Considerable judgement is normally exercised to decide on the best curve. For
example, knowledge of the river is applied and consideration is given to such factors as the quality
and magnitude of each measurement. In the simplest case, when a single control exists, these curves
would be practically straight lines on log scales. The case of compound controls will be discussed
later in the lesson. A hand drawn curve is shown in Figure 6.2. Each point represents a stage discharge
pair.

After the hand drawn curve is established, representative points that lie exactly on the curve
are extracted. These points define the rating curve. The number of points extracted can range from
two for a very simple channel with a single control to 20 points or more for channels with many

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 Phase 5
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle
controls. Figure 6.3 illustrates how these points lie on the curve in contrast to the actual stage-
discharge measurements. Once the defining points have been selected, one or more logarithmic
equations are used to mathematically fit the points. It is from these logarithmic equations that the
actual rating table values are derived, usually at increments of 0.01 foot of stage as shown in Figure
6.4. Figure 6.5 contains an example rating table that would result from the above process, with
explanations of the header information. Note that an asterisk by a value indicates that it coincides
with an actual stage- discharge measurement.

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 Phase 5
Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle

Interpreting the Rating Curve

Paired stage and discharge data are

commonly plotted on logarithmic paper (log scale
for both the ordinate and abscissa) since this
scaling tends to produce a nearly linear (or at least
piece-wise linear) fit to the observed data.
Assuming the rating "curve" is nearly a straight line
in situations with compound controls, changes in
the slope of log rating "curve" identify the range in
stage over which the individual control is effective.
The "linearized" rating line also makes
extrapolation or interpolation comparatively easy
compared to using the data on an arithmetic or
rectangular scale. Figure 6.5 shows how a rating
curve would look under logarithmic versus
rectangular coordinates. The benefit of using
rectangular-coordinate paper for rating analysis is
that trends and changes in the low flow portion of
the curve are more apparent and that zero flow
conditions can be identified. Zero flow cannot be
described in the log scale. For flood forecasting,
however, logarithmic plotting is preferable because
of its ability to identify control changes. This is
very useful during real-time flood monitoring.

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Graph Analysis

Flood Prediction Characteristics

Unit Hydrograph Theory

Sherman (1932) first proposed the unit hydrograph concept. The Unit Hydrograph
(UH) of a watershed is defined as the direct runoff hydrograph resulting from a unit volume
of excess rainfall of constant intensity and uniformly distributed over the drainage area. The
duration of the unit volume of excess or effective rainfall, sometimes referred to as the
effective duration, defines and labels the particular unit hydrograph. The unit volume is
usually considered to be associated with 1 cm (1 inch) of effective rainfall distributed
uniformly over the basin area.

The fundamental assumptions implicit in the use of unit hydrographs for modeling
hydrologic systems are:

a) Watersheds respond as linear systems. On the one hand, this implies that the
proportionality principle applies so that effective rainfall intensities (volumes) of different
magnitude produce watershed responses that are scaled accordingly. On the other hand, it
implies that the superposition principle applies so that responses of several different storms
can be superimposed to obtain the composite response of the catchment.

b) The effective rainfall intensity is uniformly distributed over the entire river basin.

c) The rainfall excess is of constant intensity throughout the rainfall duration.

d) The duration of the direct runoff hydrograph, that is, its time base, is independent
of the effective rainfall intensity and depends only on the effective rainfall duration.

Synthetic Unit

Sets of concurrent observations of effective rainfall and direct runoff are required for
the derivation of unit hydrographs. Thus, the resultant UH is specific to the particular
watershed defined by the point on the stream where the direct runoff observations were made.
When no direct observations are available, or when UH’s for other locations on the stream in
the same watershed or for nearby watersheds of similar characteristics are required, Synthetic
Unit Hydrograph procedures must be used.

Synthetic Unit Hydrograph procedures can be categorized as (e.g., Chow et al., 1988):
1) those based on models of watershed storage (e.g., Nash, 1957, 1958, 1959; Dooge, 1959;

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etc.); 2) those relating hydrograph characteristics (time to peak, peak flow, etc.) to watershed
characteristics (e.g., Snyder, 1938; Geomorphologic Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph); and 3)
those based on a dimensionless unit hydrograph (e.g., Soil Conservation Service, 1972).

Hydrographs

Hydrograph Components

Total streamflow during a precipitation event includes the baseflow existing in the
basin prior to the storm and the runoff due to the given storm precipitation. Total streamflow
hydrographs are usually conceptualized as being composed of:

a) Direct Runoff, which is composed of contributions from surface runoff and quick interflow.
Unit hydrograph analysis refers only to direct runoff.

b) Baseflow, which is composed of contributions from delayed interflow and groundwater

runoff.

Surface runoff includes all overland flow as well as all precipitation falling directly
onto stream channels. Surface runoff is the main contributor to the peak discharge.

Interflow is the portion of the streamflow contributed by infiltrated water that moves
laterally in the subsurface until it reaches a channel. Interflow is a slower process than surface
runoff. Components of interflow are quick interflow, which contributes to direct runoff, and
delayed interflow, which contributes to baseflow (e.g., Chow, 1964.)

Groundwater runoff is the flow component contributed to the channel by groundwater.

This process is extremely slow as compared to surface runoff.0

Schematically in Figure
11.1, the streamflow hydrograph is
subdivided into a) Rising Limb:
rising portion of the hydrograph,
composed mostly of surface runoff.
b) Crest: zone of the hydrograph
around peak discharge. c) Falling
(or Recession) Limb: Portion of the
hydrograph after the peak
discharge, composed mostly of
water released from storage in the
basin. The lower part of this
recession corresponds to
groundwater flow contributions.

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References:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/surface_runoff.htm#:~:text=Surface%20runoff%20is%20water%2C%
20from,point%20is%20called%20a%20watershed.

https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_file_download.cfm?p_download_id=533906#:~:text=Runoff%20is%20g
enerated%20by%20a,et%20al.%2C%202015).&text=Infiltration%20excess%20occurs%20when%20rainfa
ll,et%20al.%2C%202015).

https://www.engr.colostate.edu/~ramirez/ce_old/classes/ce522_ramirez/FloodHazards_Final.pdf

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Hydrology
HDROLOGY
MODULE 3

Created by: Engr. Aline Benneth V. Jacobo Hydrology

 School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Hydrology

Phase 6
Infiltration and Percolation:
Processes and Measurements
After this chapter, the student should be able to
Objective  Determine the processes and measurement used in Infiltration and
Percolation
 Analyze and solve the Groundwater Storage and the Flow of Water

This chapter focuses on:

Content • Groundwater Storage and the Flow of Water
o Hydrologic Investigations in Determining Subsurface Resource.
o Hydraulics of Low of Groundwater.
o Groundwater Exploration and Exploitation in the Philippines.

Related  https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/

Readings

J. E. Gribbin, P.E., (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology with

References Applications for Stormwater Management. New York, USA: Delmar, Cengage
Learning
W. Brustsaert, (2005). Hydrology an Introduction. Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK:
Cambridge University Press, New York

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Hydrology
 Phase 6
Infiltration and Percolation: Processes and Measurements
Groundwater Storage and the Flow of Water

Hydrologic Investigations in Determining Subsurface Resource

Reconnaissance investigations

A reconnaissance investigation is based on a review of existing information and an

examination of surface features at the site.

The reconnaissance is made to acquaint the investigator with the nature and characteristics of
surface features and conditions. From observation and examination, correlations with existing map
information can be established. Tentative interpretations regarding subsurface materials and
groundwater conditions can be formulated. Any material or condition appearing to adversely affect
project function, design, or construction should be located and referenced for further investigation.

Prior to making a reconnaissance of the site, the investigator should assemble and study
topographic, geologic, and soil maps and literature and reports regarding geology and groundwater
applying to the area. Data from a field reconnaissance should contain general descriptions and
locations of the surface features and conditions, including the following items:

• general geology of the project site

• geologic conditions that influence groundwater movement and recharge
• surface features resulting from groundwater movement, such as seeps, springs, and
landslides
• general character of streams and valleys including volumes of flow, streambanks and
bed, steepness of valley grades, and side slopes
• groundwater development, yields, quality, and use
• water well logs
• groundwater quality reports and data

Only limited interpretation of the available information should be done to characterize the
groundwater problem, subsurface conditions, materials, or yields. Interpretations may be mad based
on the data and conditions from areas of similar geologic and physical features. Limitations of such
interpretations should be documented as initial estimates to be verified with additional investigation
and data collection.

A written report should describe the site, provide interpretations or assumptions of the
subsurface conditions, and any conclusions regarding project feasibility or need for additional studies.
Copies of supporting maps, sketches, well logs, other data, and published references should be
attached. Reports prepared for non-NRCS use shall contain only factual descriptions, observations,
and remarks.

Preliminary investigation

A preliminary investigation is made to determine the geologic and hydrologic characteristics

of the subsurface material. This will establish the feasibility of the project, be a basis for estimating

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 Phase 6
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costs, and determine the need and intensity of further study.

A preliminary groundwater investigation includes a review of the reconnaissance report, if

available; geologic literature of the area, groundwater reports and data, and well drilling data and
records. Limited subsurface investigations at representative or critical locations may be conducted.
The investigation should establish the nature and characteristics of the subsurface materials,
groundwater conditions, probable yield, water quality, and other conditions and features.

When starting a preliminary groundwater investigation, all geologic, groundwater, and well
drilling data pertinent to the area should be reviewed including available well records.

1. Maps - A study of available resource maps is an excellent way to start a preliminary

groundwater investigation.

2. Imagery - Aerial photos and GIS data sets can be used to make initial interpretations of
geologic structure, landforms, potential recharge areas, springs, land use, and vegetation
patterns. Satellite imagery, as well as Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) data, may
also be used if available for the area of study.

3. Field study - In areas where stratified sedimentary rocks are exposed, the details of local
structure and its relationship to possible aquifers in the geologic section must be
determined. This is done by measuring and plotting the attitude (strike and dip) and
elevation of the exposed strata on the map of the area. Aerial photo contact prints are very
helpful and should be used wherever possible. Stereoscopic study of aerial photographs
may show information about geologic features, such as faults, as well as losing and
gaining streams.

4. Mapping - A geologic map should always be prepared on the best available base map
including:

a. areal and surficial geology

b. structure of bedrock, stratification, folding, schistosity, faults, or fractures

c. surface groundwater features including springs, seeps, swamps, and marshes

d. sinkholes and disappearing or reappearing streams

e. legend listing all formations shown on map. This includes a brief description of
characteristics of aquifers, aquicludes, and other pertinent information

f. locations of wells. Well record data and logs will be included in reports

5. Geologic sections - To complete and interpret the information on a geologic map, one or
more geologic sections and fence diagrams should be prepared, based on logs of wells,
test holes, geophysical studies, or other related information. The fence diagram is
constructed in three-dimensional perspective from actual well logs to show geologic

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 Phase 6
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relationships.

6. Report of preliminary investigation - A geologic report generally following the outline

in this chapter should be prepared for a preliminary groundwater investigation. The report
should include a concise discussion of groundwater conditions, interpretations,
conclusions, and recommendations for solving any problems. The preliminary report
should also include recommendations for methods to be used in making a detailed
groundwater investigation, where needed. Well records, log of borings, and other
supporting data should be reviewed, interpreted, and included where applicable with the
preliminary investigation report. Geologic maps and sections should be included.

Detailed investigations

A detailed investigation collects data for making sound geologic interpretations. Specific site
materials and groundwater conditions are documented to provide sufficient subsurface information
for the design and construction of project measures.

Detailed investigations include a review of the information covered by the preliminary

investigations, collection of additional data, preparation of a complete report, including logs, maps,
geologic sections, fence diagrams, and results of field tests and the collection and laboratory analysis
of samples.

Locations of wells, ambient and seasonal water levels, withdrawal areas, amounts of
withdrawal, springs or other discharge areas, hydraulic gradients, and rate and direction of
groundwater movement should be determined. Seismic or electrical resistivity apparatus and tracers
may be used to determine flow directions and velocities. Drilling or the excavation of pits may be
required to obtain more information, and to take samples of water and soil or rock materials. Field
permeability tests, pumping tests, and pressure testing often are desirable. The installation of
observation wells and piezometers may be advisable under some conditions.

Water quality should be determined to establish its potability for humans or livestock and its
suitability for irrigation or other agricultural use. The risk of tapping saltwater zones or the possibility
of permitting saltwater to enter and contaminate freshwater aquifers should be determined. An
investigation may be required to determine the extent of saltwater intrusion and the feasibility of
constructing reservoirs or boring wells to develop a freshwater barrier or trough to block the intrusion
of saltwater.

Hydraulics of Low Groundwater

Aquifer

An aquifer is a formation, group of formations, or part of a formation that contains sufficient

saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs.

The term aquifer was defined by 0.E. Meinzer from a geological concept in which water

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bodies are classified in accordance with stratigraphy or nick types. Meinzer clearly intended that an
aquifer include the unsaturated part of the permeable unit.

Artesian

Artesian is synonymous with confined. Artesian water and artesian water body are equivalent
respectively to confined ground water and confined water body.

An artesian well is a well deriving its water from an artesian or confined water body. The
water level in an artesian well stands above the top of the artesian water body it taps.

If the water level in an artesian well stands above the land surface the well is a flowing artesian
well. If the water level in the well stands above the water table, it indicates that the artesian water can
and probably does discharge to the unconfined water body. It should be noted also that in ground
water discharge areas wells having heads higher than the water table, or even flowing wells, may
exist without confinement of the water body, owing to vertical components of gradient in the flow
field.

Capillary fringe

The capillary fringe is the zone immediately above the water table in which all or some of the
interstices are filled with water that is under less that atmospheric pressure and that is continuous with
the water below the water table. The water is held above, the water table by interfacial forces (for
example, surface tension). The capillary fringe is typically saturated to some distance above its base
at the water table ; upward from the saturated part only progressively smaller pores are filled and the
upper limit is indistinct In some quantitative studies it is convenient to define the upper limit more or
less arbitrarily. For instance, this limit may be defined as the level at which 50 percent of the pore
space is filled with water.

Some lateral flow generally occurs throughout the capillary fringe, but because the effective
hydraulic conductivity decreases rapidly with moisture content, the lateral flow in the capillary fringe
generally is negligible compared with that in the saturated zone, except where the capillary fringe and
the saturated zone are of comparable thickness.

Capture

Water withdrawn artificially from an aquifer is derived from a decrease in storage in the
aquifer, a reduction in the previous discharge from the aquifer, an increase in the recharge, or a
combination of these changes. The decrease in discharge plus the increase in recharge is termed
capture. Capture may occur in the form of decreases in the ground-water discharge into streams,
lakes, and the ocean, or from decreases in that component of evapotranspiration derived from the
saturated zone. After a new artificial withdrawal from the aquifer has begun, the head in the aquifer
will continue to decline until the new withdrawal is balanced by capture.

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 Phase 6
Infiltration and Percolation: Processes and Measurements
Conductivity, hydraulic, K [LT-1]

Hydraulic conductivity, K, replaces the term 'Meld coefficient of permeability," Pf, which
embodies the inconsistent units gallon, foot, and mile. If a porous medium is isotropic and the fluid
is homogeneous, the hydraulic conductivity of the medium is the volume of water at the existing
kinematic viscosity that will move in unit time under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area
measured at right angles to the direction of flow.

Hydraulic conductivity can have any units of LT' suitable to the problem involved. In data
tabulations of the Geological Survey, hydraulic conductivity may be expressed in feet per day and,
so that the work of the Geological Survey may be readily interpreted in other countries, also in meters
per day.

Hydraulic conductivity is dependent primarily on the nature of the pore space, the type of
liquid occupying it, and the strength of the gravitational field. For comparing the hydraulic
conductivities of aquifers at different localities that contain water of appreciably different kinematic
viscosity, it is only necessary to relate them by the dimensionless ratio of the kinematic viscosities
and values of the acceleration due to gravity.

In anisotropic media the direction of the specific discharge q is not generally parallel to that
of the gradient (dh/d1) of the head.

Confining bed

Confining bed is a term which will now supplant the terms “aquiclude", "aquitard", and
"aquifuge” in reports of the Geological Survey and is defined as a body of "impermeable" material
stratigraphically adjacent to one or more aquifers. In nature, however, its hydraulic conductivity may
range from nearly zero to some value distinctly lower than that of the aquifer. Its conductivity relative
to that of the aquifer it confines should be specified or indicated by a suitable modifier such as slightly
permeable or moderately permeable.

Flow, steady

Steady flow occurs when at any point the magnitude and direction of the specific discharge
are constant in time.

Flow, uniform

A property is uniform if at a given instant, it is the same at every point. Thus, uniform flow occurs if
at every point the specific discharge has the same magnitude and direction.

Flow, unsteady

Unsteady, or nonsteady, flow occurs when at any point the magnitude or direction of the specific
discharge changes with time.

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 Phase 6
Infiltration and Percolation: Processes and Measurements
Ground water, confined

Confined ground water is under pressure significantly greater than atmospheric, and its upper
limit is the bottom of a bed of distinctly lower hydraulic conductivity than that of the material
in which the confined water occurs.

Ground water, perched

Perched ground water is unconfined ground water separated from an underlying body of
ground water by an unsaturated zone. Its water table is a perched water table. It is held up by a perched
bed whose permeability is so low that water percolating downward through it is not able to bring
water in the underlying unsaturated zone above atmospheric pressure.

Perched ground water may be either permanent, where recharge is frequent enough to
maintain a saturated zone above the perching bed, or temporary, where intermittent recharge is not
great or frequent enough to prevent the perched water from disappearing from time to time as a result
of drainage over the edge of or through the perching bed.

Ground water, unconfined

Unconfined ground water is water in an aquifer that has a water table.

Head, static, h[L]

The static head is the height above a standard datum of the surface of a column of water (or
other liquid) that can be supported by the static pressure at a given point The static head is the sum
of the elevation head, he, and the pressure head, hp; that is,

h = he + hp

Under conditions to which Darcy's Law may be applied, the velocity of ground water is so
small that the velocity head hv, negligible.

hv = v2/2g

Head, when used alone, is understood to mean static head Head is proportional to the fluid
potential; therefore, the head is a measure of the potential.

Head, total, H[L]

The total head of a liquid at a given point is the sum of three components: (1) elevation head,
he, which is equal to the elevation of the point above a datum, (2) pressure head, hp, which is the
height of a column of static water that can be supported by the static pressure at the point, and (3)
velocity head, hv, which is the height the kinetic energy of the liquid is capable of lifting the liquid.

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 Phase 6
Infiltration and Percolation: Processes and Measurements

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 Phase 6
Infiltration and Percolation: Processes and Measurements
Groundwater Exploration and Exploitation in the Philippines

Groundwater as a Resource

The Philippines obtains its water supply from different sources. These include: rainfall,
surface water resources, i.e. rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, and groundwater resources. It has 18 major
river basins and 421 principal river basins as defined by the National

Water Regulatory Board (NWRB). In terms of groundwater, the country has an extensive
groundwater reservoir with an aggregate area of about 50,000 sq. km. Data from the Mines and
Geosciences Bureau (MGB) show that several groundwater basins are underlain by about 100,000
sq. km of various rock formation and that these resources are located in:

• Northeast Luzon
• Central Luzon
• Laguna Lake basin
• Cavite-Batangas-Laguna basin
• Southeast Luzon
• Mindoro Island
• Negros Island
• Northeast Leyte
• Ormoc-Kananga basin
• Agusan-Davao basin
• Occidental Misamis basin
• Lanao-Bukidnon-Misamis basin

Groundwater resources are continuously recharged by rain and seepage from rivers and lakes
(PEM, 2003; EMB, 2006).

Groundwater Exploration

Groundwater exploration is the investigation of underground formations to understand the

hydrologic cycle, know the groundwater quality, and identify the nature, number and type of aquifers.

Most of the liquid freshwater resources are stored underground as groundwater (99%). The
regional distribution on earth, however, varies and depends mainly on climatic conditions as well as
the geology of the subsurface. In contrast to many raw materials, a great amount of the groundwater
is recharged in the hydrologic cycle by infiltrating precipitation.

A detailed knowledge on groundwater resources enables its sustainable use, where the
regional distribution of resources, the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer as well as the regional
and temporal variations of the water quality are important factors. The recharge, the natural runoff
and groundwater abstraction rates have also to be known for sustainable groundwater management.

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 Phase 6
Infiltration and Percolation: Processes and Measurements
The data required for a resource assessment are obtained by:

• hydrogeological exploration, observations and measurements at boreholes and wells

• geophysical investigations on the earth’s surface
• airborne geophysical surveys
• satellite image analysis or meteorological observations.

A number of geophysical standard methods such as geoelectrics, transient electromagnetics

and airborne electromagnetics are applied for groundwater exploration. The surface nuclear magnetic
resonance method and the seismoelectric method are rather new and they are still being developed.
Databases combined with GIS methods are used to store and display the data. The data evaluation,
being digital and increasingly three dimensional, comprises all stages of conceptual to numerical
modelling.

Groundwater Exploitation

Water exploitation is referred to the extraction of water for irrigation and human consumption.
Water exploitation is greatly connected with agriculture. Nevertheless, a large contribution to water
exploitation is connected with the industrial and residential sectors and, seasonally, with tourism.
Water exploitation can be estimated by "the exploitation index" that is defined as withdrawal of
conventional freshwater resources (surface and groundwater) over total renewable resources
(expressed in %).

The proper exploitation of ground water resources involves apart from the location of suitable
source, the construction of properly designed wells. The design and the execution of water supply
systems and their maintenance is an integral part of the scheme of exploration and management.
Numerous problems of ground water exploration & exploitation require systematic use of scientific
techniques.

Major problems concerning water use and scarcity

1. Disparities between water supply and demand

- Despite the abundant water resources in the Philippines, distribution of these
resources varies widely in time and place as a result of the different geographic and
climate conditions prevailing in different parts of the country (Barba, P, 2003). Water
resources are unevenly distributed throughout the country, often resulting in water
shortages in highly populated areas, especially during the dry season. Several river
basins (Pampanga, Agno, Pasig-Laguna, and on the island of Cebu) are also
experiencing generalized water scarcity (PEM, 2004).

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 Phase 6
Infiltration and Percolation: Processes and Measurements
2. Lack of water allocation formula
- Most of the problems encountered in the water sector today arise from an issue of
conflicts of use and water allocation. With the increase of population coupled with
worsening pollution of water, lack of infrastructure and facilities result in allocation
issues and conflicting rights over limited water supply. The principle in the Water
Code of "first in time priority in right" may no longer be an equitable approach in
resolving such conflicts. In times of drought or emergency, a national policy exists
wherein domestic water supply gets priority over all others within the limits of its
water rights (National Water Resources Board, 1976, as cited in Jose, A. and Cruz, N.,
1999).

3. Corporations also directly compete with the people for the control and use of available
freshwater resources
- For instance, Benguet Corporation, a U.S. mining firm which is now venturing into
the water business, holds 65 water appropriation permits issued by the NWRB. The
permits cover major creeks, springs, and rivers in the municipality of Itogon in
Benguet province that communities use for their domestic and agricultural needs. In
San Pablo City, Laguna, armers and residents complain of declining water availability
and blame the operation of a mineral water plant by Nestle Philippines, Inc. (Padilla,
A., 2007).

4. Weak water use regulation and enforcement

- The investigation and processing of water permit applications constitute the type
functions for which NWRB is not properly equipped in terms of either manpower or
resources.

5. Inefficient water use

- There is tremendous waste of water in distribution lines, irrigation canals, and at
homes. Inefficiency in water usage was exacerbated by the absence of regulations,
economic incentives, and institutional arrangements needed to promote water
conservation and rational use of water. Apart from increasing industrial and domestic
demand, another contributing factor to the water shortage in Metro Manila is the high
level of water loss due to leaking pipes and illegal connections.

6. Depletion of groundwater resources

- Indiscriminate groundwater abstraction resulting to salt-intrusion are noticeable in
Metro Manila and Cavite (Region IV), Iloilo (Region VI), and Cebu (Region VII).
The indiscriminate use of groundwater wells for residential and industrial areas due to
the failure of major utility providers to service these areas is the major cause for the
depletion of the groundwater resources in the country.

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 Phase 6
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7. Fragmented management
- One of the most critical issues confronting the Philippine water sector is the lack of
an appropriate institutional framework to address issues of development and
management of water and related resources. At present, there are over 30 government
agencies and departments separately dealing with water supply, irrigation,
hydropower, flood control, pollution, watershed management, etc. It is this fragmented
approach to water management which causes an overlap of work and conflicts among
agencies and results in a fractional water management plan that does not adequately
meet the requirements for sustainability (Barba, 2005).

References:

https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=26984.wba

https://scholar.law.colorado.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=groundwater-law-hydrology-
policy

https://www.scribd.com/document/358598537/Groundwater-Exploration-and-Exploitation-in-the-Phl

https://www.scribd.com/presentation/406366836/Groundwater-Exploration-and-Exploitation-in-the-
Philippines

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 12 of 12

 School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Hydrology

Phase 7
Concepts of Probability and
Statistics in Hydrology
After this chapter, the student should be able to
Objective  Determine the Concepts of Probability and Statistics Hydrology
 Solve the Return Period, Design Storms and Design Turn-Off

• Concepts of Probability and Statistics in Hydrology,

Content o Basic Probability Concepts and Probability Models.
o Return Period, Design Storms and Design Turn-Off.
o Regression and Correlation.

Related
 https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/
Readings

J. E. Gribbin, P.E., (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology with

References Applications for Stormwater Management. New York, USA: Delmar, Cengage
Learning
W. Brustsaert, (2005). Hydrology an Introduction. Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK:
Cambridge University Press, New York

Hydrology
 Phase 7
Concepts of Probability and Statistics Hydrology
Concepts of Probability and Statistics in Hydrology
Basic Probability Concepts

Probability

• A measure of how likely an event will occur

• A number expressing the ratio of favorable outcome to the all possible outcomes

• Probability is usually represented as P(.)

o P (getting a club from a deck of playing cards) = 13/52 = 0.25 = 25 %
o P (getting a 3 after rolling a dice) = 1/6

Random Variable

• Random variable: a quantity used to represent probabilistic uncertainty

o Incremental precipitation
o Instantaneous streamflow
o Wind velocity

• Random variable (X) is described by a probability distribution

• Probability distribution is a set of probabilities associated with the values in a random

variable’s sample space

Sampling terminology

• Sample: a finite set of observations x1, x2,….., xn of the random variable

• A sample comes from a hypothetical infinite population possessing constant statistical

properties

• Sample space: set of possible samples that can be drawn from a population

• Event: subset of a sample space

Example

• Population: streamflow
• Sample space: instantaneous streamflow, annual maximum streamflow, daily average

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 Phase 7
Concepts of Probability and Statistics Hydrology
streamflow
• Sample: 100 observations of annual max. streamflow
• Event: daily average streamflow > 100 cfs

Types of sampling

• Random sampling: the likelihood of selection of each member of the population is equal
- Pick any streamflow value from a population

• Stratified sampling: Population is divided into groups, and then a random sampling is used
- Pick a streamflow value from annual maximum series.

• Uniform sampling: Data are selected such that the points are uniformly far apart in time or
space
- Pick streamflow values measured on Monday midnight

• Convenience sampling: Data are collected according to the convenience of experimenter.

- Pick streamflow during summer

Summary statistics

• Also called descriptive statistics

- If x1, x2, …xn is a sample then

• Also included in summary statistics are median, skewness, correlation coefficient,

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 Phase 7
Concepts of Probability and Statistics Hydrology
Probability Models

Deterministic (eg. Rainfall runoff analysis)

• Analysis of hydrological processes using deterministic approaches

• Hydrological parameters are based on physical relations of the various components of the
hydrologic cycle.
• Do not consider randomness; a given input produces the same output.

Stochastic (eg. flood frequency analysis)

• Probabilistic description and modeling of hydrologic phenomena

• Statistical analysis of hydrologic data.

Graphical display

• Time Series plots

600

500
Annual Max Flow (10 3 cfs)

400

300

200

100

0
1900 1900 1900 1900 1900 1900 1900

Year

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 Phase 7
Concepts of Probability and Statistics Hydrology
• Histograms/Frequency distribution

Dividing the number of occurrences with the total number of points will give Probability Mass Function

• Cumulative distribution functions

• Cumulate the pdf to produce a cdf

• Cdf describes the probability that a random variable is less than or equal to
specified value of x

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 Phase 7
Concepts of Probability and Statistics Hydrology
• Flow duration curve

- A cumulative frequency curve that shows the percentage of time that specified
discharges are equaled or exceeded.

 Steps:

 Arrange flows in chronological order

 Find the number of records (N)
 Sort the data from highest to lowest
 Rank the data (m=1 for the highest value and m=N for the lowest value)
 Compute exceedance probability for each value using the following formula

m
p  100 
N 1
 Plot p on x axis and Q (sorted) on y axis

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 Phase 7
Concepts of Probability and Statistics Hydrology
Return Period

The return period measures the rareness of extreme events such as floods and droughts that
might cause huge damages to the society and the environment; hence, it lies at the heart of hydraulic
design and risk assessment problems. Indeed, return period is a commonly applied probabilistic
concept in the hydrologic literature, which has attracted renewed interest stimulated by the need of
efficiently dealing with complex processes in a changing environment. In this study, the concept of
return period and the related risk of failure are presented by making use of a general mathematical
framework. It helps for a better understanding of the return period and risk of failure formulations
that are commonly adopted in practical engineering applications. The framework can be further
applied under more general conditions. In particular, the extension of the return period concept to
nonstationary and time‐dependent cases is discussed herein, by relaxing the hypotheses commonly
(and sometimes implicitly) assumed that allows to derive simple analytic formulations.

Design Storms and Design Turn-Off

Dimensioning of projects concerning hydraulic structures or water work projects implies the
cognisance of the design flood, i.e. the flood hydrograph associated with a return period (frequency).
A critical rainfall event that is used for assessing the flood hydrograph of a certain return period is
called "design rainfall". As the amount of the design rainfall corresponds to rare frequencies, they
have high values of rainfall depth or intensity and that is why the design rainfall is usually termed as
"design rainstorm" or simply "design storm".

Characteristic elements of the rainstorm are:

• Depth P [mm];
• Duration D [min], [hours];
• Average intensity imean = P/D [mm/min], [mm/hour];
• Maximum intensities on different Δt time intervals
• Time distribution of the rain intensities i(t) which is commonly known as the "rainfall
intensity hyetograph".

Uniform time distribution rainfall

The uniform time distribution rainfall is characterized by a constant intensity over its duration,
which is equal to the time of concentration of the basin for considered small areas. The intensity is
given by the general formula:

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 Phase 7
Concepts of Probability and Statistics Hydrology
where:

Sp - parameter depending on the location and the probability of exceedance p. For a certain p
(usually for p = 1%) the space value Sp is given as isolines drawn on the map.

C - parameter that has the role to make asymptotically the tendency of the intensity while the
duration td becomes very small (i.e. for very small basins areas under 1km2).

td - duration

n - parameter varying between 0.5-0.67.

Regression

Linear Regression

• A technique to determine the relationship between two random variables.

o Relationship between discharge and velocity in a stream
o Relationship between discharge and water quality constituents

A regression model is given by: yi   0  1 xi   i i  1,2,..., n

th
yi = i observation of the response (dependent variable)
xi = ith observation of the explanatory (independent) variable
β0 = intercept
β1 = slope
εi = random error or residual for the ith observation
n = sample size

Least Square Regression

• We have x1, x2, …, xn and y1,y2, …, yn observations of independent and dependent variables,
respectively.
• Define a linear model for yi, yˆ i   0  1 xi i  1,2,..., n
• Fit the model (find β0 and β1) such at the sum of the squares of the vertical deviations is
minimum
• Minimize

References:

http://www.ce.utexas.edu/prof/maidment/GradHydro2008/Visual/Statistics.ppt

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/wat2.1340

Instructor: Instructor’s Name Page 7 of 7

 School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering

Phase 8 Hydrology

Role of Hydrology in Water Resources

Planning and Management in the
Philippines
After this chapter, the student should be able to
Objective  Determine the Concepts of Probability and Statistics Hydrology
 Solve the Return Period, Design Storms and Design Turn-Off

• Agencies Involved in the Collection of Hydrologic Data.

Content • Problems of Watershed Management and Watershed Protection

Related
 https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/
Readings

J. E. Gribbin, P.E., (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology with

References Applications for Stormwater Management. New York, USA: Delmar, Cengage
Learning
W. Brustsaert, (2005). Hydrology an Introduction. Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK:
Cambridge University Press, New York

Hydrology
 Phase 8
Role of Hydrology in Water Resources Planning and
Management in the Philippines
Role of Hydrology in Water Resources Planning and Management in the
Philippines
Agencies Involved in the Collection of Hydrologic Data

According to Madrazo in her paper entitled “Water Issues in the context of Sustainable
Development”, at the national level, the NWRB is responsible for policy formulation, administration
and enforcement of the Water Code of the Philippines. In this paper, it was observed that other
agencies perform policy formulation as it relates to their mandates. She then identifies the following
eight agencies that have water related mandates:

• Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) for flood control and drainage (this
responsibility has recently been transferred to the Metro Manila Development Authority)

• Department of Health (DOH) for sanitation

• Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) for watershed protection and
water quality

• Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) for LGU-managed water supply, and
sewerage and sanitation systems and capability building

• National Power Corporation (NPC) for hydropower development

• National Irrigation Administration (NIA) and Bureau of Soils and Water Management
(BSWM) for irrigation development

• Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) for water supply, sewerage, and
sanitation in Metro Manila and, partially, in its neighboring provinces; and

• Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) for the Water Districts which manage water
supply and sewerage systems.

Madrazo also mentions that the existing regulatory set-up in the Philippines is quite complicated and
poses problems on conflicts of interests and possible overlapping of responsibilities that hinders
effective water resources management.

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 Phase 8
Role of Hydrology in Water Resources Planning and
Management in the Philippines
Problems of Watershed Management and Watershed Protection

1. Flooding
- Flood problems are caused by many different factors. Hydrologic and hydraulic
modeling helps analyze effects of land cover, floodplain geometry, and rainfall
intensity.

- Flood scores reflect threats to public safety and property, as well as flood severity.
For large creeks and waterway systems, flood problem scores are calculated for
structures and street crossings. Floodplain models calculate predicted flooding
depths and flow velocities for storm events. For flooding outside of the creek’s
floodplain, modeling and citizen complaint data is used to identify and prioritize
problem areas, which are mostly associated with poor or outdated storm drain
systems.

2. Erosion
- Erosion problems can stem from changing land use conditions that increase the
quantity and velocity of storm water runoff. Stream channels react to these changes
by widening and deepening, which can cause creek bank failures, threaten Creekside
structures, and degrade water quality. Other problems occur due to improper
placement of buildings, parking lots, and utilities.

- Erosion problem scores are based on the number, type, and severity of the threat to
structures, infrastructure, and other valued features located along stream banks. The
scoring system takes into account factors such as distance of resources from the
steam bank, bank stability, vegetative cover, and stream meandering. Areas or
structures located near creek bends, steep slopes, high banks, and/or poor vegetative
cover are expected to have high problem severity scores.

3. Water Quality
- Water quality problems are multifaceted and complex to study and control. Key
concerns include increases in runoff and degradation of aquatic and riparian habitat.
Problems are measured using the Environmental Integrity Index (EII).

- The Environmental Integrity Index scoring system assesses water quality using 6
categories. Each factor is based on numerous field measurements. Healthy creeks
have high Environmental Integrity Index scores. Streams with more urbanization
have excessive sediment, nutrients, toxics, bacteria, and other concerns, and have
lower Environmental Integrity Index scores.

References:

GREENPEACE: The State of Water Resources in the Philippines

https://www.austintexas.gov/department/watershed-problems

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