Chapter 2

Number Systems, Operations

and Codes

Dr Abdelaziz Yousif Ahmed

22-03-23
Ext: 7845

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 Course Outcome
1. Explain number systems, codes, digital arithmetic operation
and circuits.
2. Use Boolean algebra and Karnaugh Maps to minimize
Boolean expressions for the design of digital logic circuits.
3. Explain and use flip-flops, latches, counters, multiplexers and
de-multiplexers.
4. Design and construct combinational digital logic circuits
using appropriate logic design techniques.
5. Design and construct synchronous sequential digital logic
circuits using appropriate logic design techniques.

Digital Fundamentals, Eleventh Edition, Global Edition Copyright © 2016 by Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 OUTLINE

1. Decimal Numbers
2. Binary Numbers
3. Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
4. Binary Arithmetic
5. Complements of Binary Numbers
6. Signed Numbers
7. Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers
8. Hexadecimal Numbers
9. Octal Numbers
10. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
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 Decimal Numbers
The position of each digit in a weighted number system is
assigned a weight based on the base or radix of the system.
The radix of decimal numbers is ten, because only ten
symbols (0 through 9) are used to represent any number.

The column weights of decimal numbers are powers of ten

that increase from right to left beginning with 100 =1:

…105 104 103 102 101 100.

For fractional decimal numbers, the column weights are
negative powers of ten that decrease from left to right:

102 101 100. 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 …

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 Decimal Numbers
Decimal numbers can be expressed as the sum of the products
of each digit times the column value for that digit. Thus, the
number 9240 can be expressed as

(9 x 103) + (2 x 102) + (4 x 101) + (0 x 100)

or
9 x 1,000 + 2 x 100 + 4 x 10 + 0 x 1

Express the number 480.52 as the sum of values

of each digit.

480.52 = (4 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (0 x 100) + (5 x 10-1) +(2 x 10-2)

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 Binary Numbers
Decimal Binary
Number Number
0 0000
A binary counting sequence for numbers 1 0001
2 0010
from zero to fifteen is shown. 3 0011
Notice the pattern of zeros and ones in 4 0100
each column. 5 0101
6 0110
Digital counters frequently have this same 7 0111
pattern of digits: 8 1000
9 1001
Counter 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Decoder
10 1010
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
11 1011
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
12 1100
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 13 1101
14 1110
15 1111
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 Binary Conversions
The decimal equivalent of a binary number can be determined by
adding the column values of all of the bits that are 1 and discarding
all of the bits that are 0.

Convert the binary number 1101101 to decimal.

Determine the weight of each bit that is a 1, and then

find the sum of the weights to get the decimal number

Weight : 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Binary number : 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

1101101 = 26 + 25 + 23 + 22+ 20

= 64 + 32 +8 + 4 + 1 = 109

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 Binary to Decimal Conversion
Convert the fractional binary number 0.1011 to decimal

Determine the weight of each bit that is a 1, and then

sum the weights to get the decimal fraction

Weight : 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4

Binary number : 0. 1 0 1 1

0.1011 = 2-1 + 2-3 + 2-4

= 0.5 + 0.125 + 0.0625 = 0.6875

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 Binary to Decimal Conversion
The decimal equivalent of a binary number can be determined
by adding the column values of all of the bits that are 1 and
discarding all of the bits that are 0.

Convert the binary number 100101.01 to decimal.

Start by writing the column weights; then add the

weights that correspond to each 1 in the number.
25 24 23 22 21 20. 2-1 2-2
32 16 8 4 2 1 . ½ ¼
1 0 0 1 0 1. 0 1
32 +4 +1 +¼ = 37¼

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 Decimal to Binary Conversion
You can convert a decimal whole number to binary by
reversing the procedure. Write the decimal weight of each
column and place 1’s in the columns that sum to the decimal
number.

Convert the decimal number 49 to binary.

The column weights double in each position to the
right. Write down column weights until the last
number is larger than the one you want to convert.

26 25 24 2 3 22 21 20.
64 32 16 8 4 2 1.
0 1 1 0 0 0 1.
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 Decimal to Binary Conversion
You can convert decimal to any other base by repeatedly
dividing by the base. For binary, repeatedly divide by 2:

Convert the decimal number 19 to binary.

19 / 2 = 9 Remainder = 1
9/2=4 Remainder = 1
4/2=2 Remainder = 0
2/2=1 Remainder = 0
1/2=0 Remainder = 1
Answer = 1 0 0 1 1
MSB LSB

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 Decimal to Binary Conversion
Convert the decimal number 49 to binary by
repeatedly dividing by 2.

You can do this by “reverse division” and the

answer will read from left to right. Put quotients to
the left and remainders on top.

Answer: 1 1 0 0 0 1 remainder
0 1 3 6 12 24 49 2
Continue until the Decimal
Quotient base
last quotient is 0 number

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 Decimal to Binary Conversion
You can convert a decimal fraction to binary by repeatedly
multiplying the fractional results of successive multiplications
by 2. The carries form the binary number.

Convert the decimal fraction 0.188 to binary by

repeatedly multiplying the fractional results by 2.
0.188 x 2 = 0.376 carry = 0 MSB

0.376 x 2 = 0.752 carry = 0

0.752 x 2 = 1.504 carry = 1
0.504 x 2 = 1.008 carry = 1
0.008 x 2 = 0.016 carry = 0
Answer = .00110 (for five significant digits)

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 Binary Addition
The rules for binary addition are
0+0=0 Sum = 0, carry = 0
0+1=0 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1+0=0 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1 + 1 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1

When an input carry = 1 due to a previous result, the rules

are
1 + 0 + 0 = 01 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1 + 0 + 1 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
1 + 1 + 0 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
1 + 1 + 1 = 10 Sum = 1, carry = 1

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 Binary Addition
Add the binary numbers 00111 and 10101 and show
the equivalent decimal addition.
0111
00111 7
10101 21
11100 = 28

Add the binary numbers 101011 and 11001 and show

the equivalent decimal addition.
111 0 1 1
101011 43
11001 25
1000100 = 68

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 Binary Subtraction

The rules for binary subtraction are

0-0=0
1-1=0
1-0=1
10 - 1 = 1 with a borrow of 1

Subtract the binary number 00111 from 10101 and

show the equivalent decimal subtraction.
111
10101
/ / / 21
00111 7
01110 = 14

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Binary Multiplication and Division

00 01 11
111 110 101010
0
x 101 10
111 0
000* 101
111* * 0
10 0 0 1 1 1010
110
1001
110
0 1 10
110
000

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 1’s Complement
The 1’s complement of a binary number is just the inverse
of the digits. To form the 1’s complement, change all 0’s to
1’s and all 1’s to 0’s.

For example, the 1’s complement of 11001010 is

00110101

In digital circuits, the 1’s complement is formed by using

inverters:
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1

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 2’s Complement
The 2’s complement of a binary number is found by adding
1 to the LSB of the 1’s complement.
Recall that the 1’s complement of 11001010 is
00110101 (1’s complement)
To form the 2’s complement, add 1: +1
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 00110110 (2’s complement)
1

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
Input bits
Carry
Adder
in (add 1)
Output bits (sum)

0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0

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 Signed Binary Numbers
There are several ways to represent signed binary numbers.
In all cases, the MSB in a signed number is the sign bit, that
tells you if the number is positive or negative.

Computers use a modified 2’s complement for signed

numbers. Positive numbers are stored in true form (with a 0
for the sign bit) and negative numbers are stored in
complement form (with a 1 for the sign bit).

For example, the positive number 58 is written using 8-bits as

00111010 (true form).

Sign bit Magnitude bits

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 Signed Binary Numbers
Negative numbers are written as the 2’s complement of the
corresponding positive number.
The negative number -58 is written as:
-58 = 11000110 (complement form)
Sign bit Magnitude bits

An easy way to read a signed number that uses this notation is to

assign the sign bit a column weight of -128 (for an 8-bit number).
Then add the column weights for the 1’s.
Assuming that the sign bit = -128, show that 11000110 = -58
as a 2’s complement signed number:

Column weights: -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1.

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
-128 +64 +4 +2 = -58
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 Floating Point Numbers
Floating point notation is capable of representing very large
or small numbers by using a form of scientific notation. A
32-bit single precision number is illustrated.
S E (8 bits) F (23 bits)
Sign bit Biased exponent (+127) Magnitude with MSB dropped

Convert the decimal number 3.248 x 104 to a single-precision

floating-point binary number

3.248 x 104 =32480 =1111110111000002.

In scientific notation, 32480 = 1.11111011100000x 214.
S = 0 because the number is positive. E = 14 + 127 = 14110 = 1000 11012.
F is the next 23 bits after the first 1 is dropped.
The complete floating point number is 0 10001101 11111011100000000000000

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Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers
Using the signed number notation with negative numbers
in 2’s complement form simplifies addition and subtraction
of signed numbers.
Rules for addition: Add the two signed numbers. Discard
any final carries. The result is in signed form.
Examples:

00011110 = +30 00001110 = +14 11111111 = -1

00001111 = +15 11101111 = -17 11111000 = -8
00101101 = +45 11111101 = -3 1 11110111 = -9
Discard carry

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Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers
Note that if the number of bits required for the answer is
exceeded, overflow will occur. This occurs only if both
numbers have the same sign. The overflow will be
indicated by an incorrect sign bit.

Two examples are:

01000000 = +128 10000001 = -127
01000001 = +129 10000001 = -127
10000001 = -126 Discard carry 100000010 = +2

Wrong! The answer is incorrect

and the sign bit has changed.

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 Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers
Rules for subtraction: 2’s complement the subtrahend and
add the numbers. Discard any final carries. The result is in
signed form.
Repeat the examples done previously, but subtract:
00011110 (+30) 00001110 (+14) 11111111 (-1)
- 00001111 –(+15) - 11101111 –(-17) - 11111000 –(-8)
2’s complement subtrahend and add:
00011110 = +30 00001110 = +14 11111111 = -1
11110001 = -15 00010001 = +17 00001000 = +8
1 00001111 = +15 00011111 = +31 1 00000111 = +7
Discard carry Discard carry

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 Hexadecimal Numbers
Hexadecimal uses sixteen characters to Decimal Hexadecimal Binary

represent numbers: the numbers 0 0 0 0000

1 1 0001
through 9 and the alphabetic characters 2 2 0010
A through F. 3 3 0011
4 4 0100
Large binary number can easily be 5 5 0101
converted to hexadecimal by grouping 6 6 0110
bits 4 at a time and writing the 7 7 0111
equivalent hexadecimal character. 8 8 1000
9 9 1001
10 A 1010
Express 1001 0110 0000 11102 in 11 B 1011
hexadecimal: 12 C 1100
13 D 1101
Group the binary number by 4-bits
14 E 1110
starting from the right. Thus, 960E
15 F 1111

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 Hexadecimal Numbers
Decimal Hexadecimal Binary
Hexadecimal is a weighted number
0 0 0000
system. The column weights are
1 1 0001
powers of 16, which increase from 2 2 0010
right to left. 3 3 0011
4 4 0100
Column weights {4096 3
16 16 16 16 .
256 16 1 .
2 1 0
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
Express 1A2F16 in decimal. 8 8 1000
9 9 1001
Start by writing the column weights: 10 A 1010
4096 256 16 1 11 B 1011
1 A 2 F16 12 C 1100
13 D 1101
1(4096) + 10(256) +2(16) +15(1) = 670310
14 E 1110
15 F 1111

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 Octal Numbers
Octal uses eight characters the numbers Decimal Octal Binary

0 through 7 to represent numbers. 0 0 0000

1 1 0001
There is no 8 or 9 character in octal.
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
Binary number can easily be converted
4 4 0100
to octal by grouping bits 3 at a time and 5 5 0101
writing the equivalent octal character 6 6 0110
for each group. 7 7 0111
8 10 1000
Express 1 001 011 000 001 1102 in 9 11 1001
octal: 10 12 1010
11 13 1011
Group the binary number by 3-bits 12 14 1100
starting from the right. Thus, 1130168 13 15 1101
14 16 1110
15 17 1111
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 Octal Numbers
Decimal Octal Binary
Octal is also a weighted number 0 0 0000
system. The column weights are 1 1 0001
powers of 8, which increase from right 2 2 0010
to left. 3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
Column weights { 83 82
512 64
81
8
80 .
1 .
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 10 1000
9 11 1001
Express 37028 in decimal. 10 12 1010
11 13 1011
Start by writing the column weights:
12 14 1100
512 64 8 1
13 15 1101
3 7 0 28
14 16 1110
3(512) + 7(64) +0(8) +2(1) = 198610 15 17 1111

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 Binary coded decimal (BCD)
Binary coded decimal (BCD) is a Decimal Binary BCD

weighted code that is commonly 0 0000 0000

1 0001 0001
used in digital systems when it is 2 0010 0010
necessary to show decimal 3 0011 0011
numbers such as in clock displays. 4 0100 0100
5 0101 0101
The table illustrates the difference 6 0110 0110
between straight binary and BCD. BCD 7 0111 0111
represents each decimal digit with a 8 1000 1000
4-bit code. Notice that the codes 1010 9 1001 1001
through 1111 are not used in BCD. 10 1010 0001 0000
11 1011 0001 0001
12 1100 0001 0010
13 1101 0001 0011
14 1110 0001 0100
15 1111 0001 0101

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 Binary coded decimal (BCD)
You can think of BCD in terms of column weights in
groups of four bits. For an 8-bit BCD number, the column
weights are: 80 40 20 10 8 4 2 1.

What are the column weights for the BCD number

1000 0011 0101 1001?

8000 4000 2000 1000 800 400 200 100 80 40 20 10 8 4 2 1

Note that you could add the column weights where there is a 1 to
obtain the decimal number. For this case:

8000 + 200 +100 + 40 + 10 + 8 +1 = 835910

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 BCD Addition
These are three cases for BCD addition:
1. If a 4-bit sum is equal to or less than 9 and final carry = 0 ,
the results is valid BCD number.
2. If a 4-bit sum is equal to or less than 9 and final carry = 1 ,
the results is invalid BCD number and we have to add 6.
3. If a 4-bit sum is greater than 9 and final carry = 0 , the
results is invalid BCD number and we have to add 6.

0011 1000 10001 0011 1010

0100 1001 0110 0111 0110
0111 10001 10111 1010 10000
Valid number Invalid number Valid number Invalid number Valid number

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 Gray code
Gray code is an unweighted code that has a single bit change
between one code word and the next in a sequence. Gray code is
used to avoid problems in systems where an error can occur if
more than one bit changes at a time.

Binary to Gray code Conversion

These are three steps:

1. Record the MSB as it is.
2. Add the MSB to the next bit, record the sum and neglect
the carry
3. Repeat the process.

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Binary to Gray code Conversion
Decimal Binary Gray code
Convert the binary number 0 0000 0000
11000110 to Cray code 1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
11000110 = 10100101 4 0100 0110
5 0101 0111
6 0110 0101
7 0111 0100
8 1000 1100
9 1001 1101
10 1010 1111
11 1011 1110
12 1100 1010
13 1101 1011
14 1110 1001
15 1111 1000
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 Gray code to Binary Conversion
These are three steps:
1. Record the MSB as it is.
2. Add MSB to the next bit of Gray code, record the sum and
neglect the carry.
3. Repeat the process.

Convert the Cray code10101111 to binary.

10101111 = 11001010

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 ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII) is a code for alphanumeric characters and control
characters. In its original form, ASCII encoded 128 characters
and symbols using 7-bits. The first 32 characters are control
characters, that are based on obsolete teletype requirements,
so these characters are generally assigned to other functions
in modern usage.
In 1981, IBM introduced extended ASCII, which is an 8-bit
code and increased the character set to 256. Other extended
sets (such as Unicode) have been introduced to handle
characters in languages other than English.

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Thomas L. Floyd All Rights Reserved
 Parity Method
The parity method is a method of error detection for simple
transmission errors involving one bit (or an odd number of
bits). A parity bit is an “extra” bit attached to a group of bits
to force the number of 1’s to be either even (even parity) or
odd (odd parity).

The ASCII character for “a” is 1100001 and for “A” is

1000001. What is the correct bit to append to make both of
these have odd parity?

The ASCII “a” has an odd number of bits that are equal to 1;
therefore the parity bit is 0. The ASCII “A” has an even
number of bits that are equal to 1; therefore the parity bit is 1.

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 Cyclic Redundancy Check
The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error detection method that
can detect multiple errors in larger blocks of data. At the sending end,
a checksum is appended to a block of data. At the receiving end, the
check sum is generated and compared to the sent checksum. If the
check sums are the same, no error is detected.

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Thomas L. Floyd All Rights Reserved
 Quiz

1. For the binary number 1000, the weight of the column

with the 1 is
a. 4
b. 6
c. 8
d. 10

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Thomas L. Floyd All Rights Reserved
 Quiz

2. The 2’s complement of 1000 is

a. 0111
b. 1000
c. 1001
d. 1010

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 Quiz

3. The fractional binary number 0.11 has a decimal value of

a. ¼
b. ½
c. ¾
d. none of the above

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 Quiz

4. The hexadecimal number 2C has a decimal equivalent

value of
a. 14
b. 44
c. 64
d. none of the above

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 Quiz
5. Assume that a floating point number is represented in
binary. If the sign bit is 1, the
a. number is negative
b. number is positive
c. exponent is negative
d. exponent is positive

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 Quiz

6. When two positive signed numbers are added, the result

may be larger that the size of the original numbers, creating
overflow. This condition is indicated by
a. a change in the sign bit
b. a carry out of the sign position
c. a zero result
d. smoke

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 Quiz

7. The number 1010 in BCD is

a. equal to decimal eight
b. equal to decimal ten
c. equal to decimal twelve
d. invalid

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 Quiz

8. An example of an unweighted code is

a. binary
b. decimal
c. BCD
d. Gray code

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 Quiz

9. An example of an alphanumeric code is

a. hexadecimal
b. ASCII
c. BCD
d. CRC

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 Quiz

10. An example of an error detection method for

transmitted data is the
a. parity check
b. CRC
c. both of the above
d. none of the above

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 Quiz

Answers:
1. c 6. a
2. b 7. d
3. c 8. d
4. b 9. b
5. a 10. c

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