MAPEH

CLASSICAL PERIOD
- 1750 to 1820
- “Age of Reason”
- dominated by aristocrat
- formal, elegant, simple, freed and dignified
- harmony and texture is homophonic in general
- soprano and tenor

Vocal and Instrumental Music

‣ Sonata
- composition for a instrumental soloist often with a piano accompaniment, typically in several
movement with one or more in sonata form
- multi-movement work for solo instrument
- “Sonaire” which means “to make a sound”
- keyboard or violin

3 movements of Sonata
‣ 1st movement : Allegro - fast movement
‣ 2nd movement : Slow - andante, largo, etc. mostly lyrical and emotional
‣ 3rd movement : Minuet - it is in three-four time and in a moderate or fast tempo

‣ Sonata Allegro Form

- the most important form that developed during the classical era

3 distinct section of Sonata Allegro Form

‣ Exposition
- the first part of a composition in sonata allegro form that introduces the theme
‣ Development
- the middle part of the sonata allegro form where in themes are being introduced
‣ Recapitulation
- repeats the theme as they first emerge in the opening exposition
‣ Concerto
- multi-movement work designed for an instrumental soloist and orchestra
- a musical composition for a solo instruments or instruments accompanied by an orchestra,
especially one conceived on a relatively large scale

3 movements of Concerto
‣ 1st movement : Fast - sonata allegro form with expositions of the orchestra and then by the
soloist
‣ 2nd movement : Slow - has more ornamentation than the first movement
‣ 3rd movements : Fast/Finale - usually in a form of rondo, resembling the last movement of
the
symphony and usually a short cadenza is used

‣ Symphony
- a multi-movement work for orchestra
- “Sinfonia” means “a harmonious sounding together”
- classical music for the whole orchestra

4 movements of the Symphony

‣ 1st movement : Fast - sonata allegro form
‣ 2nd movement : Slow - gentle, lyrical — typical ABA form or theme and variation
‣ 3rd movement : Medium/Fast - uses a dance form (minuet or scherzo)
‣ 4th movement : Fast - typically rondo or sonata form

‣ Opera
- a drama set to music where singers and musicians perform in a theatrical setting

2 distinct style of Classical Opera

‣ Opera Seria
- serious opera
- heroic or tragic drama that employs mythological characters (inherited from baroque)

‣ Opera Buffa
- comic opera
- opera in Italy that is full of fun and frivolity

Add: Sonata Allegro Form

Composers of the Classical Period

‣ Franz Joseph Haydn (1732 - 1809)

- he is one of the most prominent composers of the classical period
- he life is described as a “rags-to-riches” story
- he was named, “Father of the Symphony” although he excelled in every music genre of the
period
- most of his symphonies have nicknames such as the “Surprise Symphony”, “The Clock”, “The
Military”. he also wrote chamber piano music and choral works

‣ Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 - 1791)

- a child prodigy and the most amazing genius in musical history
- he experimented in all kinds of music and composed over 700 works
- due to mismanaged finances he lived his life in poverty, died young, and was buried in an
unknown grave
- he composed wonderful concertos, symphonies, and operas such as “The Marriage of Figaro''
(1786), “Don Giovanni” (1789), and “The Magic Flute” which became popular. other known
works: “Eine Kleine Nachtmusik'', “Symphony no.40 in G Major” and “Sonata no.11 in A Major
K311”

‣ Ludwig Van Beethoven (1770 - 1827)

- he was the composer who bridged the late Classical era and the early Romantic era
- he was a talented pianist and composer
- his famous compositions include 32 piano sonatas, 21 set of variations, 9 symphonies, 5
concertos for piano, 16 string quartets, and choral music
- he began to go deaf in 1796 but this did not become a hindrance. he continued composing
through the help of an assistant and hearing gadget
- his works include the ‘Missa Solemnis” (1818-1823) and opera “Fidelio” (1805). his known
symphonies are: Symphony no.3 (“Eroica”), no.5, no.6 (“Pastoral”), and no.9 (“Choral”), which
adds voices to the orchestra

Add: he composed “Fur Elise”

Renaissance (1400 - 1600)
- “Renaitre” means “rebirth”
- the greatest cathedral building of the age was the building of St. Peter’s Basilica
- characterized by symmetry and balance, it is also religious

Famous Renaissance Artworks and Artists

‣ Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (1475 - 1564)

- an Italian sculptor, painter, architect and poet
- he was considered the greatest living artist in his lifetime, and ever since then he was
considered as one of the greatest artists of all time
- among his outstanding works as sculptor were the following: Pieta, Bacchus, Moses, David,
Dying Slave, Dawn, and Dusk

Michelangelo : Pieta - seated Mary holding Christ’s body in her arms

‣ Leonardo di ser Piero Da Vinci (1452 - 1529)

- he was a painter, architect, scientist, and mathematician
- he was popularized in present times through the novel and movie, “Da Vinci Code”
- he is known as the ultimate “Renaissance man” because of his intellect, interest, talent and his
expression of humanist and classical values
- he is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most
diversely talented person to have ever lived
- his well known works were: The Last Supper (the most reproduced religious painting of all
time), and the Mona Lisa (the most famous and most parodied portrait), The Vitruvian Mar, The
Adoration of the Magi, and the Virgin of the Rocks

Leonardo Da Vinci : Mona Lisa - 3 theories about Mona Lisa, 1st: Florentine’s wife, 2nd: His
mother and 3rd: His self-reflection

‣ Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (Raphael) (1483 - 1520)

- was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance Period
- his famous works were: The Sistine Madonna, The School of Athens, and The Transfiguration

Raphael : The Transfiguration - shows the connection between people in the earth and god in
the heaven, it also symbolizes hope, faith and love
‣ Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi (Donatello) (1386 - 1466)
- was one of the Italian great artists of the period
- he was an early Renaissance Italian sculptor from Florence
- he is known for his work in bas-relief a form of shallow relief sculpture
- his works included the following statues and relief: David, Statue of St. George, Equestrian
Monument of Gattamelata, Prophet Habacuc, and The Feast of Herod

Donatello : David - it was the first known free-standing nude statue produced since ancient
times
Baroque Art (1600 - 1800)
- the term Baroque was deprived from the Portuguese word barocco which means “irregularly
shaped pearl or stone”
- Baroque style was brought to the Philippines during the first year of 16th century

Famous Baroque Artworks and Artists

‣ Michelangelo Merisi or Amerighi da Caravaggio (1571 - 1610)

- he was better known as Caravaggio
- he was an Italian artist who wanted to deviate from the classical masters of the Renaissance
- among his famous paintings were: Supper at Emmaus, Conversion of St. Paul, and
Entombment of Christ

‣ Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598 - 1680)

- was an Italian artist and the first Baroque artist
- he practiced architecture and sculpture, painting, stage design, and was also a playwright
- he was also the last in the list of the dazzling universal geniuses
- among his early works were: The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Jupiter and a Farm, Damned
Soul, and the Blessed Soul
- he was the greatest Baroque sculptor and architect as seen in his design of the Piazza San
Pietro in front of the Basilica
- the famous Ecstasy of St. Teresa was his greatest achievement and the Colonade of the
Piazza of St. Peter’s Rome

‣ Peter Paul Rubens (1577 - 1640)

- was a Flemish Baroque painter
- his famous works were: Samson and Delilah, Landscape with a Tower, Portrait of Helene
Fourment, and The Three Graces

‣ Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606 - 1669)

- was a brilliant Duth realist, painter, and etcher
- he is generally considered as one of the greatest painters and printmakers in European art
- his well-known work was his “Self portrait in Old Age”
- Rembrandt had produced over 600 paintings, nearly 400 etchings, ang 2,00 drawings

‣ Diego Velasquez (1599 - 1660)

- he was one of the finest masters of compositions and one of the most important painters of the
Spanish Golden Age
- Velasquez was the case of a painter who discovered his avocation almost at the very start of
his career
- his famous works were: The Surrender of Bread, Las Meninas (The Maids of Honour), Los
Barachos (The Drinker), and Maria Theresa
ENGLISH

Making Connections
- connection is the action of linking or connecting one person or one thing with another

3 connections

‣ Text-to-Self connections
- are actually personal connections that you make between yourself and the selection you are
dealing with. previous experiences, emotions, or opinions may be similar to the ones present in
the material

‣ Text-to-Text connections
- are connections where you relate one material to another that you have read or have already
come across. texts might be from a similar author, same theme or topic, same genre, and the
like

‣ Text-to-World connections
- are the larger connections that a reader brings to a reading situation including our perception
of the world which might vary since we have various sources of learning things beyond personal
experiences (e.g. television, radio, magazines, articles, movies, etc.)

Making Annotations
- the best way to remember and associate your experiences with those presented in any text is
by annotating
- annotating is to make marks on the text

4 major benefits of annotating (Azevedo, 2017)

‣ it makes you more engaged in the material
‣ it slows your reading that helps you to focus on details and have better retention and
comprehension
‣ it helps you process what you are reading
‣ it records textual evidence for later reference. You may even note your questions for further
research

11 annotation strategy (Azevedo, 2017)

1.) circle any unfamiliar words, then look them up, and write down the definition
2.) use question marks to indicate areas of uncertainty
3.) use star to indicate anything that seems important such as themes, symbole, foreshadowing,
etc.
4.) use exclamation points to indicate something dramatic or a key turning point
5.) circle (or mark somehow) character names any time they are introduced for the first time
6.) keep a list somewhere, maybe on the inside cover, of all the characters and their traits. add
to this list as new characters are introduced or as you learn more about existing characters
7.) write your notes in the margins (best method), on sticky-notes (decent method), or in a
separate notebook (least favorable method)
8.) paraphrase or summarize each chapter after you finish reading it. you only need a few
sentences to do this. write the down at the beginning or end of the chapter
9.) write down any questions you have about the text — either questions you are willing to wait
to find out the answer as you read further, or questions you want to bring up to your teacher in
class the next day
10.) use color-coded system if that type of thing appeals to you
11.) give each chapter a title. so after you finish reading each chapter, go back to its title page
and give it a title

Unchanging Values in the VUCA World

Volatility
- refers to the speed of change in an industry, market, or the world in general

Uncertainty
- refers to the extent to which we can confidently predict the future

Complexity
- refers to the number of factors that we need to take into account. their variety and the
relationship between them

Ambiguity
- refers to a lack of clarity about how to interpret something
9 dimensions or behavior patterns

‣ Flexibility
- willingness to try new things

‣ Speed
- rapidly grasping new ideas

‣ Experimenting
- testing out new ideas

‣ Personal Risk-Taking
- taking on challenges

‣ Interpersonal Risk-Taking
- asking others for help

‣ Collaborating
- leveraging the skills of others

‣ Information Gathering
- increasing your knowledge

‣ Feedback Seeking
- asking for feedback

‣ Reflecting
- taking time to reflect on your effectiveness
TLE

Salad
- a combination of vegetables, fruits and other ingredients served with a dressing
- a single food or a mix of different ingredients
- colorful and gay looking
- luscious looking

Classification of Salad According to Their Function in the Meal

‣ Appetizer Salad
- serve as a first course
- should stimulate the appetite
- fresh, crisp ingredients
- a tangy, flavorful dressing
- appetizing appearance
- should not be so large as to be filling
- stimulates the appetite which has fresh, crisp ingredients, tangy flavorful, and attractive,
appetizing appearance. it looks appealing because of flavorful foods like cheese, ham, salami,
shrimp, and crabmeat. crisp, raw or lightly cooked vegetables can also be added

‣ Accompaniment Salad
- accompaniment salads must balance and harmonize with the rest of the meal, like any other
side dish. sweet fruit salads are rarely appropriate as accompaniment except with such items as
ham or pork

‣ Main Course Salad

- should be large enough to serve as a full meal and should contain a substantial portion of
protein. meat, poultry and seafood salads as well as egg salad and cheese are popular choices.
main course salads should offer enough variety of flavors and textures in addition to the protein
and salad platter or fruits

‣ Separate Course Salad

- these salads must be very light without filling. rich, heavy dressing such as sour cream and
mayonnaise should be avoided. light salad is served after the main course to cleanse the
palate, refresh the appetite and provide a break from dessert

‣ Side Dish Salad

- salads should be light and flavorful, not too many vegetable salads are often good choices.
heavier salads such as macaroni or high protein salads containing seafood, cheese are less
appropriate, unless the main course is light

‣ Dessert Salad
- are usually sweet and may contain items such as fruits, sweetened gelatin, nuts and cream
Tools, Equipments, and Utensils Needed in Preparing Salad

‣ Knife
- used for cutting ingredients
- good quality knives with sharp, sturdy stainless steel blades and with
handles that securely attached and that feel perfectly comfortable
in your hand

‣ Cutting Board
- used to place an ingredient for cutting or used as a protective
surface on which to cut or slice things
- choices of cutting boards are the wooden or blocks and acrylic
cutting boards. when preparing a recipe that contains both meat (or
poultry or seafood) and vegetables requiring cutting, use one
board exclusively for vegetables and the other exclusively for the raw
meat to avoid cross-contamination

‣ Peelers
- used to peel ingredients
- is a kitchen tool consisting of a slotted metal blade attached to a
handle, that is used to remove the outer skin or peel of certain
vegetables, frequently potatoes and carrots, and fruits such as
apples, pears

‣ Citrus Zester
- used to shave bits or strands from the outermost layer of covering
on citrus fruits such as lemons, limes or oranges
- a kitchen zester is approximately 4 inc. long, with a handle and a
curved metal end, the top of which is perforated with a row of round
holes with sharpened rims. to operate, the zester is pressed with
moderate force against the fruit and drawn across its peel. the rims
cut the zest from the pith underneath

‣ Grater/Shredder
- a grater (also known as a shredder) is a kitchen utensil used to
grate foods into fine pieces. it was invented by francois boullier in
1540s
 ‣ Grill Pan
- used for salad toppings to be broiled or grilled

‣ Salad Spinners
- used to hold just washed salad leave in a slotted basket that is made to
spin by hand and thus fling all the water off the leaves into the outer
container

‣ Mixing Bowls
- used to mix dressings, marinate ingredients, hold separate elements
of a salad before assembling and used to toss and mix all the
ingredients together. used bowls made of sturdy, heavy glass wares or
ceramic, so as not to react with acidic ingredients

‣ Salad Server
- “salad sets” with big salad bowls, serving bowls and servers. Select
materials having enough surfaces to really grasp the ingredients of
salad no matter how slippery and thus making tossing easier

Other…

Salad Dressing Shaker

Vegetable
- chopper
- dicer
- slicer
- cutter
Salad Tongs

Garlic Press

Salad Sets

Fruit Salad Carving Tool

Salad Bar Equipment

Structure of Salad

‣ Base or Under Liner

- a cup-shaped leaves of iceberg or boston lettuce make attractive bases
- they give height to salad

‣ Body
- main part of a salad

‣ Garnish
- an edible decorative item that is added to salad to give eye appeal, and adds flavor as well. it
should harmonize with the rest of the salad ingredients

‣ Dressing
- a usually seasoned mixture of liquids that is added to a salad. there are two types, a
mayonnaise base or a vinaigrette

Ingredients of Salad

‣ Salad Greens
- iceberg lettuce, romaine lettuce, boston lettuce, biff or limestone lettuce, chinese cabbage,
spinach, sprouts
‣ Vegetables (Raw)
- avocado, bean sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, carrots, cauliflower, celery, cucumber, mushrooms,
onions, peppers, radish, tomatoes

‣ Vegetables (Cooked, Pickled and Canned)

- asparagus, beets, carrots, cauliflower, corn, pimientos, olives, peppers, cucumbers

‣ Starches
- dried beans, potatoes, macaroni products, grains, bread (croutons)

‣ Fruits (Fresh, Cooked, Canned or Frozen

- apple, banana, berries, coconut, melons, oranges, papaya, peaches, pears, mangoes

‣ Protein Foods
- meat (beef, ham), poultry, fish and shellfish, salami, luncheon meat, bacon, eggs, hard cooked,
cheese, cottage cheese, aged occurred types

‣ Miscellaneous
Classification of Salad According to Ingredients Used

‣ Green Salad
- must be fresh, clean, crisp and cold and well drained. moisture and air are necessary to keep
greens crisp
a.) leaves wilt because they lose moisture. crispness can be restored by washing and refrigerating. the
moisture that clings to the leaves after thorough draining is usually enough
b.) air circulation is essential so do not wash greens too tightly or pack too firmly. refrigerate in colanders
covered with clean damp towels, or in specially designed perforated plastic bibs. these protect from drying
while allowing air circulation

‣ Vegetable, Grain, Legumes and Pasta Salad

- vegetable salads are salads whose main ingredients are vegetables other than lettuce or other
leafy greens. Starchy items such as grains, pastas and dried legumes can also form the body of
a salad. raw or cooked vegetables are usually added to the starch items to enhance the color,
flavor and nutritional balance of the salad. protein items such as poultry, meat, seafood and
cheese maybe added to vegetables and starch salads

‣ Bound Salad
- are mixtures of foods that are held together or bound with a dressing, usually a thick dressing
like mayonnaise. the term bound is most often for traditional mixtures of cooked protein, starch
and vegetables items with mayonnaise like chicken salad, tuna salad, egg salad and potato
salad

‣ Fruit Salad
- contain fruits as their main ingredients, like appetizer salads or dessert salads

‣ Composed Salad
- made by arranging two or more elements attractively on a plate. they are called composed
because the components are arranged on the plate rather than being mixed together. they are
elaborate and can be substantial in size, usually served as main courses or fruit courses rather
than accompaniments or side dishes

‣ Gelatin Salad
- most gelatin products are made with sweetened prepared mixes with artificial color and flavor.
but some professional cook used to prepare salads using unflavored gelatin relying on fruit
juices and other ingredients for flavor
Important Factors to Consider In Salad Preparation

‣ Quality of ingredients
‣ Eye appeal
‣ Simplicity
‣ Neatness
‣ Contrast and harmony of colors
‣ Proper food combinations
‣ Foods should be recognizable
‣ Keep foods properly chilled but not ice-cold
‣ Serve hot foods while hot and cold foods cold
‣ Keep it clean and crisp
‣ Flavorful
‣ Drain all the ingredients
‣ Do not overcook food

Procedures in Making Salad

1. Prepare all the ingredients

2. Arrange the plates on worktables
3. Place all the bases
4. Put the body of salad
5. Garnish the salad
6. Refrigerate until serving
7. Do not add dressing until serving
Salad Dressings
- liquid or semi-solid liquids used to flavor salads. the flavors of most salad dressings are not
modified by cooking. the quality depends directly on the quality of ingredients used

‣ Oil
- should have a mild, sweet flavor. Strongly flavored oil can make excellent salad dressing but
not appropriate with every food
- corn oil, soybean oil, canola oil, peanut oil, walnut oil

‣ Vinegar
- should have a good, clean sharp flavor. most salad vinegar are about 5% acidity but some
range from 7-8%

‣ Lemon Juice
- fresh lemon juice maybe used in place of or in addition to vinegar and in some preparation

‣ Egg yolk
- as essential ingredients in mayonnaise and other emulsifier dressings. for safety pasteurized
eggs should be used

‣ Seasoning and Flavorings

- include mustard and ketchup

Types of Salad Dressing

‣ Oil and Vinegar dressings

- basic vinaigrette is a simple mixture of oil, vinegar and seasonings which is an example of
temporary emulsions. the ratio of oil to vinegar is 3 parts oil to 1 part vinegar. however, it can be
changed depending upon the taste. less oil makes the dressing tarter, while more oil makes it
taste milder and oilier

‣ Emulsifier dressings
- mayonnaise is an emulsified dressing. it more often serves as the base for a wide variety of
other dressings. mayonnaise based dressings are generally thick and creamy

‣ Other dressings
- cooked salad dressing is similar in appearance to mayonnaise, but it has a tarter flavor, while
mayonnaise is richer and milder. cooked dressing is made with little or no oil and with a starch
thickener

There is a variety of dressing on neither mayonnaise nor oil and vinegar. they include dressing
on sour cream and on fruit juice and yogurt and low calories dressings. the important thing is
that these dressings should have a well balanced flavor with a pleasant tartness and should
harmonize and complement the salad which they are served
Emulsions In Salad Dressings

the uniform mixture of two unmixable liquids, oil and vinegar is called emulsion

‣ Temporary Emulsions
- a simple oil and vinegar dressing is called temporary emulsion because the two liquids always
separate after being shaken. the harder the mixture is beaten or shaken, the longer it takes for it
to separate

‣ Permanent Emulsions
- mayonnaise is also a mixture of oil and vinegar, but the two liquids do not separate because it
contains egg yolk which is a strong emulsifier. the egg yolk forms a layer around each of the tiny
droplets and holds them in suspension. all emulsions form more easily at room temperature

other stabilizers are used in some preparations. cooked dressing uses starch in addition to
eggs. commercially made dressings may use such emulsifiers as gums, starches and gelatin
AP

ECONOMIC CYCLE
Production (paglikha ng produkto)
↓
Distribution (pagbebenta o pamamahagi ng kalakal)
↓
Consumption (paggamit ng kalakal)

Demand
- ang kagustuhan ng mga mamimili na bumili ng isang kalakal o paglilingkod
- dami ng produkto na nais bilhin ng mga konsyumer sa isang takdang presyo

Salik na Nagpapabago sa Demand

‣ Presyo
‣ Di-presyong salik
- kita na mamimili
- populasyon
- presyo ng mga kaugnay o kapalit na produkto
- panlasa
- inaasahan ng mga mamimili

Batas ng Demand
- mataas ang demand ng isang kalakal kung mababa ang presyo nito
- bumababa ang demand ng kalakal kung tumataas ang presyo. ceteris paribus

Ano ang Ceteris Paribus?

- nangangahulugan na lahat ng ibang salik maliban sa presyo ay hindi nagbago
- may mga kalakal na kahit mataas ang presyo ay hindi pa rin nagbabago ang demand nito

Batas ng Demand
‣ Substitution Effect
‣ Income Effect

‣ Substitution Effect
- ipinahahayag nito na kapag tumaas ang presyo ng isang produkto, ang mga mamimili ay
hahanap ng pamalit na mas mura

‣ Income Effect
- ito ay nagpapahayag na mas malaki ang halaga ng kinikita kapag mas mababa ang presyo

Ano ang Market Demand?

- ito ang pinagsama-samang dami ng demand sa isang produkto
Demand Schedule
- and demand schedule ay isang talaan na nagpapakita ng dami ng kalakal na kaya at gustong
bilhin ng mga mamimili sa iba’t ibang presyo
- malinaw na ipinapakita ng presyo at quantity demand ng isang kalakal

Demand Curve
- ang graph na batay sa demand schedule. kung ilalapat sa graph ang iba’t ibang kombinasyon
ng mga presyo at quantity demand ay mabubuo ang demand curve. kung tutuntunin ang mga
puntong panana (downward sloping curve). ang kurbang ito ay nagpapakita ng magkasalungat
na ugnayan sa pagitan ng presyo at sa dami ng gusto at kayang bilhin ng mamimili

Paglipat ng Demand Curve

- nagkakaroon ng paglipat ng demand curve kung nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa demand ng
isang kalakal
- lumilipat ang demand curve pakaliwa kung bumababa ang demand ng kalakal
- lumilipat naman ang demand curve paanan kung tumataas ang demand ng isang kalakal

Ano ang Elasticity?

- ito ay tumutukoy sa bahagdan ng pagbabago sa dami ng demand o supply batay sa
pagbabago sa presyo
- ipinakilala ni Alfred Marshall ang konsepto ng elasticity sa ekonomiks

Price Elasticity ng Demand

- tugon ng mga mamimili sa pabago-bagong presyo ng mga produkto at serbisyo batay sa
konsepto ng batas ng demand
- ito ay ang paraan na ginagamit upang masukat ang pagtugon at kung gaano kalaki ang
magiging pagtugon ng quantity demanded ng tao sa isang produkto sa tuwing may pagbabago

%∆𝑄𝑑
Formula: Ɛd = %∆𝑃

𝑄2 − 𝑄1
%∆𝑄𝑑 = x 100
𝑄1 + 𝑄2
2

𝑃2 − 𝑃1
%∆𝑄𝑑 = x 100
𝑃1 + 𝑃2
2
Uri ng Price Elasticity ng Demand
‣ Elastic - Qd > P
‣ Inelastic - Qd < P

♾️
‣ Unitary - Qd = P → 1

♾️
‣ Perfectly Elastic - Qd P
‣ Perfectly Inelastic - Qd P=0

Konsepto at Salik ng Supply

Sino ang nagtitinda?

- kilala rin sila sa maraming pangalan tulad ng negosyante, prodyuser, retailer at iba pa
- ang pangkat ng mga nagtitinda ay tinatawag na bahay-kalakal (business firms). tungkulin
nilang lumikha ng mga kalakal
- sila ang nagsusuplay (suply) ng mga produkto at serbisyo na kailangan ng mga mamimili
kapalit ng tuob (profit)

Ano ang Supply?

- ito ay ang kagustuhan ng mga nagtitinda na magbenta ng isang kalakal o paglilingkod
- ito rin ay tumutukoy sa dami ng produkto na nais ibenta ng mga prodyuser sa isang takdang
presyo

Salik na Nagpapabago sa Supply

‣ Presyo
‣ Di-presyong salik
- pagbabago sa teknolohiya
- pagbabago sa halaga ng produksyon
- pagbabago sa bilang ng mga nagtitinda
- pagbabago sa presyo ng mga kaugnay na produkto
- inaasahan ng mga negosyante

Batas ng Supply
- ayon sa batas ng ito, mayroong direct o positibong ugnayan ang presyo (P) sa quantity
supplied (Qs) ng isang produkto o serbisyo
- ito ay nangangahulugan na kapag tumaas ang presyo, tumataas din ang dami ng produkto o
serbisyo na handa at kayang maipagbili. Samantalang kapag bumaba ang presyo, bumababa
din ang dami ng produkto o serbisyo (ceteris paribus)
- mataas ang presyo (P), mataas ang dami ng supply (Qs); mababa ang presyo (P), mababa
ang dami ng supply (Qs)

Ano ang Ceteris Paribus?

- ang pagtataya na lahat ng ibang salik maliban sa presyo ay hindi nagbago
- may mga kalakal na kahit mataas ang presyo ay hindi [a rin nagbabago ang dami ng
nagtitinda
 Paglalarawan sa Batas ng Supply

Supply Schedule
- isang talaan ng nagpapakita ng dami ng kaya at gustong ipagbili ng prodyuser (Qs) sa iba’t
ibang presyo (P)

Supply Curve
- graph batay sa supply schedule
- nagkakaroon ng paglipat ng supply curve kung nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa quantity
supplied (Qs) ng isang kalakal
- pagtaas ng supply, pakanan ang kurba; pagbaba ng supply, pakaliwa ang kurba

Supply Function
- matematikong pagpapakita ng ugnayan ng presyo at quantity supplied
- Qs = F (P)
- Quantity Supplied (Qs) = dependent variable
- Presyo (P) = independent variable

Uri ng Price Elasticity ng Demand

‣ Elastic = |Ɛ𝑠| > 1
‣ Inelastic = |Ɛ𝑠| < 1
‣ Unitary = |Ɛ𝑠| = 1

Pamilihan
- ito ay isang mekanismo kung saan ang mamimili at nagbebenta ay nagkakaroon ng
transaksiyon upang magkaroon ng bentahan
- ito rin ang nagsasaayos ng nagtutunggaliang interes ng mamimili at bahay-kalakal

supply - nagbebenta
demand - mamimili

Puwersa ng Pamilihan (Market Forces)

- tumutukoy sa ugnayan ng supply at demand
- ang mamimili ay bumbili nang marami sa mababang presyo samantalang marami namang
ipinagbibili ang bahay-kalakal sa mataas na presyo
- nag-uugnayan ang mamimili at baha-kalakal sa pamamagitan ng pagtatakda ng presyo

Batas ng Demand at Supply (Law of Supply and Demand)

- kung mataas ang presyo ng kalakal, tumataas ang supply, nagiging dahilan ito ng pagbaba ng
presyo, nasiyang nagpapataas ng demand
Kakulangan (Shortage)
- hindi sapat ang supply upang matugunan ang demand

Kalabisan (Surplus)
- mas malaki ang supply sa demand

Ekwilibriyo (Equilibrium)
- sapat ang dami ng supply sa demand

Ano ang Ekwilibriyo?

- isang kalagayan sa pamilihan kung saan ang dami ng demand (Qd) at supply (Qs) ay pareho
ayon sa presyong kanilang pinagkasunduan
- ekwilibriyong presyo ang tawag sa pinagkasunduang presyo ng konsyumer at prodyuser, at
ekwilibriyong dami naman ang tawag sa pinagkasunduang bilang ng mga produkto o serbisyo

shortage - S<D o ↑ 𝐷 ↓ 𝑆
surplus - S>D o ↓ 𝐷 ↑ 𝑆
Mga Salik na Nagpapabago ng Puwersa ng Pamilihan
‣ pagmamahal ng mga salik ng produksyon
‣ pagtaas ng kita ng mamimili
‣ mahusay na pagsasanay sa mga manggagawa
‣ panic buying ng mga mamimili

Ano ang Pamilihan?

- isang kalagayan kung saan may interaksyon ang mga mamimili at nagtitinda
- ang mga nagtitinda ay nagpapaligsahan upang mahikayat ang mga mamimili na bumili sa
kanila

2 istruktura ng pamilihan
‣ Ganap na Kompetisyon
‣ Di-ganap na Kompetisyon

‣ Ganap na Kompetisyon
- walang sinumang nagtitinda at mamimili ang maaaring magkontrol sa presyo ng kalakal
- ang mga ipinagbibiling produkto ay walang pagkakaiba
- madaling pumasok sa pamilihan ang mga nais magsimula ng negosyo

Katangian ng Ganap ng Kompetisyon

‣ maraming maliliit na konsyumer at prodyuser
‣ magkakatulad ang produkto (homogeneous)
‣ malayang paggalaw ng sangkap ng produksyon
‣ malayang pagpasok at paglabas sa industriya
‣ malaya ang impormasyon ukol sa pamilihan

‣ Di-ganap na Kompetisyon
- wala ang anumang kondisyon o katangian na matatagpuan sa pamilihang may ganap na
kompetisyon
- ang lahat ng prodyuser na bumubuo sa ganitong estruktura ay may kapangyarihang
maimpluwensyahan ang presyo sa pamilihan

4 na Konsepto ng Di-ganap na Kompetisyon

‣ Monopolyo
‣ Monopsonyo
‣ Oligopolyo
‣ Monopolistikong Kompetisyon
‣ Monopolyo
- ito ay ang uri ng pamilihan na iisa lamang ang prodyuser na gumagawa ng produkto o
nagbibigay serbisyo kung kaya’t walang pamalit o kahalili. dahil dito, siya ay may kakayahang
maimpluswensiyahan ang pagtatakda ng presyo sa pamilihan
- sa ganitong kadahilanan, ang mga konsyumer ay napipilitang tanggapin na lamang ang
pagiging makapangyarihan ng mga monopolista. ang mga halimbawa ng mga prodyuser na
nasa ganitong uri ay ang mga kompanya ng koryente sa aspekto ng transmission, tubug, at tren

Mga Katangian ng Monopolyo

‣ Iisa ang nagtitinda

- dahil iisa ang nagbebenta, ang presyo at dami ng supply ay idinidikta, batay sa tinatawag na
profit max rule o pagnanais ng prodyuser na makakuha ng malaking kita

‣ Produkto na walang kapalit

- ang mga produkto ay walang kauri kaya nakokontrol ang presyo at dami ng supply

‣ Kakayahang hadlangan ang kalaban

- dahil sa mga patent, copyright, at trademark gamit ang Intellectual Property Rights, hindi
makapasok ang ibang nais na maging bahagi ng industriya na kaparehas sa hanay ng produkto
at serbisyong nililikha ng mga monopolista

‣ copyright
- ay isang uri ng Intellectual Property Right na tumutukoy sa karapatang pagmamay-ari ng isang
tao na maaaring kabilang ang mga akdang pampanitikan (literary works) o akdang pansining
(artistic works). kabilang din dito ang mga gawa gaya ng aklat, musika, paintings, iskultura,
pelikula, computer programs, databases, advertisements, maps, at technical drawings

‣ patent
- naman ay pumoprotekta sa mga imbentor at kanilang imbensyon. ito ay ipinagkakaloob ng
gobyerno sa isang imbentor upang mapagbawalan ang iba na gawin, gamitin, ibenta, iangkat, at
iluwas ang imbensyon niya kapalit ng pagsisiwalat sa publiko ng mga detalye ng kanyang
imbensyon

‣ trademark
- ay ang paglalagay ng mga simbolo o marka sa mga produkto at serbisyo na siyang
nagsisilbing pagkakakilanlan ng kompanyang may gawa o nagmamay-ari nito
‣ Monopsonyo
- sa ganitong uri ng pamilihan, mayroon lamang iisang mamimili ngunit maraming prodyuser ng
produkto at serbisyo. sa ganitong kalagayan, may kapangyarihan ang konsyumer na
maimpluwensyahan ang presyo ng pamilihan
- hal. ang pamahalaan na nag-iisang kumukuha ng serbisyo at nagpapasahod sa mga pulis,
sundalo, bumbero, traffic enforcer, at iba pa. dahil ang pamahalaan ang nag-iisang kumukuha
ng serbisyo ng mga nabanggit bilang empleyado, ito ay may direktang kapangyarihan sa
pagtatakda ng halaga ng pasahod sa mga ito

‣ Oligopolyo
- ito ay isang uri ng estruktura ng pamilihan na may maliit na bilang o iilan lamang na prodyuser
ang nagbebenta ng magkakatulad o magkakaugnay na produkto at serbisyo. sa ganitong uri ng
pamilihan, may kakayahan ang prodyuser na maimpluwensyahan o madiktahan ang presyo na
umiiral sa pamilihan
- hal. semento, bakal, ginto, at petrolyo
- maaari din nilang gawin ang hoarding o ang pagtatago ng produkto upang magkulang ang
supply sa pamilihan na nagdudulot ng pagtaas ng pangkalahatang presyo
- sa ganitong sistema, maaaring magkaroon ng pagkontrol o sabwatan ang mga negosyante na
tinatawag na collusion. ito ay nagaganap partikular na sa presyo sa ilalim ng kartel o samahan
ng mga oligopolista. ang konsepto ng kartel ay nangangahulugang pagkakaroon ng alliances of
enterprises
+ hindi pinahihintulutan ang pagkakaroon ng kartel sa ating bansa upang mabigyan ng
proteksyon at isulong ang kapakanan ng mga konsyumer ayon sa itinatakda ng Consumers Act
of the Philippines o Republic Act 9374 na isinabatas noong Abril 23, 2011

+ ipinahayag ni Adam Smith ang kanyang pananaw tungkol sa katotohanan ng pagkakaroong

ng kartel sa kanyang aklat na “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”
(1776)

+ ang Organization of Petroleum of Exporting Countries (OPEC) ay isang halimbawa ng

pagdaigdigang kartel sapagkat sila ang nagtatakda ng supply at presyo ng produktong petrolyo
sa buong daigdig. ang samahang ito ay naitata noong September 10-14, 1960 sa ginanap na
Baghdad Conference sa Baghdad, Iraq. ito ay pinasimulan ng five founding countries a binubuo
ng Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabie, at Venezuela. sa kasalukuyan, mayroon itong kabuuang 12
bansang kasapi na kinabibilangan ng Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, at United
Arab Emirates (UAE)
‣ Monopolistikong Kompetisyon
- sa ilalim ng ganitong uri ng estruktura ng pamilihan, maraming kalahok na prodyuser ang
nagbebenta ng mga produkto sa pamilihan subalit marami rin ang mga konsyumer.
gayunpaman, may kapangyarihan pa rin sa pamilihan ang mga prodyuser na magtakda ng
presyo ng kanilang mga produkto
- dahil sa product differentiation, ang katangian ng mga produkto na ipinagbibili ay
magkakapareho ngunit hindi eksaktong magkakahawig. ang kanilang pagkakapareho ay
maaaring sa uri ng produkto gaya ng shampoo, sabon, o toothpaste. sila ay nagkakaiba sa
packaging, labelling, presentasyon, at maging lasa o flavor. ginagawa ito ng mga prodyuser
sapagkat ang kanilang layunin sa product differentiation ay kumita at mas makilala ang kanilang
mga produkto. layunin din ng mga prodyuser na maitaas ang antas ng kasiyahan ng konsyumer
- ang advertisement o pag-aanunsiyo ay isang mabisang pamamaraan na ginagamit ng mga
prodyuser upang maipakilala ang kanilang mga produkto at serbisyo
- hal. sabong panlaba at pampaligo, toothpaste, pabango, fabric conditioner, cellphone,
softdrinks, appliances, fastfood restaurants, serbisyo ng mga ospital, hair salon, beauty &
cosmetic product, at marami pang iba
SCIENCE

What is an atom?
- atoms are the building blocks of matter
- the smallest particle of an element
- the smallest amount of a substance that can take part in any chemical reaction

“All matter, be it solid, liquid, or gas or any other form is made up of atoms of different
elements.”

Element
- pertains to specific types of atoms
- ex. gold, oxygen, copper, sulfur, carbon, and hydrogen

Sub-atomic Particles
- are particles that are much smaller than the atom

‣ Proton
- has positive charge
- massive
- Ernest Rutherford

‣ Electron
- has negative charge
- light
- J.J. Thomson

‣ Neutron
- has no charge
- same mass as proton
- James Chadwick

Atomic Number
- the number of protons in an atom

“A neutral atom has an equal number of protons and electrons so that the positive and negative
charges exactly balance.”
 The History of Atomic Theory

Democritus (about 400 B.C.)

- he is a greek philosopher who began to search for description of matter
- he named the smallest piece of matter “atomos” meaning “not to be cut”
- he proposed that matter could not be divided into smaller pieces forever
- he claimed that atoms were small, hard particles that were all made of the same material but
were different shapes and sizes
‣ this piece is invisible

John Dalton (1803)

- he created the very first atomic theory
- Dalton viewed atoms as tiny, solid balls
- in the early 1800s, John Dalton (English Chemist) performed a number of experiments that
eventually led to the acceptance of the idea of atoms
- he deduced that all elements are composed of atoms
‣ atoms of the same elements are exactly alike
‣ atoms of different elements are different
‣ compounds are formed by the joining of atoms of two or more elements

Joseph John/J.J. Thomson (1904)

- he introduced the idea about the negatively charged particle called “electron”
- he proposed a model of the atom that is sometimes called “raisin bun model” or “Plum
Pudding” model
- in 1897, J.J. Thomson, an English Scientist, provided the first hint that an atom is made of
even smaller particles
‣ atoms were made from positively charged substance with negatively charged electrons
scattered about, like raisins in a pudding

Ernest Rutherford (1911)

- he discovered protons and the nucleus
- he reasoned that all atoms that are positively charged particles were contained in the nucleus
and negatively charged particles were scattered outside the nucleus around the atom’s edge
- he proposed a model of the atom that is “Nuclear Model”
- in 1908, E. Rutherford, an english Physicist, was hand at work on an experiment

Niels Bohr (1913)

- he improved on Rutherford’s model
- he proposed that electrons move around the nucleus in a specific layers, or shells and he
placed it in a specific energy level
- he proposed a model of the atom that is “Planetary Model”
‣ electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus, much like planet circles the sun (solar
system). these orbits, or energy levels are located at certain distances from the nucleus
Arnold Sommerfield (1915)
- improved Bohr’s atomic theory to include elliptical orbits
- he claimed that electrons are moving around the nucleus
- he assumed that orbits doesn’t have to be spherical but can also be elliptical

James Chadwick (1927)

- he discovered neutrons
‣ working with Rutherford, he discovered particles with no charge: these particles were called
neutrons
- he proved Rutherford’s atomic theory, revolutionized the understanding of the atomic structure

Erwin Schrodinger (1926)

- was considered the “Father of Quantum Mechanics”
- he proposed a model of the atom that is “Quantum Mechanical Model”
‣ today’s atomic model is based on the principles of wave mechanics
‣ electrons do not move around an atom in a definite path like the planets around the sun
‣ a space in which electrons are likely to be found
‣ electrons whirl about the nucleus billions of times in one second
‣ they are not moving around in random patterns
‣ locations of electrons depends upon how much energy electron has

Modern
- work done since 1920 has changed the model
- the new atomic model has electrons moving around the nucleus in a cloud

Electron Configuration
- describes where electrons are located around the nucleus of an atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p 6f 7d 7f

Metalloids
- a unique group of elements that share properties of both metals and nonmetals

Compounds
- are chemical substances made up of two or more elements that are chemically bound together

Ionic Bonding
- is formed through complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another atom. it exists
between metals and nonmetals

Why do atoms bond?

- atoms bond to become stable
Ions
- ions formed after a metal atom transfer its valence electron to nonmetal atom
- are simply charged atoms
- ions are formed as atoms lose or gain electrons

Covalent Bonding
- also called molecular bond, it is a chemical bond that involves sharing of electron pairs
- it commonly occurs when two nonmetals bond together
- sharing of electrons

‣ Nonpolar Covalent Bond

- equal sharing of electrons
- electronegativity difference is equal to 0.4 or less

‣ Polar Covalent Bond

- unequal sharing of electrons
- electronegativity difference is less than 1.9 and more than 0.4

Nonmetals
- have strong energy attractions or high electronegativity compared to metals

What are ions?

- ions are simply charged atoms, they are neither positive nor negative

How are ions formed?

- ions are formed as atoms gains or lose electrons

Electronegativity
- is the ability of the atom to attract electron

Cations
- when metals tend to lose electrons and form positively charged ions

Anion
- nonmetals tend to gain electrons and form negatively charged ions

Valence
- the number of electrons an atom gains or loses

Metal atom → Cation

(neutral) (loses its valence electrons) (positive ion, smaller size)

Nonmetal atom → Anion

 (neutral) (loses its valence electrons) (negative ion, bigger size)
How do you assign names for Anions?
- unlike a cation, which is named for the patent atom, an anion is named by taking the root
name of the atom and changing the ending
- ex. Cl = Chlorine > ide = Chloride , F = Fluorine > ide = Fluoride ion

Note: Chemical compounds must have a net charge of zero

carbon forms many organic compounds with many atoms. ex. hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and
the halogens

Allotropy
- is a behavior exhibited by certain chemical elements

Diamond
‣ transparent and has no color
‣ hard
‣ cannot conduct electricity
‣ solid
‣ non-gaseous
‣ insoluble in water

Graphite
‣ opaque and black
‣ soft and spongy
‣ good conductor of electricity
‣ solid
‣ non-gaseous
‣ insoluble in water
according to the Octet Rule, atoms need to have 8 valence electron

Hydrocarbon
- are organic compounds which contains carbon and hydrogen only
in chemistry, the term organic describes chemical compounds that contain carbon and other
elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorus
Organic
- living organisms

the term Organic Compound was coined by Jons Jakob Berzelius in the year 1807

4 Main Types or Classes of Organic Compounds

‣ Carbohydrates
‣ Lipids
‣ Protein
‣ Nucleic Acid

‣ Carbohydrates
‣ Lipids
‣ Proteins
Examples: Hemoglobin in blood, Collagen, Insulin, Keratin, Myoglobin, Fibrin

‣ Nucleic Acid
Elements: C, H, O, N, P

- are the molecules in our cells that direct and store information for reproduction and cellular
growth

‣ Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

- ribose
- single strand

‣ Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

- deoxyribose
- double stranded helix
- carries the genetic information for the cells

Organic Compounds are important because all living organisms contain carbon, they are the
basic components of many of the cycles that drive the earth

ESP
First Do No Harm
- “Primum Non Nocere”
- ito ay isang prinsipyo na laging nagnanais na makapagpagaling at iwasan ang lahat ng
makakapagpalala ng sakit o makakasama sa pasyente

Sto. Thomas de Aquno

- “lahat ng tao ay may kakayahang makaunawa sa kabutihan”

Max Scheler
- “ang pag-alam sa kabutihan ay hindi lamang sa larangan ng pag-iisip kundi sa larangan din ng
pakiramdam”

Paano Natutuhan ng Tao Kung Ano Ang Mabuti at Masama?

1. itinuturo sa atin ng ating mga magulang
2. nakuha natin sa mga kapitbahay o kapaligiran
3. napanood sa telebisyon o social media
4. nabasa mula sa ilang lathain o bibliya
5. narinig sa kapwa

Mabuti
- ito ay laging pakay at layon ng tao
- ang isip at puso ang gumagabay para kilalanin ang mabuti
- ang pagsisikap na laging kumilos tungo sa pagbubuo at pagpapalago ng sarili at ng mga
ugnayan

Tama
- ito ay ang pagpili ng mabuti batay sa panahon, kasaysayan, konteksto, at sitwasyon

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

‣ mahalagang ingatan ang dangal ng tao
‣ ang pag-unlad ng bansa at mundo ay nagmumula sa pagkilala sa pantay na mga karapatan
‣ ang lahat ng batas ay para sa tao

Likas na Batas Moral

- ito ay ang kaisa-isang batas na hindi dapat labagin ninuman
- gabay lamang ito upang makita ang halaga ng tao

Karapatan
- kapangyarihang moral

6 na uri ng Karapatan
‣ karapatang mabuhay
‣ karapatan sa pribadong pagmamay-ari
‣ karapatang magpakasal
‣ karapatang pumunta sa ibang lugar
‣ karapatan sa pananampalataya
‣ karapatang makapaghanapbuhay

Tungkulin
- obligasyong moral

6 na uri ng Tungkulin
‣ tungkuling mapangalagaan ang sarili
‣ tungkuling mapaunlad ito
‣ tungkuling matustusan ang mga pangangailangan
‣ tungkuling igalang ang pribadong boundary
‣ tungkuling igalang ang rehiyon ng iba
‣ tungkuling makapaghanapbuhay ng mabuti at maayos

Ilang Karapatang Pang-Indibidwal Ang Kinikilala Sa Encyclical Na

“Kapayapaan sa Katotohanan”
Pacern In Terris

1. karapatang mabuhay at kalayaan sa pangkatawang panganib

2. karapatan sa mga batayang pangangailangan upang magkaroon ng maayos na pamumuhay
3. karapatan sa malayang pagpapahayag ng opinyon at impormasyon
4. karapatan sa malayang pagpili ng relihiyon at pagsunod sa konsensya
5. karapatan sa pagpili ng propesyon
6. karapatan sa malayang paglipat ng lugar upang manirahan
7. karapatang makilahok sa mga pampublikong gawain o proyekto
8. karapatan sa patas na proteksyon ng batas laban sa mga paglabag ng mga karapatang ito

Unang Apat na Batayang Prinsipyo ng Sangkatauhan

(Fundamental Principles for Humanity)

Artikulo 1. ang bawat tao, anuman ang kasarian, lahi, estado sa lipunan, opinyon sa mga
isyung politikal, wika, eda, nasyonalidad, o relihiyon ay may tungkulin na pakitunguhan ang
lahat ng tao sa paraang makatao

Artikulo 2. walang tao ang dapat sumuporta sa anumang uri ng hindi makataong asal kaya ang
lahat ng tao ay may tungkuling pagsumikapang pangalagaan ang dignidad at tiwala sa sarili ng
kapwa
Artikulo 3. walang tao, pangkat, organisasyon, bansa, army o pulisya ang dapat mangibabaw
sa mabuti at masama; lahat ay dapat sundin ang pamantayang moral. bawat isa ay may
tungkuling itaguyod ang mabuti at iwasan ang masama sa lahat ng bagay

Artikulo 4. Lahat ang tao, gamit ang kanilang isip at konsensya, ay dapat tanggapin ang
kanilang tungkulin sa bawat isa, sa mga pamilya at pamayanan, lahi, bayan, at relihiyon nang
may pagkakaisa: “huwag mong gawin sa iba ang anumang ayas mong gawin nila sayo”

Ayon sa aklat na “Work: The Channel of Values Education”

‣ ang paggawa ay isang aktibidad o gawain ng tao
‣ maaari itong mano-mano, katulad ng paggawa ng bahay
‣ ito ay resulta ng pagkilos ng tao na may layunin makatugon sa pangangailangan ng kapwa.
kung tayo ay gumagawa o kumikilos lamang katulad ng hayop o makina