Homework

 Full schedule under syllabus

 Read

P, N, & E: Subatomic particples

 Most mass: nucleus
 Most volume: electrons
^ demonstrated in Rutherford’s experiment

 Atoms all neutral

 # of protons=# of electrons
 Atomic #: # of protons in nucleus
 All atoms of given element have same # of protons
 Isotopes: atoms of same element w/ different # of neutrons
Top # (A): atomic mass (protons+neutrons)
Bottom # (Z): atomic #
 Difference between mass & atomic # = # of neurons
 Ion: species w/ net charge (# of protons =/ # of electrons)
 Anion: more electrons than protons
 Cation: more protons than electrons
 Ions either monatomic (from single atom) or polyatomic (group of atoms
w/ overall charge)

In class q1:
 Protons: 8
 Neutrons: 7
 Electrons: 10

 Relative scale: masses of all atoms measured relative to mass of 1 isotope

of 1 element (12C)

 Average atomic mass: on periodic table (top number)

~
31.97207*x+32.97146*y+33.96786*0.0422=32.07

X+y=0.9578
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 Periodic table: organization of elements by ^ atomic #

o elements in vertical columns have similar chemical properties
o credited to Mendeleev (arranged by atomic #, predicted future
elements, grouped based on properties
 groups: vertical columns of periodic table (1-18)
 main group elements: 1A-2A, transition metals: 1B-8B
 periods: horizontal rows of table
 1: alkali metals, 2: alkaline earth metals, 11: coinage metals, 17: halogens
(take electrons), 18: noble gases (non-reactive)
 Also grouped into larger categories: 12 & 13-18: main group elements, 3-
12: transition elements
 Metalloids: have metal and nonmetal properties

Chapter 3
 First step of problem: find # of mols
 Chemical formulas: combine elemtal symbols & subscripts to represent
chemical compounds
o Provide info about relative # of atoms per element
o Give info abt arrangement of atoms in molecule sometimes
 Formula unit: group of atoms represented by chemical formula
o Ionic compound: atom/molecule of uncombined element, molecule
of a covalent compound, or a set of ions in an ionic compound
 Molecular or covalent compounds: exist as individual particles made up of
bonded atoms
 Ionic compounds: exit as extended 3d lattice structures (not individual
particles), can always continue to build up
 Some elements don’t exist as individual atoms (cl2, p4, s8) but rather small
molecules of multiple atoms
 7 elements exist as diatomic molecules (ex: nitrogen)
 Molecular or covalent compunds: form between 2+ nonmetals
o To name: (put prefixes in crip sheet)
 Ions: atoms/groups of atoms that have gained/lost electrons > +/- charge
o Cation: positive ion
o Anion: negative ions
 Monatomic ions: single ions
  Figure 3.7 on crip sheet
 Binary ionic compounds: form when metal atoms combine w/ nonmetal
ones
o Metal atoms give 1+ electrons (forming cations) to nonmetal atoms
(which form anions)
 Total + charge = total – charge
 Polyatomic ions: groups of 2+ bonded atoms that have lost/gained
electrons > have net charge
o Memorize table
o More oxygen: ate, less: ite

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 Mole: means cof counting large number of particles in samples
o 1 mole=number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon 12
o 1 mole Contains avogadros number of particles (6.022x10^23)
o # of molls x (avogadros number/1 mol) =number of formula units
 Atomic mass unit: average mass of one atom (amu)
 1 amu=1g/avogadros #
 Molar mass (molecular weight): sum of atomic masses of all atoms in
formula unit of compound
o Allows conversion from mass to # of moles
 Avolgadros #= unit conversion from moles to # of particles
 Formula weight/mass: refer to atoms, molecules, or ionic compounds
(mostly for ionic compounds)
 Atomic weight/mass: refers to atoms
 Molecular weight/mass: refers to molecules
 Molar mass: refers to mass of one mole of atoms, molecules, or formula
units of ionic compounds
 Percent composition: what percentage by mass of a compounf is made up
by each element in the compound (may be calculated using formula
masses-amu- or molar masses-g/mol)
 Steps in determining empirical formula
o 1. Convert percent data into mass data
o Convert mass into moles for each element
o Divide moles
 Moleculat formula: gives actual # of atoms of each element in one molecule
of covalent compound
 o Always an integer multiple of empirical formula

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 Combustion analysis: used to determine empirical formula of compounds
containing C, H, and maybe O
o All carbon ends up as co2
o Hydrogen ends up as h2o
 Chemical equations: represent transformation of 1+ chemical species into
new substance
 Reactant: starting component of reaction (on left)
 Products: Ending components
 Chemical equation written as: Reactants -> products
 Balanced chemical equation: # of atoms of each element on left side = # of
atoms of that element on the right
o 1 balance polyatomic ions as units if present as both reactants and
products
o 2 balance elements that appear in onlt 1 reactant and 1 product
o 3 balance remaining elements (resolve odd/even issues by doubling
previously determined coefficients
o 4 Verify # of each atom is same in reactants and products and that
coefficients are in simplest form
 1, 5, 3, 4
 Synthesis/combination reactions: start w simple reactants that combine to
form single more complex product
 Decomposition reactions: single reactant breaks down into less complex
products
 Single replacement/displacement reactions: element reacts with a
compound and displaces 1 of the elements in that compound, producing
new compound and element
 Double-replaceent/displacement reactions: 2 ionic compounds exchange
ions to form 2 new compounds
o Acid-base reactions
o Acid: compound usually written w h and beginning
o Base: type of compound often written w OH at end of formula
o Acid + base -> salt + water
 Combustion reactions: involve rapid combination of substance w oxygen
 o Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels produced carbon dioxide and
water
o 1 decomposition
o 2 combustion
o 3 single replacement
o 4 double replacement
 Decomposition
 Synthesis
 Single
 Double
 Decomposition
 Double
 Reactions occur spontaneously due to changes in heat energy and
randomness
 Certain patterns of reactants and products associated w spontaneous
reactions can be classified by their driving force:
o Formation of precipitate
o Formation of water (neutralization)
o Oxidation and reduction
 Water
 Solid
 Redux
 Aqueos solution: resuls when something is dissolved in water
 Solvent: component that presents in much greater amounts
o Water is solvent in aqeuos solution
 Solute: component present in much smaller amounts (minor component)
 In all solutions, solute dissolves in solvent

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 Soluble: dissolves easily and to large extent in specific solvent
 Insoluble: doesnt dissolve to any measurable extent in specific solvent
 When ionic compunds dissolve they dissociate (break apart) into their
constituent ions (dissociation reaction)
 Uneven distribution of electrons wi water molecule causes o side to have
partial negative charge and h side to have partial positive charge ->
hydrated ions
 Electrolytes: substances that dissolve in water to produce a conductive
solution
 Strong electrolytesL dissociate completely (soluble ionic compouns, strong
acids and bases)
 Weak electrolytes: dissociate onle a little bit (weak acids and bases)
 Nonelectrlytes: don’t dissociate (covalent molecules)
 Strong acids: ionize nearly 100%, form solutions that conduct electricity
very well and are strong electrolytes
 Weak acids: ionize only partially in water (<10%), form solutions that
conduct electricity only slitely and are weakelectrolytes
 Strong bases: ionic compounds containing hydroxide ions, dissociate 100%
in water, form solutions that conduct electricity very well and are strong
electrlytes
 Weak bases: molecular coumpounds such as ammonia (NH3), react w
water to a small extent toproduce hydroxide ions in water,form solutions
that conduct electricity only slightly and are weakelectrolytes


 Memorize^


 Theoretical yield: ideal amount of product that a reaction can make

mathematically

 Actual yield: amount the reaction produces in lab

 Percent yiels: ration of actual yield to theoritucal yield
 Concentration: measure of the amount of solute dissolved in solvent
 LARGER VALE, MORE SOLUTE DISSOLVED PER UNIT AMOUNT OF SOLUTE
 Molarity (M): molarity=moles of solute/liter of solution
 Dilution: process of lowering concentration of solution by adding more
solvent
 # OF molecules of solute does not change during dilution
 M1V1=M2V2
 2: 18 something
 Solution stoichiometrey: reactants and products may be given as molarities
 Molarities and volumes can be used to calculate number of moles
 Strong electrolytes dissociate into ions when dissolved in water
o Molarity of any ion is # of moles of that ion per liter of solution
o Subscripts in chemical formula indicate mole ratio
 o In 1.0M
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 All stoichiometry problems must start w balanced chemical equation

 Stoichiometry coefficiencts from balanced chemical equations provide mole
ratios that can be used in conversion factors from one substance to another
in equation
 One reactant will run out before others
o Reactant that runs out first in limiting reactant/reagent
o Other one is called excess reactant/reagent
 Strong electrolytes dissociate into ions when dissolved in water
o Molarity of any ion: # of moles of that ion per liter of solution
o Subscripts in chemical formula indicate mole ratio of compound to its
constituent elements
 Many way to convert to moles
o Mas>mole
o Volume>mole
o Volume>mass>moles
o # of particles to moles
 Titration: lab technique for determining # of moles of substance dissolved
in aqueous solution (sample solution/analyte)
 One reactant, standard solution/titrant, has precisely known concentration
 Volume of standard solution and sample both carefully measured
 Mole rations and volumes used to calculate sample concentrations
 Acid-base titrations are very common
 1 titr
 Equivalence point: moles of analyte=moles of titrant
 5.414x10^-3/2=2.707x10^-3/20mL (convert to liters)
 Thermochemistry: study of energetic consequences of chemistry
 Energy: capacity to do work or heat transfer
 Mechanical energy: energy due to object’s motion, position, or both
 Kinetic energy: energy related to motion
 Potential energy: energy related to potential
 Energy is Joule

 Pure substance
 Mixtures (homo and hetero)
 Extensive and intensive
 Hypothesis, theory, law
 Accuracy, precision, sig. fig.

 Laws of chemical combination

 History
 Atomic symbols
 Atomic mass
 Groups and periods of periodic table

 Binary covalent
 Ionic compounds
 Acids
 Molar mass

 Balancing equations
 Synthesis(combination)
 Decomposition
  Single replacement
 Double replacement
 Acid-base
 Combustion
 Aqueous solutions

 Mole-mass conversion
 Balancing equations
 Limiting reagents
 Theoretical and % yield
 Concentration
 Titration

Energy, heat, and work

 System: the part of universe under consideration
 Surroundings: everything in universe except system
 Universe: system+surroundings
 Open system: both matter and energy can move between system and
surroundings
 Closed system: energy but not matter can move between system and
surroundings
 Isolated system: neither matter nor energy can enter or leave system
 Work: result of a force acting through distance
o Denoted as w
 Heat: flow of energy between two objects as result of differences in
temperature
o A process
o Denoted as q
 Work is done on the system (w is positive)
 Work is done by the system (w is negative)
 Heat added to system (q is positive)
 Heat released by the system (q is negative)
 First law of thermodynamics:
o Total energy of universe is constant
o Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, only transformed
 Internal energy (U)
 o Sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all the particles that
compose the system
 Changes in internal energy
 Energy can exchange between system and surroundings of work and heat
o DeltaU=q+w
 Energy into system: +
 Energy out of system: -
 Internal energy is state function (value depends only on state of system,
not how system arrived at that state)
 Path functions: value depends on path taken (sequence of steps taken
between initial and final states)
o Work and heat are path functions
 Pressure-volume work:
 Most chemical reactions performed in open systems w exchange of both
heat and work between system and surroundings
 Chemists more interested in flow of heat in systems
 Enthalpy: state function that relates internal energy, pressure, and volume
o H=U+PV
 Exothermic: system that releases heat
o Change in enthralpy is less than 0 (deltaH<0)
 Endothermic: system that absorbs heat
o Change in enthalpy is greater than 0 (heltaH>0)
 In absence of phase change, amount of heat required to change
temperature of substance: q=mcdeltaT
 Specific heat © of substance is # of calories required to raise 1g of
substance by 1ºC
o Typical units are J/(g*ºC)
 Specific heat aka specific heat capacity or heat capacity
 Molar heat capacity: heat required to raide 1 mole of substance by 1º
o Typical unit J/(m*K)
 Colorimetry: study of heat transfer between substances by measuring
temperature changes pf substances involved
 Heat evolved or absorbed by system of interest determined by measuring
temperature change in surrounding
o Energy lost by system +
