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ENG503 Short Notes Lecture 1 to 22

Fluency will depend on a range of factors, e.g:

• Quick access to and practiced control of lexical and syntactic devices of the language.
• Ability to decide readily when it is appropriate to use them.
• Familiarity with interactional schemes.

Fluency can be measured by looking at:

• The speed and flow of language production

• The degree of control of language items
• Interactional way of language and content information

Techniques and Activities for Developing Speaking Skills

1. Early Activities
2. Acting from a Script
3. Communication Games
4. Prepared Talks/Speeches
5. Discussions
6. Simulations and Role Play
Lesson: 13

Attributes of a Good Reader

• Reads extensively
• Flexible reading style
• Integrates information in the text with existing knowledge.
• Reads for a purpose

Role of the Teacher in ER program

● Organizer
● Tutor
● Motivator
● ER Tasks

Roles of a Teacher in IR Classrooms

● Organizer
● Observer
● Feedback Organizer
● Prompter

Strategies for Developing Reading skills

● Previewing
● Predicting
● Skimming and Scanning
● Guessing from Context
● Paraphrasing
● Summarizing

Lesson: 14
Teachers may use the following steps to provide structure and continuity in all forms of writing.

1. Prewriting
2. Rough Draft
3. Peer Editing
4. Revising
5. Editing
6. Final Draft
7. Publishing

Approaches to Writing

1. Process and Product

2. Genre
3. Creative Writing
4. Writing as a Cooperative Activity
5. Building the Writing Habit

The teaching of the mechanics of writing aims at three different goals:

● Enhance letter recognition

● To help the learner move from letters and words to meaningful sentences
● To practice sound spelling correspondence

Strategies and Activities for Developing Writing Skills

● Practical Writing Tasks

● Personal Writing Tasks
● School Oriented Tasks
● Dialogue Journal Writing at the Early Stages
● Brainstorming
● Listing
● Clustering

Several ways of assessing the writing of L2 learners

● Writing Assignment
● Responding
● Goal – Setting
● Strategic Use of Questioning
● Comment-Only Feedback
● Peer and Self-Assessment

Two Types of Integrated-Skill Instruction

Content-Based Instruction

● The Theme-Based Model

● In the Adjunct Model
● In the Sheltered Model

Task-Based Instruction
 Lesson: 15

Test

A test, in simple terms, is a method of measuring a person's ability, knowledge, or performance in a given domain
(Brown, 2004).

Kinds of Testing

1. Placement Tests
2. Diagnostic Achievement Tests
3. Progress or Achievement Tests
4. Proficiency Tests
5. Aptitude Tests
6. Language Dominance Tests

Principles of Language Assessment

● Validity
● Reliability
● Wash Back Effect

Designing Classroom Language Tests

1. Purpose of test
2. Setting objectives
3. Test Specifications
4. Devising Test tasks
5. Grading or feedback

Advantages of Standardized Tests

● Ease for teacher to construct new tests

● Easily administered
● Scoring procedures are streamlined
● Objective in nature
● Provide comparison between individuals

Disadvantages of Standardized Tests

● Negligence in external factors

● Negligence in gradual growth of learners over time
● Atmosphere of stress upon both teachers and students

Lesson: 16

Essential Things for the Administration of Tests:

1. Construction Systems
2. Item Writing and Review
3. Item Banking
4. Preparation and Dispatch
5. Distribution Systems
6. Training
Common Characteristics of Various Alternatives in Assessment

● Use real-world contexts or simulations;

● Allow students to be assessed on what they normally do in class;
● Use tasks that represent meaningful instructional activities;
● Focus on processes as well as products;
● Tap into higher-level thinking and problem-solving skills;
● Provide information about both the strengths and weaknesses of students;

Common Modes of Alternative Assessment:

● Portfolios
● Journals

Possible Functions of Conferencing

● Commenting on drafts of essays and reports¬

● Reviewing portfolios
● Responding to journals
● Advising on a student's plan for oral presentations
● Assessing a proposal for a project

Important Steps for an Observation

● Determine the specific objectives of the observation.

● Decide how many students will be observed.
● Design a system for recording observation.
● Limited number of elements to be observed

Phonetics Phonology
The study of the nature of sound itself. The study of the sound system of a
language.
Simply describes the articulatory and Studies how sound interact as a system
acoustic properties of phones (speech in a particular language.
sounds).
Studies which sounds are present in a Studies how sounds combine and how
language, and how these sounds can be they change in combination, as well as
presented using the International which sounds can contrast to produce
Phonetics Alphabets (IPA). differences in meaning.
How the vocal tract apparatus modifies How can we describe all languages’
to produce recognizable speech sounds. sounds in terms of smaller components
called “distinctive features.”
Phonetics studies how articulation of Phonology studies how syllabification
individual sounds varies according to and other phenomena affects the
dialect and other factors. articulation of sounds.
How sounds overlap with each other in How can we describe common linguistic
co-articulation. changes in terms of how humans might
process them in the brain.
 Lesson: 17

Branches of Phonetics
Articulatory Phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made or articulated.

Acoustic Phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech sounds such as sound waves in the air.
Auditory Phonetics: deals with the perception of speech sounds via the ear.

…..
Consonants are often classified by being given a so-called VPM-label. VPM stands for Voicing, Place and
Manner:
Voicing means that the vocal folds are used; if they are not, the sound is voiceless (note that vowels always
imply the use of vocal folds).
Place of Articulation is the place where the air flow will be more or less obstructed.
Manner is concerned with the nature of the obstruction.

Lesson: 18

Word Formation

1. Etymology
2. Coinage
3. Borrowing
4. Compounding
5. Blending
6. Clipping
7. Hypocorisms
8. Backformation
9. Conversion
10. Acronyms
11. Derivation

Kinds of Morphemes
1. Free Morphemes
2. Bound Morphemes
3. Lexical/Content Morphemes
4. Functional Morphemes
5. Derivational Morphemes
6. Inflectional Morphemes
7. Allomorphs

Lesson: 20

Signs are of three types:

Iconic sign physically resembles what it stands for (e.g. a picture).
Indexical sign is related with some sensory feature (something directly visible, audible, etc.) e.g., smoke
signifies fire.
Symbolic signs have no relation with what they refer to.
Theories of Meaning

• Referential Theory of Meaning

• Ideational Theory of Meaning

• Mentalistic, Cognitive and Conceptual Theories of Meaning

• Prototype Theory of Meaning

Assumptions in Semantics

1. Reference and Sense

2. Utterances, Sentences and Propositions

3. Literal and Non-literal Meanings

4. Semantics and Pragmatics

Semantic Roles

1. Agent
2. Patient
3. Theme
4. Experiencer
5. Beneficiary
6. Instrument
7. Location
8. Goal
9. Source
10. Stimulus
11. Recipient

Types of Evidentiality
1. Witness Evidentiality
2. Sensory Evidentiality
3. Inferential Evidentiality
4. Reportative Evidentiality
5. Assumed Evidentiality
Types of Modality

1. Deontic Modality

2. Epistemic Modality

Lesson: 21

Major Forms of Reference

Endophoric Reference (Endophora) - where the interpretive source lies in the co-text.
An Endophoric reference can be divided into two sub-types:
• Anaphoric Reference (Anaphora), where the referent lies in the prior text, e.g. respect a man, he
will do the more.
 • Cataphoric Reference (Cataphora), where the referent lies in the text to come, e.g. When I met
her, Mary looked ill.
Exophoric Reference (Exophora)- where the interpretive source lies in the context, e.g. (Mary is standing
there) I like her.

Types of Presupposition
Existential Presupposition - your car – you have a car
Factive Presupposition - We regret inviting him.’ (we invited him)
Lexical Presupposition - He managed to do something. (‘Succeeded’ + ‘tried’)
Structural Presupposition - When did she travel to the USA? ( >> she travelled)
Non-Factive Presupposition - I dreamed that I was rich. (>> I am not rich)
Counterfactual Presupposition - If you were my daughter, I would not allow you to do this. (>> you are not
my daughter)
Maxims of Conversation
There are four categories.
1. Quantity (give as much information as is required, and no more than is required).
2. Quality (do not say what is false or that for which you lack adequate evidence).
3. Relation (be relevant).
4. Manner (be clear, be orderly, be brief, and avoid ambiguity).

Kinds of Implicature

1. Conventional Implicature

E.g. but, even, yet, and

2. Conversational Implicature
Particularized Conversational Implicature
A: are you coming to the party tonight. B: some guests are visiting
Generalized Conversational Implicature
A: Did you buy bread and cheese.
B: I bought bread.
Three Maxims of Politeness
● ‘Don’t impose’
● ‘Give options’
● ‘Make your hearer feel good’
Facets of Speech Acts:
● Locutionary Act – ‘shoot her’
● Illocutionary Act – He urged me to shoot her
● Perlocutionary Act – He persuaded me to shoot her
 Types of Speech Acts:
● Representatives - ‘The earth is flat’; ‘It was a warm sunny day’.
● Directives - ‘gimme a cup of coffee’
● Commissives - ‘I’ll be back’, ‘we will not do that’
● Expressives - ‘I am really sorry!’, ‘Congratulations!’,‘oh’, ‘yes’, great’
● Declarations - ‘I now pronounce you husband and wife’, ‘you are out’

Lesson: 22

Possible Relationships between Language and Society

• Social structure may either influence linguistic structure and/or behavior (Age-Grading).
• Linguistic structure and/or behavior may either influence social structure (Whorfian hypothesis).
• Language and society may influence each other (Marxist View).
• There is no relationship at all between linguistic structure and social structure (Chomsky).
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