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INSTITUTE OF RAIL TRANSPORT
IRT-21
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Multi Modal Transport

(Containerisation)
& Logistics Management
Module

6
CARGO AND CONTAINER HANDLING

Unit 1 1
Packaging, Pallestisation and Stowage of Cargo

Unit 2 21
Handling and Transport of Dangerous Cargo

Unit 3 33
Operation and Maintenance Features of Cargo Handling
Systems

Unit 4 93
Warehousing in India
Course Preparation Team
Content Contributor
Shri Pramod Uniyal
Executive Director/IRT and
Former Additional Member (IT)
Railway Board
Ministry of Railways

Shri Amit Chaudhri

Earlier Group General Manager
Container Corporation of India Limited

Course Writer
Course Contributor/ Revised/Updated

Shri Amit Chaudhri Shri Jai Prakash Tyagi

Earlier Group General Manager Visiting Faculty/IRT and
Container Corporation of India Limited Aquatech Institute of
Maritime Studies

Language Editing Format Editing

Prof. P.R. Ramanujam Prof. P.R. Ramanujam
STRIDE, IGNOU STRIDE, IGNOU

Copyright with
Institute of Rail Transport, 2018 (Revised Edition)

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph
or any other means, without permission in writing from the Institute of Rail Transport.

Further information about the Institute of Rail Transport and its courses can be obtained
from the Institute’s office at 104, NCRPU Building, Shivaji Bridge, Behind Shankar Market,
Near IRWO office, New Delhi - 110 001

Printed and published on behalf of Institute of Rail Transport by Shri Pramod Uniyal,
Executive Director.

Printed at : Allied Traders, 455, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi-92

IRT-21 : MULTI MODAL TRANSPORT
(CONTAINERISATION) & LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT
MODULE-1 : Concept of Multimodal Transport

Unit 1 : History of Containerisation

Unit 2 : Analysis of the Transportation System and Introduction to
Multi-Modal Transport
Unit 3 : Trade and Transportation
Unit 4 : Transport Logistics and Supply Chain Management

MODULE-2 : Modes of Transport and Planning

Unit 1 : Modes of Transport & Planning

Unit 2 : Container Carriage by Rail
Unit 3 : Inland Waterways and Containerization
Unit 4 : Container Carriage by Road

MODULE-3 : Ports Logistics and Connectivity with ICD

Unit 1 : Logistics and Ports

Unit 2 : Hub Port and Cold Chain Management
Unit 3 : Inland Container Depots or Dry Ports
Unit 4 : Airport and Logistics

MODULE-4 : Documentation and Custom Procedures

Unit 1 : Custom Procedure for Import and Export

Unit 2 : International Commercial (INCO) Terms
Unit 3 : Documentary Credit and Multimodal Transport
Unit 4 : Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

MODULE-5 : Conventions

Unit 1 :
Bill of Lading : Hague Rules and Hague : Visby Rules
Unit 2 :
Hamburg Rules and Voyage by Sea
Unit 3 :
Air Cargo and The Warsaw Convention
Unit 4 :
Convention Relating to Inland Modes of Transport : Road
and Rail
Unit 5 : United Nations Convention on International Multimodal
Transport of Goods, 1980
Unit 6 : Customs and Transit Conventions Affecting Multimodal
Transport
MODULE-6 : Cargo and Container Handling

Unit 1 : Packaging, Pallestisation and Stowage of Cargo

Unit 2 : Handling and Transport of Dangerous Cargo
Unit 3 : Operation and Maintenance Features of Cargo Handling
Systems
Unit 4 : Warehousing in India

MODULE-7 :Cargo and Liability Insurance

Unit 1 : Basic Concept of Marine Insurance

Unit 2 : Categories of General Cargo Insurance and the
Relevant Clauses
Unit 3 : Mutual Insurance and Liability Insurance
Unit 4 : Status of Claims and Procedure for the Settlement

MODULE-8 : India’s Growing Conflict

Unit 1 : India’s Growing Conflict between Trade and Transport -

Issues and Option.
Unit 2 : India’s Export and Import - Policy and Problems
Unit 3 : Multi Modal Transport Pricing
 6
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Institute of Rail Transport
Cargo and
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Container
Handling

UNIT-1
Packaging, Pallestisation and
Stowage of Cargo

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Three Basic Functions of Packaging
1.3 Guidelines on the Choice of Packaging
1.4 Types of Packaging for Break Bulk Cargo
1.4.1 Bagged Cargo
1.4.2 Fiberboard boxes and cartons
1.4.3 Wooden Cases
1.4.4 Wooden Crates
1.4.5 Bales
1.4.6 Drums, barrels, casks
1.4.7 Shrink Wrapping
1.4.8 Lift Vans
1.4.9 Preservation against corrosion
1.4.10 Special Cargo
1.4.11 Tight Stowage
1.4.12 Restraint
1.4.13 Methods of Securing Cargo
1.4.14 Aids to Good Securing
1.4.15 How to restrain certain types of Cargo
1.4.16 Stowage Precautions
1.4.17 Load Factors
1.5 Process of Marking and Labelling
1.6 Standard Shipping Marks
1.7 Cargo Handling Instructions
1.8 Simpler Shipping Marks
1.8.1 Background
1.9 Let us Sum Up
Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

1
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have gone through this unit, you should be able to :

OO Narrate the functions of packing.

OO Appreciate the need for different types of packing for different cargo
types.
OO Explain the process of marking and labelling.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The subjects treated in this module are very important for students. This lesson
introduces the principles of packing of Cargoes.

It is very important that the consignments are properly and securely packed so
that these arrive at the destination in good condition.

This lesson is divided into two parts:-

First part covers the packaging, palletisation and stowage of cargo and the
second part covers marking and labelling of packages.

Marking, labelling and shipping marks for dangerous goods are being dealt with
in a separate lesson ‘Handling & Transport of Dangerous Cargo.

Please bear in mind that certain materials are harmful to the environment and
should not be used as packing material. For example, POLYURETHANES and
POLYSTYRENE.

PART I:

PACKAGING, PALLETISATION AND STOWAGE OF CARGO

1.2 THREE BASIC FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING

The three basic functions of packaging are the three Ps - protection, preservation
and presentation. A package should protect and preserve the contents during
storage and transit from the manufacturing to the consuming centre. Protection
is required not only against loss, damage and pilferage but also, depending on
the nature of the contents against moisture entering or leaving the package, high
or low temperatures, light, gases, infestation by insects, contamination and other
natural hazards. Presentation of the contents of the package depends essentially

2
on the design of the package which involves factors such as size, shape, colour,
embellishment, brand, name etc.

Packaging should also conform to international standards and meet the

requirements of international regulations and the national laws of the countries
concerned.

1.3 Guidelines on the Choice of Packaging

Some broad guidelines to be followed in the choice of packaging technique
include the considerations which follow.

1.3.1 Goods should be well stowed within the package, evenly distributed
and properly secured. Items completely filling the case or carton contribute
to the strength of the whole package. Items which do not completely fill the
package must be cushioned against shock or vibration. There must be adequate
internal bracing or securing using battens (bars of wood) or dunnage (mats,
woodshavings, etc).

1.3.2 Where the consignment consists of a number of small packages, it is

preferable to consolidate them into one load by strapping and securing them
to a Wooden pallet base (a portable platform for storing loads). The assembly
of cargo into the largest practical unit consistent with the handling, weight and
dimension requirements reduces the danger of theft to a minimum. There is also
the advantage of reduced handling stresses, as larger units require the use of
mechanical handling equipment rather than crude manual techniques.

Pallet packing is quite suitable for goods carried in containers although they may
also be carried by conventional methods. In this case, however, there is the risk
of breakage during transfer, or on forwarding and handling operations.

1.3.3 In selecting the appropriate type of package, account should be taken

of the probability of cargo being “overstowed” along with other packages in
warehouses and cargo holds.

1.3.4 Appropriate strapping and banding techniques should be used for all
packages.

1.3.5 The regulations of the destination country as well as those of any

transit countries should be checked in order to ensure that they do not prohibit
certain types of packing material, particularly material which is harmful to the
environment.

1.3.6 The re-use of second-hand cartons or cases should be avoided as

they are more liable to collapse or and may invite pilferage (stealing in small
quantities) if the contents become exposed.

3
1.3.7 To improve the handling of bigger volumes of cargo, the design of the
package should match the dimensions of the product so as to save packaging
and freight costs. From the shipper’s point of view, it is desirable that the
following considerations should be borne in mind in order to minimize the cost of
freight:

1.3.7.1 in respect of measurement of the cargo, the package should be of

minimum dimensions.

1.3.7.2 there should be optimum utilization of space within the package; and

1.3.7.3 goods attracting different freight rates should not be packed

together in one package, in case the carrier charges freight for the whole
package at the rate applicable to the highest-rated commodity.

1.3.8 It is essential that waterproof wrapping for the contents and waterproof
lining for packages should be provided, particularly when the packages are likely
to remain in an unprotected area, such as the customs area.

1.3.9 Over-packaging in the name of protective packaging should be avoided,

in order to make optimum use of the carrying capacity. This is particularly
important in air transport where packages are consolidated into pallets, igloos or
containers.

1.3.10 Powdered or granular material should be packed preferably in flexible

multiwall bags which are adapted to the requirements of the material, taking into
account its chemical and physical characteristics.

1.3.11 In the case of pressed bales (canvas packages of merchandise}, it is

advisable to use an inner wrap of water proof paper below an outer or primary
cover of fibreboard, material, over which heavy jute or a similar cover can be
provided before strapping.

1.3.12 In designing or choosing a suitable package, it may be useful to

consult, wherever possible, the consignee and obtain reports from his end
about the packaging of specific products moving on. specific routes. It would
also be advisable to ascertain from consignees to what extent handling gear,
port equipment, etc., are available at the port of destination, what inland
transportation facilities are available and if the goods have to be moved to inland
centres.

1.3.13 In export packing, consideration should be given to the “presentation”

aspect of the package: the design, colour, embellishment of the packages,
which could produce a favorable reaction in the export market and improve the
competitiveness of the product.

4
 Check Your Progress 1 :
Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
a. What are the functions of packing?

b. How does choice of packing depends on the type of commodity?

INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR PACKAGING

The type of packaging required depends on the : Nature and type of goods;

— Volume;
— Weight;
— Number of packages;
— Types of packages;
— Mode of transport; and
— Final destination.

5
1.4 Visual inspections prior to packing: -
Cargo Transport Unit should be thoroughly inspected before it is packed with
cargo. The following may be used as a guide to inspecting a unit before packing.

1.4.1 Exterior inspection

1.4.1.1 The structural strength of a container depends to a great extent on the

integrity of its main framework comprising the corner posts, corner fittings, main
longitudinal and the top and bottom end transverse members which form the end
frame. If there is evidence that the container is weakened, it should not be used.

Figure :- Inspection of container

1.4.1.2 The walls, floor and roof of a container should be in good condition, and
not significantly distorted.

1.4.1.3 The doors of a container should work properly and be capable of being
securely locked and sealed in the closed position, and properly secured in the
open position. Door gaskets and weather strips should be in good condition.

6
1.4.1.4 A container on international voyages should carry a current International
Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) Safety Approval Plate. A swap-body may
be required to have a yellow code plate, fixed at its side wall which proves that it
has been codified in conformity with the safety rules of European railways. Such
swap-bodies need not be carried with a CSC plate, but many of them will have
one in addition to the yellow code plate.

1.4.1.5 Irrelevant labels, placards, marks or signs should be removed or

masked.

1.4.1.6 When canvas covers are used, they should be checked as being in
satisfactory condition and capable of being secured. Loops or eyes in such
canvas which take the fastening ropes, as well as, the ropes themselves must be
in good condition.

1.4.2 Interior inspection

1.4.2.1 A container should be weatherproof unless it is so constructed that this
is obviously not feasible. Previous patches or repairs should be carefully checked
for possible leakage. Potential points of leakage may be detected by observing if
any light enters a closed unit. In carrying out this check, care should be taken to
ensure that no person becomes locked inside a unit.

1.4.2.2 A container should be free from major damage, with no broken flooring
or protrusions such as nails, bolts, special fittings, etc. which could cause injury
to persons or damage to the cargo.

1.4.2.3 Cargo tie-down cleats or rings where provided should be in good

condition and well anchored. If heavy items of cargo are to be secured in a
container , the forwarder or shipping agent should be contacted for information
about the cleat strength and appropriate action taken.

1.4.24 A container should be clean, dry and free of residue and persistent
odours from previous cargo.

1.4.2.5 A folding container with movable or removable main components

should be correctly assembled. Care should be taken to ensure that removable
parts not in use are packed and secured inside the unit.

1.5 TYPES OF PACKAGING FOR BREAK

BULK CARGO
The exporter or seller is usually responsible for packing the goods for .break
bulk cargo, whereby a consolidated consignment is broken down on delivery
for distribution to individual consignees. The type of packaging required for any

7
product varies with the nature and volume of the product as well as the method of
transport it is carried over. Generally the following types of packaging are used;

1.5.1 Bagged Cargo

The commodity itself has to be robust to withstand outside pressure and

compression, for the bags will only hold the contents in one place and will not
provide protection against external damage. Such commodities might typically
be fertilizers, grain (rice, maize, wheat, etc.) seeds, dried fruit, sugar, coconut,
coffee, flour, fresh vegetables, frozen offal (meat from carcasses), flour, copra,
small items such as shells, raisins, etc., mail, salts, mineral sands and ores, meal
(fish, seed, copra, etc.) dried blood, dried milk (casein etc.).

1.5.2 Fiberboard boxes and cartons

Fibreboard boxes and cartons are very widely used for the sake of economy
and efficiency. Although comparatively cheap, they are able to withstand normal
transport hazards and protect the contents against loss or damage. They may be
particularly suitable in the case of goods carried in containers from the point of
origin to the destination provided the goods are not fragile. But if the containers
have to be unloaded at the port of discharge for further transport to their final
destination, they may have to be placed on pallets and securely strapped in order
to protect them from pilferage and damage. Depending upon the nature of the
commodities, cartons of the right type of suitable strength and sizes should be
used.

1.5.3 Wooden cases

These have stood the test of time and their main advantage is that they have the
wall strength to support superimposed loads. They are more expensive than the
carton-type packing due to the cost of wood.

Wooden cases are particularly suitable when the goods are carried by
conventional methods and, when they are sensitive to heat, dampness, etc. The
goods may require protection by way of packing with layers of insulating material,
tar paper, sealed plastic covering etc. There are different types of wooden
cases, including those made of plywood, which are being increasingly used by
exporters.

1.5.4 Wooden Crates

These are suitable for wooden packages built like a skeleton. The open crate
can be used when the contents are sufficiently resilient to require a minimal from
of packing to facilitate handling and stowage. Sometimes, it is used as an outer
package to consolidate fiberboard boxes or give cartons extra protection.

The skeleton crate is often used for the carriage of large pieces of machinery.

8
1.5.5 Bales
For certain trades, the use of hessian-wrapped bales is suitable, particularly
when the product permits pressure baling or compression by banding. It is,
however, vulnerable to pilferage, damage by handling using hooks, etc.

1.5.6 Drums, barrels, casks

These are generally used for liquids such as latex, chemicals, whisky, detergents,
oil, molasses, casings, paints, powders, granules and other solids such as
chemicals, cement, some ores and scrap metal.

1.5.7 Shrink wrapping

Dry chemicals, granular and powdered substances in bags cannot be easily
strapped on to a pallet. When these items have to be unitized, bags are stowed
on the pallet and interlocked; a polythene sheet of suitable gauge is then draped
over the bags. This unit is then passed through a tunnel oven where polythene is
heat-sealed tight, binding the bags to the pallet to form a good unit load.

1.5.8 Lift vans

When household goods such as tables, chairs, cupboards, glassware,
brassware, etc., have to be moved, especially from one country to another,
they have to be packed in ‘lift vans” which are unit loads specially built for the
purpose. They are generally made of wood, lined with waterproof material on all
sides and additional metallic proofing on the roof to prevent damage by rain and
sun. These units are made to be handled by forklift trucks and packed in ISO 20
feet containers.

1.5.9 Preservation against corrosion

Machinery when being packed for export by sea has to be preserved against
humidity and corrosion. All the open parts are chemically treated and sometimes
greased. The best preservation is to vacuum-seal the machine. The machine
is covered by high density polythene which is draped over the unit and heat-
sealed. A vacuum pump then draws the air out of the polythene and the machine
is preserved for as long as one year under vacuum. In lift vans and other
packaging, silica gel in sufficient quantity is used, depending on the volume of
the package.

1.5.10 Special cargo

There are also various other types of packages designed for special commodities
moving by different forms of transport. For example, there are special types of

9
packages for air shipments of commodities like fresh vegetables, meat etc. Again
the unit load device (ULD) system adopted for air transport includes containers
of metal and fibre-glass as well as light weight pallets. In regard to shipments of
ready made clothes, the latest development, garments on hangers (GOH), is that
they are carried on hangers inside containers for delivery in the same condition
as they are booked to the consignees premises and from there to the department
stores at their destination.

Special cargoes fall Into the following categories:

1.5.10.1 Bulk commodities - heavy equipment, machinery, etc.

Bulk commodities like ore and food grains, heavy equipment and machinery,
locomotives and structures, do not require packing. They require suitable vessels
with suitable handling gear and the like.

1.5.10.2 Goods of high value

Goods of high value such as gold and platinum in all forms, coins, jewellery,
live animals, legal banknotes, securities, at present are mostly moved by air.
They need special care and protection. Direct delivery to the vessel and direct
collection upon arrival of the vessel is advisable.

1.5.10.3 Perishables and refrigerated cargo

Perishables and refrigerated cargo like fruits, fresh vegetables, cheese and meat,
are usually carried in suitable ventilated packages in temperature-controlled
holds or in thermal containers. Loading or unloading operations in respect of
such cargoes have to be carried out quickly or on a priority basis when the vessel
calls at the port, and this is an aspect to which freight forwarders need to pay
special attention.

1.5.10.4 Live animals

The carriage of live animals requires special arrangements, such as the erection
of cages, the provision of necessary attendants as well as the right type and
amount of animal food. Possible quarantine regulations in the countries of origin
and destination must be taken into consideration.

1.5.10.5 Dangerous/Hazardous cargo

This kind of cargo requires special packing, marking and labelling which is a task
undertaken by the shippers themselves.

PACKING PRINCIPLES RELATING TO CARGO IN CONTAINERS

The principles below are applicable to cargo stowage in containers carried by

sea, air, road or rail. This topic will be further discussed and illustrated in the
relevant modules on the carriage of goods by sea, by air and by road and rail.

10
There are a number of basic principles applicable to the stowage of all cargo into
containers. The maxim which summarizes this set of principles is: safe container
transport depends chiefly on a correct and immovable stow and even weight
distribution.

— Either the containers must be stowed tightly so that lateral and longituding
movement of the cargo within it is impossible;
— Or else the cargo must be effectively restrained.

1.5.11 Tight stowage

This can be achieved by making the shape and the dimensions of the package
an optimum module of the container or making the base of a unit load a module
of the container.

1.5.12 Restraint
It is always necessary to restrain the cargo for one or more of the following
reasons:

—- To prevent collapse of the stow while packing, unpacking, or during transit

(e.g., roll of linoleum on end),
To stop any movement during transit of part-loads or of single heavy items
(e.g., large pieces of machinery — the heavier the item the more damage
it will do if allowed to move; and
— To prevent the lace of the stow collapsing and leaning against the
container doors to fall out when the doors are opened at the final
destination or for customs inspection.

1.5.13 Methods of securing cargo

The more common methods of securing cargo are:

Shoring — bars, struts and spars located in the cargo voids to keep the
cargo pressed against the walls or other cargo.
Lashing — ropes, wires, chains, strapping or netting secured to proper
anchoring points and tensioned against the cargo.
Wedging — Wooden distance pieces, pads of synthetic material, inflatable
dunnage to fill voids in the cargo and keep it immobile against
the container walls.
Locking — Cargo built up to give a three-dimensional brick wall effect.

11
1.5.14 Aids to good securing
There is no simple formula to follow when securing cargo. Each stow must be
treated on its own merits — the type of cargo, the way it is stowed, the equipment
available, or the permanent fittings in the container. But the following points
would be borne in mind when applying restraint:

Always use the built-in securing points which are provided. For obvious reasons
comply with the safe loading limitation on the securing points.

Any timber used — i.e., dunnage or filler pieces — should be dry. It may also
have to comply with certain quarantine regulations in force.

If nails have to be used to secure cargo to a wooden floor, they should only
penetrate about two-thirds the thickness of the floor to achieve adequate grip
without total penetration. Holes must not be drilled in walls or floor. Never use
nails in a reefer container (a refrigerated Container).

Any shoring which presses against the container wall should have extra timber
laid longitudinally between the wall and point of support to spread the weight over
two or, more side posts.

Useful filler pieces for wedging or preventing rubbing, sometimes called chafe,
are old tyres, paper pads softened by soaking (macerated) or, for light packages,
rolled-up card Soard.

Unless an identical stow is anticipated on the return journey (known as a

closed circuit operation) it is best if, when the lashing equipment is chosen, it is
considered re-usable.

1.5.15 How to restrain certain types of cargo

Top-heavy articles should be wedged, shored and lashed to prevent toppling.
Heavy weights should be secured to stout ring-bolts (sited in the container floor
and side walls) and/or be shored with timber. They should be chained or wired
with bottle-screws {e.g. 1/2 in chain; one and a quarter in bottle-screws; three ton
D shackles are adequate for lashing cargo up to 18 tons in weight).

Resilient loads can cause lashings to slacken — this may sometimes be

overcome by introducing elasticity (e.g., rubber rope) into the lashing pattern.

No securing of pallets is necessary (provided the load is properly secured to

the pallet) if the distance between pallets and container walls is 4" (100 mm) or
less. Pallets must not be allowed any longitudinal movement. If it is necessary to
secure them, stow the pallets against the container walls and wedge wood blocks
between the pallets. It may be necessary to insert sheets of board between the
pallet toads to protect them against chafing and prevent bags, cartons, etc.,
interweaving and jamming the stowage.

12
1.5.16 Stowage precautions
In the majority of cases, there is a space (1" to 24") left between the face of the
cargo and the container doors. It is important that the cargo does not collapse
into this space. It can be prevented in a variety of ways, such as:

(a) Using suitably positioned lashing points with wire, rope, strapping, etc.,
woven across;
(b) Inserting a simple wooden gate for the wider gaps and heavier cargo; and
(c) providing filler pieces i.e., macerated (water-softened) paper pads, wood
wool pads made of fine shavings and used for packing, etc., for narrower
gaps and lighter cargoes (like cartons of biscuits).
It is also important to ensure that the cargo does not fall out when the container
doors are opened. This is particularly relevant to a container which has been
completely packed (as with cartons or sacks). Although this can sometimes
be achieved by interlocking tiers of packages, it is better to use the fixing
points located in the door posts of general cargo container. Nylon strapping in
polypropylene cord or wire (1/4" diameter or less) threaded through these points
forms an effective barrier.

Other stowage precautions to be taken are:

— Securing the goods in their packages and making the pack itself as full as
possible so as to resist external pressures.
— Making packages sufficiently rigid to withstand the weight imposed upon
them when stacked to a minimum height of 8 ft.
Making sure, if more than one type of cargo is stowed in a container,
that they are compatible and cannot cause contamination or become
contaminated.
— Placing heavy items and liquids at the bottom, with light and dry items on
the top.
Within practical physical limitations of handling, the unit package should be as
large as possible since this can reduce costs by up to 20 per cent and increase
the efficiency in volume by up to 10 percent.

— Where relevant, stowing should be carried out in a sequence which will

permit rapid checking and storage operations during and after unloading.
Should the consignment include cargo subject to customs pre-entry
procedures, customs examination would be made easier and unloading
avoided if the cargo were stowed at the end of the container by the door.
— One should try to arrange for any unavoidable gap in the stowage to
be along the centre line of the container and not at the sides. It is much
easier and cheaper to restrain the shifting of cargo in this way.

13
A lighted cigarette end can destroy the contents of a container and even
endanger the ship. When stowing a container the rule should therefore be NO
SMOKING.

1.5.17 Load factors

Heavy loads must be assessed according to their shape, dimension and weight.
However, as a guide, the weight or loads should be distributed over the container
floor by means of suitable bearers or dunnage as follows:

1.5.17.1 Width: distribution should be over the entire width of the container;

1.5.17.2 Length :each ton weight of cargo should be spread over at least
two floor members which run transversely under the container floor at 1 foot
centres (e.g., a 13 ton integral toad would require to be distributed over 14 floor
members i.e., 14 feet run of container floor).

The total load should be distributed as evenly as possible, but in certain

circumstances the closed end half of the container can carry more than 65 per
cent, or conversely the door-end half more than 60 per cent, of the total load.

Check Your Progress 2 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
Mention two precautions each required for securing and stowage of cargo?

14
 PART II:
MARKING AND LABELLING

1.6 PROCESES OF MARKING

AND LABELLING
The package should be marked and labeled for purposes of correct identification
so as to help to move the cargo rapidly, smoothly and safely to its final
destination and enable the checking of cargo against documents.

1.7 STANDARD SHIPPING MARKS

The marking on the packages, called shipping marks serves as identification
marks for carriers and those engaged in the handling of the package at all stages
of transportation, as well as for the consignee at destination. It also enables
checking of the consignment against the documents. The marks should be
stenciled in bold letters and figures on the sides and on the top of the packages
so that the packages can be spotted and recognized at a distance. The marking
and labeling should be simple and incorporate all essential details, but, at the
same time, should avoid non-essential details which would only lead to mistakes,
confusion and shipment delays. In the carriage of goods by rail, full address is
required on all packages. This is also the conventional practice for road transport.

Efforts made by international agencies have brought about the use of simplified
and standardized shipping marks for use on packages and in documents for all
modes of transport.

The standard shipping marks are made up of the following four elements in the
sequence indicated and should be shown both on packages and in documents.

Examples

1. Initials or consignee’s name N.T.C.

2. Reference number 01608
3. Destination Kuala Lumpur
4. Package number 1/8

If transit points are involved, these may also be indicated. A typical ocean
shipping mark for this example is:

N.T.C.
01608
Kuala Lumpur via Port Klang
1/8

15
INFORMATION MARKS

Additional information such as weight, country of production of the goods may be

marked on the packages if considered necessary

1.8 CARGO HANDLING INSTRUCTIONS

Cargo handling instructions for cargo handling marks providing guidance for
handling packages (heavy packages, packages containing fragile cargo, etc.) are
also required to be displayed on the packages but sufficiently separate from the
shipping marks to avoid confusion.

Handling instructions should always be printed on the outer package in the

language of the country of destination in order to ensure that they are understood
by freight handlers there. The seven symbols depicted below have been adopted
internationally and may be used.

A package containing both shipping marks and handling symbols is illustrated

below:-

16
1.9 SIMPLER SHIPPING MARKS

1.9.1 BACKGROUND
1.9.1.1 The purpose of shipping marks is to identify cargo and help move it
rapidly, smoothly and safely without delays or confusion to its final destination,
as well as to enable the checking of the cargo against documents. However,
in some instances shipping marks have become so lengthy and detailed that
the sides of packages can no longer hold them. It has been said that packages
become documents. The result is unnecessary costs, mistakes, confusion and
shipment delays and the purpose of shipping marks is lost.

1.9.8.2 Shipping marks differ widely between countries and between modes of
transport. It is clear that simple and consistent standards for shipping marks
should be established, given the increasing volume of international trade, the
advent of multimodal and combined transport, the growing need to manage such
data for the best use in modern systems and automatic data-processing facilities,
and increasing cost-consciousness.

1.9.8.3. Some of the benefits of such standardization are:

— Reduce cost: Each character eliminated from Shipping marks saves

time and money in marking goods, in typing documents, transcribing
information and in computer usage.
— Quicker checking of cargoes and documents: When for instance, this
occurs in cargo tallying and checking of documentary credits, it leads to a
quicker turnaround of vessels and improved cash flow.
— Increased safety: by using internationally recognized symbols for handling
instructions and danger warnings.
— Trouble-free delivery of goods: The purpose of shipping marks in fulfilled;
the delays and other difficulties caused through lengthy, complex marks
are avoided.
Examples

Complicated Shipping Mark Simple Shipping Mark

ASSOCIATED BUYING CORPORATION LTD. ABC
MUMBAI INDIA 1234
CONTACT NO.1234 MUMBAI
IMPORT LICENCE NO. SA-100-77-35790
PACKAGE NO. 1 OF 25 1/25
DESTINATION: MUMBAI INDIA
NET WEIGHT: 401 KGS
GROSS WEIGHT: 462 KGS
DIMENSIONS; 105 CML X 90 CMW X 62 CMH
CONTRACTOR: STANDARD TRADING CO. LTD.
TOKYO JAPAN

17
MADE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

1.9.8.4 Following detailed research carried out in several countries, in particular

in France Japan, Sweden, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland, an the United States of America, and in co-operation with international
organization such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
and the International Cargo Handling Co-ordination Association (ICHCA), it was
agreed to put forward recommendation setting out :

— A standard Shipping mark for marking on packages and for reproduce in

documents.
— Information Marks for providing any necessary additional information
packages only.
— Cargo Handling Marks using internationally-recognized symbols for
handling instructions and danger warnings.
1.9.8.5 CSC (Convention for Safe Containers) Plate

CSC, or the International Convention for Safe Containers, incorporates design

requirements, minimum functionality requirements, and measurements of
capacity, weight, and resistance to the forces containers are subjected to when
they ship by sea or on land within ships, trains, or trucks. The goal of CSC is to
formalize international safety requirements for structural design and consistent
inspection and maintenance of cargo containers. Overall, CSC ensures
containers are built safely and inspected on a consistent basis to keep workers
as safe as possible.

Manufacturers should fasten CSC plates to each container they produce at the
time it is manufactured. Typically, CSC plates are bolted to the exterior of the

18
container’s left door. Each CSC plate must contain the following information
either in French or English:

OO The words “CSC SAFETY APPROVAL”

OO The country of approval and approval reference
OO The month and year of manufacture
OO The manufacturer’s ID number of the container or the number allotted by
the administration if the existing container number is unknown
OO The maximum gross weight in kilograms and pounds
OO The allowable stacking weight for 1.8 g in kilograms and pounds
OO The racking test load value

Additional information that typically is included on the CSC plate is the container
owner’s name and contact information, the timber treatment information, and the
container’s inspection date.

1.9.8.6 It was recognized that shipping marks are mostly required by

importers. While the recommendation is particularly directed at them, especially
their purchase and do monetary credit departments, it applies equally to
other responsible for the mark handling and documentation — for example,
government offices and agency international organizations, trading companies
manufacturers, export packers, warehousemen, freight forwarders, groupage and
inland clearance depot operators, vendors, port authorities, carriers by any mode
of transport, as well as and tallying institutions.

II. SCOPE
1.9.8.7 This recommendation aims at establishing a standard
consignment identify the form of a simplified and standardized shipping mark, for
marking on pack; and for reproduction in documents. It also aims at establishing
rules for the information marks and draws attention to internationally-recognized
symbol handling instructions and danger warnings.

Check Your Progress 3 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
What is the process of labeling and marketing?

19
1.9 LET US SUM UP
The three basic functions of packaging are the three Ps - protection, preservation
and presentation. A package should protect and preserve the contents during
storage and transit from the manufacturing to the consuming centre. Presentation
is also used as a marketing tool - to attract the eye of the customer or consumer
to the product.
The choice of the method and material used for packing should not only be
suitable to achieve the functions of packaging, but also be able to afford
easy handling of the product in transit, and storage. It should also be cost
effective, and not add to the cost of distribution unnecessarily. The mode of
packaging a product also depends on the quality and quantity of the product.
For example, fragile products need to be packed in strong material to protect
the cargo from damage.
The labeling and marking of the packages should be easily identifiable, so as
to distinguish the package from other manufacturers or transporters. It should
be complete so as to identify the package, and to assist in transit from origin to
destination. It should also facilitate 'connecting' the package in case of loss or
mis-despatch of the cargo by wrong mode or to wrong destination. The marking
should also indicate whether the cargo is fragile, dangerous or hazardous,
requiring any special precautions while handling.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:POSSIBLE ANSWERS

CYP 1 :

a. The three basic functions of packaging are the three Ps - protection,

preservation and presentation.
b. Small size packages needs to be consolidated into one package for easy
handling. Powdered material requires flexi multi wall bags for export,
regulations and destination kindly need to be taken into consideration.
CYP 2 :
a. For Securing, always use the built-in securing points which are provided.
For obvious reasons comply with the safe loading limitation on the
securing points. Any timber used — i.e., dunnage or filler pieces —
should be dry. It may also have to comply with certain quarantine
regulations in force.
b. For Stowage, following preventions should be used
i. using suitably positioned lashing points with wire, rope, strapping,
etc., woven across;
ii. Inserting a simple wooden gate for the wider gaps and heavier cargo
CYP 3 :
The package should be marked and labeled for purposes of correct identification
so as to help to move the cargo rapidly, smoothly and safely to its final
destination and enable the checking of cargo against documents.

20
 6
u
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Institute of Rail Transport
Cargo and
s i

La Fkku

irt
jy

ub Z
fnY y h
Container
Handling

UNIT-2
Handling and Transport of
Dangerous Cargo

Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 What are Dangerous Goods ?
2.2 Classification of dangerous goods as per Red Tariff
2.2.1 Explosives
2.2.2 Gases, Compressed, liquefied, or dissolved under pressure
2.2.3 Petroleum and other inflammable liquids
2.2.4 Inflammable solids
2.2.5 Oxidizing substances
2.2.6 Poisonous (Toxic) substances
2.2.7 Radioactive materials
2.2.8 Acid and other corrosives
2.3 IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations
2.4 Responsibilities of Consignor and Freight Forwarder
2.5 Shippers Declaration for Transport of Dangerous Goods
2.6 Trained Personnel
2.7 Rights, Duties and Responsibilities
2.7.1 For Carriage by Road
2.7.2 For Carriage by Rail
2.7.3 For Carriage by Sea
2.7.4 For Carriage by Air
2.8 Let us Sum Up
Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

21
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have gone through this unit, you should be able to:

OO Describe marking used for different classes of dangerous goods.

OO Describe IMDG code, IATA Regulations and Red Tariff

2.1 What are dangerous goods ?

Substances which possess risk of explosion or fire or both.

Authorized explosives listed in Red Tariff permitted to be carried by Rail subject

to fulfillment of conditions and observance of rules.

2.2 Classification of dangerous

goods as per Red Tariff
2.2.1 Explosives

OO Gunpowder
OO Nitrate Mixture
OO Nitro Compounds
OO Chlorate Mixture
OO Fulminate
OO Ammunition
OO Fireworks etc.

2.2.2 Gases, Compressed, liquefied, or

dissolved under pressure
OO Coal gas
OO Nitrogen
OO Oxygen
OO Neon
OO Ammonia
OO Ethylene
OO Hydro-cyanic acid

22
OO Liquid Oxygen
OO Liquid Helium etc.

2.2.3 Petroleum and other inflammable

liquids
OO Petrol
OO Motor sprit
OO Crude oil
OO Benzene
OO Amyl Alcohol
OO Ether
OO Fusel oil etc.

2.2.4 Inflammable solids

OO Aluminum Powder
OO Magnesium Powder
OO Zinc Dust
OO Benzyl Peroxide
OO Carbide of calcium
OO Carbon black etc.

2.2.5 Oxidizing substances

OO Barium Peroxide
OO Bleaching Powder
OO Calcium Nitrate
OO Chlorate of Potash etc.

2.2.6 Poisonous (Toxic) substances

OO Acid Carbolic
OO Acid sulphamic
OO Oxalate of Potash
OO Titanium Potassium oxalate

23
OO Weed killer
OO Aniline salt
OO Arsenic etc.

2.2.7 Radioactive materials

OO Antimony
OO Barium
OO Carbon
OO Calcium
OO Cobalt
OO Mercury

2.2.8 Acid and other corrosives

OO Acetyl Chloride
OO Acetic Acid
OO Chromic Acid
OO Formic Acid
OO Nitrate Acid
OO Hydrochloric Acid
OO Sulfuric Acid etc.

Dangerous goods are articles and substances with hazardous properties. They
can be safety carried by Air, Rail, Road, Sea and inland waterways provided they
have been properly:-

Identified Classified Packed Marked Labeled Documented as per

INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS.

Basically, the provisions of all International Regulations with regard to carriage

of dangerous goods as well as the recommendations of the United Nations
Committee are more or less the same. There are different regulations for carriage
of such goods by Road, Rail, Sea and Air.

Regulations under which the transportation of dangerous goods is governed are:-

Accord Dangerous Routier

In short known as ADR is applicable in the case of carriage of dangerous goods

by Road.

24
Regdement International Dangeroux

In Short known as RID is applicable for carriage of dangerous goods by Rail.

International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code

In short known as IMDG Code is applicable for carriage of goods by sea.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has framed the International

Maritime Dangerous goods (IMDG) Code to assist compliance with the general
requirements of the International Convention for safety of life at Sea (SOLAS)
regarding the carriage of dangerous goods by sea.

2.3 IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations

In short known as DGR are applicable for carriage of dangerous goods by Air.
These have been framed by International Air Transport Association.

All the above mentioned regulations as well as the recommendations of the UN

Committee of Experts on dangerous goods are similar and these contain rules
regarding classification, packing, marking, labelling and storage. In regard to the
transportation of dangerous goods, they provide for special precautions to be
taken, depending upon the nature of the goods and the degree of hazards they
can cause.

Based on these regulations and recommendations, the individual Rail, Road.

Port and Government authorities have framed their own regulations governing
the transport of dangerous goods.

Even though the various DG regulations stated earlier, have assigned the
responsibility to the shipper/consignor of making proper, correct and necessary
declaration in respect of all shipments of dangerous goods, but the Freight
Forwarders and employees of the carriers i.e., Road Transport, Railways,
Shipping and Airlines are not relieved from this responsibility.

2.4 Responsibilities of Consignor and

Freight Forwarder
Normally in International Trade, it is a Freight Forwarder (in India also known
as Custom House Agents (CHA) handle clearance and booking with carriers of
all export/import shipments. These include handling of shipments of dangerous
goods as well.

It is true that a Freight Forwarder or employees of Carriers are not responsible for
the correctness of the declaration made by the shipper but they must provide the

25
necessary guidance and assistance to the shipper in furnishing the particulars.

If there are any doubts in relation to any substance, the shipment must not be
accepted for carriage before necessary investigations are made.

A Freight Forwarder/carrier may even have to contact the manufacturers of the

article or any other appropriate authority to obtain all necessary information
required to ensure that the shipment is safe for carriage. It must always be
remembered that the safety of the carrier is more important than any commercial
aspect.

2.5 Shippers Declaration for

Transport of Dangerous Goods
Shipper's declaration for Transport of Dangerous goods (in short known as SDT)
will be filled, signed by the shipper and handed over to a Freight Forwarder/
Carrier along with forwarding instructions, whenever the transport of dangerous
goods is involved. This document provides detailed information, including
information regarding the classification of dangerous goods according to the
regulations concerning the transport of such goods.

The document contains the following information:

a) Shippers name and address;

b) Name of forwarder;
c) Mark and numbers, numbers and kind of packages - technical name of
substances;
d) Gross and Net Weight and quantity;
e) Classification or characteristics;
f) Remarks;
g) Place and date of issue; and
h) Shipper's stamp and signature.

The above document is prescribed by FIATA International Federation of Freight

Forwarders Associations.

However, in the case of shipments by Air the Declaration has to be in the format
as per annexure-l (prescribed by Airlines).

This declaration by Shipper enables the carrier to provide special stowage. This
also gives information to the Captain of the vessel or Aircraft as to the nature of
dangerous goods he is carrying and helps him to take all precautions during the
journey thus ensuring safety of the carrier, crew and the passengers.

26
2.6 Trained Personnel
Only the Carrier's or Freight Forwarder's Staff who have been properly trained in
handling of Dangerous goods should be authorized to deal with the acceptance,
Handling, Warehousing and Stowage of such shipments.

It is, therefore, a must for every Freight Forwarder and Carrier to have their staff
to undergo Training and Refresher courses in Dangerous goods handling and to
ensure using the current and updated DG Regulations.

2.7 Rights, Duties and Responsibilities

The Carrier rights, duties responsibilities and liabilities for carriage of such goods
are governed and determined by applicable National Laws of each country in
addition to various International Conventions and regulations as amended from
time to time, which are as under-

2.7.1 For Carriage by Road

CMR Convention (Convention de Merchandises Par Route).

2.7.2 For Carriage by Rail

i) CIM Convention (Convention International concernant le Transport
des Merchandises par Chemius de Fer) This convention has, however,
remained essentially a European Convention.
ii) COTIF (Latest Convention on Rail Transport).
iii) The Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Convention on Civil Liability
for damage caused during the carriage of dangerous cargo by Road,
Rail and Inland Waterways, applies to claims (other than claims arising
out of any contract of carriage) for damage caused during the carriage of
dangerous goods by road, rail or inland waterways.

The liability of the carrier for claims arising from any one incident is normally
limited and the convention makes it compulsory on the part of the carrier to
cover his liability by insurance or provide other financial securities such as
bank guarantees. The contracting states are made responsible for ensuring
compliance with this requirement.

2.7.3 For Carriage by Sea

The Hague Rules, The Hague Visby Rules, The Hamburg Rules 1978 and
Rotterdam Rules.

27
2.7.4 For Carriage by Air
The Warsaw Convention, 1929 as amended from time to time. Classification of
Dangerous Goods By Air Dangerous Goods are divided into 9 classes and have
been arranged for convenience by the type of hazard involved. They are:-

1. Explosives
2. Non-Flammable Compressed Gas & Flammable Compressed Gas.
3. Flammable Liquid.
4. Flammable Solids.
5. Oxiders/Organic Peroxides.
(Oxidising Drugs-Chlorates, Nitrates)
6. Poisonous Toxic
7. Radioactive Materials
8. Corrosive Material
9. Miscellaneous Dangerous Goods

2.7.5 Laws governing Carriage of Goods in

India
Goods can be carried by land (including inland waterways), sea, air or a
combination of all these modes of transportation (multimodal transport system).

Different laws govern such different modes of carriage of goods:-

For carriage of goods by land:

– Carriage by Road Act, 2007;

– The Railways Act, 1989.
For carriage of goods by air:

– The Carriage by Air Act, 1972.

For carriage of goods by sea:

– The (Indian) Bills of Lading Act, 1856;

– The Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 1925;
– The Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.

For multimodal transportation of goods:

– The Multimodal Transportation of Goods Act, 1993.

28
2.7.6 Commercial Courts Act, 2015
The Commercial Courts, Commercial Division and Commercial Appellate Division
of High Courts Act , 2015

Under Section 12, the Specified Value of the subject-matter of the commercial
dispute in a suit, appeal or application is determined in the following manner –

a) where the relief sought is for recovery of money, the money sought to be
recovered in the suit or application inclusive of interest, if any, computed
up to the date of filing of the suit or application;
(b) where the relief sought relates to movable property or to a right therein,
the market value of the movable property as on the date of filing of the
suit, appeal or application; Disputes arising out of carriage of goods,
mostly pertain to recovery of money as– compensation towards loss,
damage or destruction of goods, or towards indemnity. Some disputes
also arise out right to lien of the carrier, or an injunction against the carrier
from exercising his right to sell the goods. In such cases, the value of the
goods become relevant.

Check Your Progress 1 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
a. What are the types of classifications of dangerous goods?

b. Distinguish between IMDG Code & Red Tariff?

29
2.8 LET US SUM UP
Substances which possess risk of explosion or fire or both, are dangerous
goods. These goods require special care for transportation, so as to minimize the
risk of damage and injury to men and material. There is no prohibition on their
transportation, However, restrictions have been imposed on the transportation
of these goods in the form of several conditions that need to be fulfilled before
undertaking transportation. The restrictions are imposed by various statutes
and laws for transporatation of such goods by various modes of transportation.
Indian Railways classify and specify the conditions of packing, labeling, marking
and quantity of such goods that can be transported over the Railway system
in the RED TARIFF. Similarly, the INTERNATIONAL MARITIME DANGEROUS
GOODS (IMDG) CODE is applicable in case of transportation by sea vessels. Air
transportation is regulated by the IATA DANGEROUS GOODS REGULATIONS.
Responsibility has been cast on the consignors of such goods to ensure proper
declaration and fulfillment of conditions laid down for transportation of such
goods.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:POSSIBLE ANSWERS

CYP 1 :

a. Dangerous Goods are divided into 9 classes and have been arranged for
convenience by the type of hazard involved. They are:-
1. Explosives
2. Non-Flammable Compressed Gas & Flammable Compressed Gas.
3. Flammable Liquid.
4. Flammable Solids.
5. Oxiders/Organic Peroxides.

(Oxidising Drugs-Chlorates, Nitrates)

6. Poisonous Toxic
7. Radioactive Materials
8. Corrosive Material
9. Miscellaneous Dangerous Goods.
b. IMDG stands for International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code, which
is applicable for carriage of goods by sea. The International Maritime
Organization (IMO) has framed the International Maritime Dangerous
goods (IMDG) Code to assist compliance with the general requirements
of the International Convention for safety of life at Sea (SOLAS)
regarding the carriage of dangerous goods by sea. Where as Red Tariff

30
 authorized explosives permitted to be carried by Rail subject to fulfillment
of conditions and observance of rules. The goods can classified into
Explosives; Gases, Compressed, liquefied, or dissolved under pressure;
Petroleum and other inflammable liquids; Inflammable solids; Oxidizing
substances; Poisonous (Toxic) substances; Radioactive materials; Acid
and other corrosives.

31
32
 6
u
fjog l
Institute of Rail Transport
Cargo and
s i

La Fkku

irt
jy

ub Z
fnY y h
Container
Handling

UNIT-3
Operation and Maintenance Features of
Cargo Handling Systems

Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Chassis System
3.2 Straddle Carrier System
3.3 Fork Lift Truck System
3.4 Transtainer System
Chapter - 1 : Container Handling Systems
3.5 Introduction
3.6 The Terminal as a System
Chapter - 2 : Quayside Gantry Cranes
3.7 Introduction
3.8 Specifications
3.9 Operations
3.10 Performance
Chapter - 3 : Straddle Carriers
3.11 Introduction
3.12 Specifications
3.13 Operations
3.14 Performance
3.15 Maintenance
Chapter - 4 : Rubber Tyred Yard Gantry Cranes
3.16 Introduction
3.17 Specifications

33
3.18 Operations
3.19 Performance
3.20 Maintenance
Chapter - 5 : Rail-mounted Yard Gantry Cranes
3.21 Introduction
3.22 Specifications
3.23 Operations
3.24 Performance
Chapter - 6 : Terminal Tractors and Trailers
3.25 Introduction
3.26 Specifications
3.27 Operations
3.28 Performance
3.29 Maintenance
Chapter - 7 : Lift Trucks
3.30 Introduction
3.31 Specifications
3.32 Operations
3.33 Performance
3.34 Maintenance
3.35 Let us Sum Up
Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have gone through this unit, you should be able to:
OO Appreciate the need for different cargo handling system.
OO Describe different types of Cargo Handling Equipments.
OO Distinguish between the needs of handling different types of cargo
differently.
ABSTRACT

1) Chassis system (Trailer System)

2) Straddle Carrier System
3) Fork lift truck system
4) Transtainer system

3.1 Chassis System

In this system containers are transferred in the Seaport to and from Rail wagons
and inland Waterway transport by means of hoisting equipment e.g., straddle
carriers, mobike and transtainer cranes and put on a chassis. Containers are

34
carried by road to the ICFS on chassis, so no extra hoisting equipment is
required. The container remains on the chassis during all activities (Stuffing,
unstuffing, storage and transport). The advantages of the system are high
flexibility, speed of the terminal transport, random access to containers and low
ground pressures and consequently low requirements for Soil Conditions. The
disadvantages are large space requirements for stacking and the considerable
number of chassis required which should be provided by either the shipping
company or the road haulers. This type of operation is possible only with road
transport, otherwise lifting equipment should also be involved.

In another chassis system the chassis is only used for horizontal transport
between different locations restricted to the limits of the ICFS (ICD & CFS). This
avoids horizontal transport with expensive hoisting equipment which can be more
economically used for stacking and loading or discharge purposes.

3.2 Straddle Carrier System

The most commonly used handling system is straddle carrier system- The main
advantage of the system are good space utilisation, high flexibility, ability to meet
peak requirement, ability to handle all owing to the weight distribution over eight
wheels and compensating suspension system.

This equipment has a very high damage factor and needs intensive maintenance.

3.3 Fork Lift Truck System

The Fork lift truck system can be used at ICFS with a relatively low throughput
but the following draw- backs should be taken into consideration.

(a) productivity is lower than in the case of Straddle Carrier.

(b) Area requirements are high due to the necessity to provide sufficient
maneuvering space.
(c) Heavy pavement is required to withstand front axle loads of laden Forklift
trucks.

3.4 Transtainer System

This system is based either on Rubber tyred or Rail mounted transtainers.
The difference is that rubber tyred transtainers are mainly used for transfer of
containers in railway yards and stacking areas. This system is always used in
combination with horizontal transport of chassis and tractor.

35
3.5 Parts of the container

3.6 Container stowage plans

The Bay Plan is a numbering system that gives a cross-sectional view of the
arrangement of containers on a vessel above and below the deck. It consists of 6
digits.

The first two digits indicate the bay,

The middle two indicates the row and the last two represents the tier.

The bay plan will help to determine the correct stowage position of containers as
per the prepared cargo plan.

It is also vital to check that the IMDG containers are stowed in the correct
position strictly as per the plan.

The Bay A container vessel is split into slots or compartments called bays.
It starts from bay 01 from the bow and can continue till bay 40 to the stern
depending on the size of the vessel. A 20 footer container will occupy odd
numbered bays whereas 40 footer containers are numbered with even number
bays. When cargo operation is under progress, the deck crew reports to the
gangway watchman the number of the bay which is being discharged or loaded

36
so that a record can be maintained. Entries of the time of commence discharging
and loading operations are made in the cargo record book along with the bay
number.

The ROW is the position where the container is placed across the width of the
ship. If the container is placed on the centreline of the ship it is given a row 00. The
rows are even numbered on the port side like 02, 04, and 08 and so on while the
rows on the starboard side are given odd numbers like 01, 03, and 05 and so on.

TIER denotes the height of the containers on or under the deck. If the containers
are placed on the deck, their numbering normally starts from 8, 84, 86, 88 and
goes upwards starting from the first tier. The containers stowed under the deck
are numbered as 04, 06, 08 and so on commencing from the bottom.

3.7 Container securing

Deck fittings

2. flush deck fitting, flush deck insert, flush foundation, circular foundation, stud
bushing with plugging screw, screw plug,

37
5. socket, base stowing plate, base (… to be used with 21)

15. U-frame, shoe fitting, dovetailed base, companion fitting, dovetailed

foundation (… to be used with13,17) 22,24. keyhole inserts (sunken, flush,
raised),

Bottom fittings

1. pin bottom fitting, base stacking cone, cone plate, bottom stacking cone,
bottom locator (… to be used with 2)

21. bottom stacking cone {… to be used with 5,12,22,23).

23. guide cone,

Stacking and locking fittings

4. stacking cone, intermediate stacking cone, stacker, stacking stud,

11. locking cone, pinstacker (with locking pin),

1416,17. twist lock, twist locking cone,

20. spacer stacking cone, compensating cone, spacer fitting (with cone top and
bottom),

8,19,25. bridge fittings,

8. adjustable bridge fitting, clamp,

19. offset height clamp, compensatory bridge fitting, variable height clamp,

25. non-adjustable bruise fitting, double stacker, double intermediate stacking

Lashing points or lashing terminals

6. D-ring, lashing eye,

Lashing equipment

7,9 loadbinders,

7. chain lashing with chain lever,

9. lashing wire and turnbuckle,

18. bulkhead bridge fitting,

Other lashing equipment

10. lashing rod or bar, securing pads (penguin hook, elephant’s foot, eye hook),
webbing,

38
 CHAPTER - I
CONTAINER HANDLING SYSTEMS

3.8 Introduction
3.8.1 A considerable variety of equipment is used for handling containers
in ports and terminal design, layout and operations differ accordingly. At the
quayside, containers can be handled to and from the ships by jib cranes,
multipurpo.-1 cranes, gantry cranes and even mobile cranes. In the present
context we are concerned solely with purpose built container terminals handling
specialized container ships, and in that circumstance need only consider
quayside gantry cranes (also known as container cranes or by Paceco's brand
name 'Portainer'). Quay transfer may be handled by tractors towing trailers, by
straddle carriers or by heavy-duty lift-trucks ('front-end loaders'). In the container
yard, stacking and unstacking may be carried out by straddle carriers, yard
gantry cranes or a variety of lift-truck designs, while receipt delivery operations
may also involve those equipment types, as well as tractor-trailer systems.

3.8.2 In operational terms, it is usual and useful to think in terms of container

handling systems, each a combination of equipment types working together
to perform the shore side handling function. Six systems can be conveniently
distinguished:

3.8.2.1 the Tractor-trailer System, in which containers are both handled and
stored on 'over-the-road' chassis or terminal trailers, which are moved around the
terminal by heavy-duty tractor units:

3.8.2.2 the Straddle Carrier Direct System, in which quay transfer, stacking and
other duties are performed by straddle carriers;

3.8.2.3 the Straddle Carrier Relay System, in which straddle carriers are
responsible for in-yard stacking and unstacking, while quay transfer and other
movements are performed by tractor-trailer sets or other equipment;

3.8.2.4 the Yard Gantry System, where the container yard is equipped with
rubber tyred or rail-mounted gantry cranes for stacking/unstacking, with tractor-
trailer units for quay transfer and other movements;

3.8.2.5 the Front-end loader System, either entirely performed by heavy-duty lift-
trucks of one sort or another - a 'Direct' system or with other equipment for quay
transfer, in a 'Relay' system;

3.8.2.6 Combination Systems, various 'hybrid' combinations of straddle carriers,

yard gantry cranes and other equipment, with more than one type of stacking
equipment in use at a time, each carrying out a function to which it is best suited.

39
3.8.3 In the present context we are concerned with the major types of handling
equipment, rather than the details of the procedures and practices of handling
systems, and so, in the chapters that follow, we shall consider separately in
turn the following types of equipment: quayside gantry cranes, straddle carriers,
rubber- tyred yard ganty cranes, rail-mounted yard gantry cranes, terminal
tractors and trailers and lift-trucks (front-end loaders and reach-stackers).

3.9 The Terminal as a System

3.9.1 The distinctive feature of a specialized container terminal is its sheer
size; very large land areas are required for the stacking of containers and their
movement through the terminal. The quay wall, if the terminal is to accommodate
third-generation cellular container vessels, up to 290 m in length, is normally 300
m long for a single, deep-sea unit, while 500 and 750 m would be the respective
accepted lengths of two-unit' and 'three unit,, terminals. The water depth at the
quay must be sufficient to accommodate the draught of these large vessels up
to 12 m when fully loaded. On the quayside is a wide area for landing import
containers and marshalling export containers prior to loading; needs to be free
of obstructions, to allow the unimpeded movement of large units of equipment.
Behind the marshalling area is an extensive stacking area-the container Yard -
taking up to 60 or 70% of the total space of the terminal.

3.9.2 The container yard is used primarily to stack containers awaiting onward
movement. It is set out in series of well matted and numbered blocks, links
by access roadways and airways for the movement of equipment; the actual
layout of the yard depends on the type of handling equipment used. Some
stacking areas are set aside specifically for 'special' containers-, refrigerated and
controlled atmosphere, containers requiring an electricity supply, over height and
out-of-guage containers; hazardous cargo containers. Import and export areas
are distinguished, as areas for empties, to separate these activities as far as
possible.

3.9.3 Where a high proportion of LCLS ('less than container load* boxes) pass
through the terminal, a consolidation shed or container Freight Station (CFS
is commonly provided within the terminal) although the trend in Europe is to
move the CFS out of the terminal area altogether; there are good operational
arguments to support this. It a in the CFS that import LCLs are unpacked and the
separate consignments stacked for collection, and there at export consignments
are consolidated into empty containers.

3.9.4 Moment into and out of the terminal is via a gate complex, where
documentary, security and container inspection procedures are undertaken. A
rail reception/ dispatch terminal may also be located in some suitable area of
the container terminal. Good access roads and parking areas are provided, also
in some types of terminals, designated points (interchange areas or grids at
which road vehicles can deliver and or collect their containers.) Finally, there are

40
maintenance repair workshops, offices and a control room or tower from which
operations are coordinated and controlled. Weighbridges, trailer parks and other
miscellaneous facilities take up their space, too, so that the total surface area of
a container terminal is very extensive indeed.

3.9.5 Handling operations within a container terminal consist of a series of

distinct, inter-dependent activities, their nature depending on container status-
FCL ('Full Container Load'). LCL, Empty, Transit or Transshipment and the range
of services provided on the terminal:

3.9.5.1 The first activity, referred to as the Ship Operation, consists of

the loading and discharging of containers between the vessel and the quayside.
Since all incoming and outgoing containers must pass through the Ship
Operation, it ultimately determines terminal handling rates, and so it is often
referred to as the 'dominant system.'

3.9.4.2 Movement between the quayside and the container yard (most
container terminals do not load/discharge directly to/from inland transport
or waterborne craft) is known as the Quay Transfer Operation; its particular
significance is as a regulator of the Ship Operation - it has a direct influence on
ship loading and discharging rates.

3.9.4.3. Containers are generally stored temporarily in the container yard

while documentary, administrative and other formalities are completed; the
Storage Operation provides a buffer between the Ship Operation and the fourth
of the terminal's handling activities.

3.9.4.4 The Receipt/Delivery Operation, through which all FCL containers

flow, has become a particularly important terminal activity with the growth
of through -transit containers and 'intermodalism' (the direct movement of
containers, with their content intact, between different transport modes). In this
activity, containers are moved between the container yard and road, rail or inland
waterway interchange points, and then (in the case of road traffic) to the gate
complex, where terminal formalities are completed.

In addition to these four activities, LCL containers need to be moved from the
container yard to the CFS for unpacking and the empty boxes returned to the
'empties stack' while other empties are taken to the CFS for packing before
moving to the container yard prior to loading aboard a vessel. Clearly, a box is
handled several times during its transit through the terminal, the actual number of
movements depending on its type and status. Some terminals also store empty
containers returning to the port from the hinterland 'recirculation boxes'- to await
onward movement by sea as empties, or to be called for by a consignee and
packed up-country.

3.9.5 Clearly, container flow through a terminal is a complex series of

interconnecting activities or subsystems, together summarizable as the 'Terminal
System'. The output of the whole system is dependent on the capacity of the

41
weakest link in that chain, while the performance of each sub-system can be
markedly affected by that of the others; there is a great deal of interdependence
between all terminal activities. Not surprisingly, there is considerable variation
in performance between terminals, even those employing the same container-
handling systems - equipment specification is not the only determinant. There
are differences in traffic volumes and flows (e.g. import : export ratios) and also
considerable variation in the quality of management information, control and
supervisory procedures.

Check Your Progress 1 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
Briefly list out the handling operations activities at a Terminal?

42
 CHAPTER - 2
QUAYSIDE GANTRY CRANES

3.10 Introduction
3.10.1 Although portal, jib, multipurpose and even mobile cranes continue to
be used in seaports to transfer containers between ship and shore, specialized
gantry cranes become more and more necessary as box throughput increases
and larger cellular ships are handled. The massive quayside gantry crane, with
its typical ‘A1 frame, box-girder framework from which the (usually) lattice-
structure boom is suspended, is the most distinctive feature of a dedicated
container terminal. Whereas surface mobile handling systems offer considerable
variety and choice, the gantry crane remains the one constant element in lift-on-
lift-off Container operations.

3.10.2 The gantry crane’s function on the terminal is a pivotal one. the speed
with which it loads and discharges containers determines the ship handling
rate and sets an upper limit to the overall throughput of the terminal. The crane
cycle has to run smoothly and as nearly continuously as possible while the ship
is being worked: (in the loading cycle) pick up the export container from the
quay transfer equipment or the quay surface beneath the crane legs; transfer it
smoothly to the designated ‘slot’ on or below deck; land it carefully in the slot;
and return without delay for the next container The driver, in his cab below the
trolley, expertly controls the hoist, the travel to the cell guide or box position (his
cab following the box’s movement along the boom rails), the lowering into the slot
and the return, empty, to the quayside. The discharging cycle is, of course, the
reverse of this sequence.

3.10.3 Quayside gantry cranes had their origins in the mid 1950s, but the first
purpose-built container crane was installed in 1959 by Paceco. This crane, the

43
design of which was based on its earlier box girder, hammerhead crane, was
introduced for handling containers on the Pacific service then being pioneered
by the matson Navigation Company, the ‘A’-frame, box-girder construction of this
first gantry crane provided the basis for subsequent generations of cranes. In the
mid-1960s, containerization spread rapidly and international services opened up,
particularly the North Atlantic service of Sealand, and there was a considerable
increase in the number of container cranes purchased by ports. By today,
there are over 1100 gantry cranes of ‘portainers’ in service in the world’s ports.
Although initial development was in the USA, much of current manufacturing
capacity is in Europe and Asia (often under licence from US firms) and there
is now strong international competition for the supply of the 200 or so cranes
expected to be purchased over the next three or four years.

3.10.4 The development of gantry cranes has reflected the increasingly stringent
demands of seaport terminals and ship operators and the rapid technological and
size development of container ships. Cranes have become steadily bigger, faster
and more reliable, in their engineering design, much attention has been given to
stiffness and to metal fatigue. They require less maintenance and have become
increasingly automated. They have also become more expensive, with prices
currently in the range of US$3 million to $ 6 million, depending on specification.
The selection, ‘operation and maintenance of these assets have assumed
increasing importance for senior port and terminal managers and are of critical
significance in terminal development.

3.10.5 The typical mid-1960s crane has a capacity of about 30 tonnes under
the spreader, a wheelspan of about 15 meters and an outreach of 35 meters;
these parameters matched the dimensions of the largest container ships then
operating. Those early cranes were designed for a working life of about 600,000
container moves. During the 1970s, as container ships increased significantly in
size, so did the demand for cranes with larger capacity and greater efficiency and
reliability. The latest generation of gantry cranes has been constructed to handle
post-Panamax-sized vessels (i.e. ships with a beam of over 32.2 m) and to meet
terminal requirements into the 21st Century. They have a greater life expectancy
than the earliest cranes (up to 40 years - two to five million moves), with higher
resistance to metal fatigue (particularly from the effects of shock loading) built
into the structure.

The actual length of life of a current generation crane will, however, still depend
on the environment (particularly climatic) in which it operates, the quality o!
maintenance it receives, the skills of its drivers, the intensity o its use and the
details of its design and construction (e.g. the ability of it; drive systems to
withstand high accelerations and speeds, the quality of it electronic components).
To maximize working life, current models incorporate the latest in electronic
and automated control systems, fault diagnosis an condition reporting, and
effective safety systems. The time span between routine maintenance and major
overhauls has appreciably increased in recent years.

44
3.10.6 The most significant recent developments have been designed to
operating performance - crane cycle times have been speeded up and ‘
capacities have ‘.been increased. A relatively early attempt at this allow two 20’
containers to be lifted simultaneously from adjacent cells - the process of ‘twin
lifting’ A more recent (and more successful) development has be the introduction
of the ‘second trolley system’, which splits the crane cycle into a ship cycle and a
shore cycle; while the boom trolley handles containers to and from the shipboard
cells in the usual way, a second trolley system, situated between the legs of the
gantry, transfers containers between the terminal surface and a platform, which
then moves the box to the shipside of the portal, to await lifting by the ship cycle.
The second trolley, operating either manually or fully automatically, provides a
buffer to keep the boom trolley continuously active, and reduces the distance of
travel within the primary crane cycle. Second trolley systems are expensive, but
their introduction is expected to be cost-effective in high-throughput terminals.
Combined with increases in trolley travel and hoist speeds, such developments
have greatly reduced crane cycle times and have permitted handling rates of up
to 40 or even 50 boxes per hour under good operating conditions.

3.10.7 Other significant developments have taken place in spreader design,

reliability and life expectancy. Features of new spreaders include reduced weight
of major components, the provision of a 180° rotation ability, and a more rigid
design. Vulnerable electric/electronic and hydraulic components are now fully
enclosed for protection and the system is shock-mounted. Spreader lifespans of
2 million moves are now commonly predicted, and some manufacturers claim an
expected lifespan of 3.5 million moves.

3.11 Specifications
3.11.1 The basic structure of a gantry crane is not greatly different from that of
the first Portainers. The ‘A’-frame is usually still of single box-girder construction,
for its high strength - to - weight ratio, though many cranes have been built with
tubular, rather than square-section, legs, and both single-plate-girder and lattice-
frame booms are now in use in various individual designs. Most quayside gantry
cranes are electrically powered, either from the grid or from a local generator,
and only 15% of the present population is diesel-powered.

3.11.2 The main changes that have taken place are in size and lifting capacity,
as container loads and ship sizes have increased. Since a working life of 40
years or more is now envisaged for a ship-to-shore crane, it is clearly vital to
ensure that cranes purchased now are capable of meeting any future increases
in ship and container dimensions. Already, some container terminals have had
to refurbish and ‘stretch’ their gantry cranes (e.g. by ‘giraffing’ their legs) to meet
such changes, and many major terminals have guarded against premature
obsolescence by oversizing their most recently purchased gantry cranes, i.e.
buying bigger than was immediately needed.

45
The three critical; dimensions of a gantry crane from the operational point of view
are its lifting or hoisting capacity, its outreach and its air height. We shall consider
these in turn, together with the other dimensions that need to be looked at when
preparing crane specifications: backreach, wheelsoan, clearance between the
legs, overall length and clearance under the portal.

3.11.3 Lifting Capacity is expressed in either tonnes under the crane head’ or
‘tonnes under the spreader 1: the latter is more useful for operating purposes
since it takes account of the spreader beam itself, which can weigh up to
ten tonnes and thus reduces the rated capacity of the crane. Surveys by
Containerisation International in 1985 and 1987 (publications that we shall refer
to repeatedly) clearly indicate that the popularity of cranes with capacities up to
30 tonnes is on the wane and that the most popular size is already the 31 - 40
tonne range, with a clear trend towards equipment rated at 35-40 tonne Safe
Working Load (SWL). Cranes up to 55 tonnes capacity, particularly at new major
terminals, have been the new additions.

Although under current ISO conventions the maximum permitted payload of a

40' container is 30480 kg (approximately 30 tonnes), it is prudent to anticipate
that this will be increased during the life of a new crane, particularly if the ISO
endorses the 45', 48' and greater container lengths currently being discussed
and if high-cube boxes of 9' or 9’6" height become more common. Pressure from
ship operators to increase container lengths, widths and heights beyond ISO
dimensions is high. Operators also have to take account of overweight boxes
and the need to lift very heavy hatch covers with their quayside cranes (individual
covers weigh 30 tonnes or more). Cranes may also need to cope with the
occasional heavy lifts, with volumes and weights in excess of loaded containers,
and to allow ‘twinning’ - handling two loaded 20' boxes as one lift. Since 20'
boxes have a maximum permitted ISO weight of 24 tonnes, a lifting capacity
under the spreader of 48 tonnes is needed for the safe handling of twin lifts.
There is, of course, a cost penalty for over-capacity, and the extra cost has to be
balanced in each case against the hoped-for (but difficult to quantify) return.

3.11.4 Outreach is normally measured from the waterside crane rail to the
outermost point to which containers can be handled. This critically important
dimension is, of course, related td ship’s beam, and it is much more useful to be
given a figure for the true ‘reach over water’ or Operational outreach, derived by
deducting from the given outreach figure the distance between the waterside rail
and the quay wall, plus any allowance necessary for tendering,

The objective must be to select an operational outreach that ensures that

containers can be handled to and from the outermost cell of the largest vessel
to call at the port (unless port policy is \o turn the ship around at the berth or to
move containers from the outer cells by other means, e.g., shipboard cranes
or roller hatch covers). Until recently, nearly all ship-to-shore gantry cranes
had outreaches of below 40 meters, with the majority below 35 meters; ail third
generation cellular container ships have beams within the Panamax limits of
32.2 meters. However, major changes in the geography of liner trades and

46
ship routing, and in the size of vessels, have prompted the commissioning by
selected terminal operators of post-Panamax size cranes. The majority (65%)
of recent orders have been for cranes with outreaches of over 36 meters, with
a third of them having outreaches of over 40 meters. Recent installations by
European container terminus, Rotterdam, (ECT) and orders by other terminals
are for an outreach of up to 50 meters and an operational outreach of 40 meters;
such cranes are capable of handling vessels carrying 16 boxes athwartshtps on
deck (39.6 meters beam), which are expected to be used on major trade routes
in the 1990s and beyond. American president Lines (APL) has announced the
construction of five of such vessels.

3.11.5 Air height is the height of the spreader beam, in its highest lifting position,
above the waterline (more strictly above the level of High Water of Spring Tides).
A more practically useful measure, to operators particularly, is total Effective Lift,
the vertical distance over which the trolley and spreader unit can actually handle
and stow containers in the vessel. The crane must be able to lift containers
carried up to five (and possibly six) high on deck and to handle containers safely
into and out of the ‘bottom position of the cell guide system, often nine deep
below deck.

Although Air height and Total Effective Lift are the dimensions that are of major
importance operationally, they both depend on factors other than the dimensions
of the crane itself - height of the quay above high water of spring tides, the
tidal range, the size and loading of the ships calling at the port. The related
manufacturers’ specification measure is Lift Height Above the Quay; which is
not dependent on those ‘extrinsic’ factors. When specifying Lift Height Above
the Quay for a new crane, those physical conditions must be taken into account
by the planning team. Typical values for this dimension have been until recently
in the range 20-30 meters, and 54% of the present crane population have Lift
heights of up to 25 meters, 42% between 26 and 30 meters, with only 4% with
Lift Heights over 30 meters, -however, there is a clear trend towards greater
Lift Heights and 60% of recent orders have been “for cranes with Lift Heights
Above the Quay of 26-30 meters and 14% for over 30 meters, with 5% for over
35 meters. A Lift height Above the Quay of 30 meters, with a total Effective Lift
of 47m allows stacking up to 5 high on deck and 8 or 9 boxes under the deck
in post-Panarnax vessels, ports handling short-sea feeder services obviously
will not need such massive cranes; in each case, the Air Height and Lift Height
selected will depend on the service draught (and hence freeboard) of the vessels
expected and the height to which containers will be carried on and under deck.

3.11.6 Manufacturers also quote the related specification. Boom Clearance,

which gives the height of the boom above High Water of Spring Tides when in its
horizontal position. This is of concern when moving the crane between loading/
discharging positions, determining whether the boom has to be raised to pass
over ships’s masts, superstructure or funnel.

3.11.7 The backreach is the distance between the inboard crane rail and the
maximum landward position of the trolley and spreader, it varies between 8 and

47
30 meters, depending on operational needs; backreach must at least be sufficient
to allow hatch covers to be landed clear of the container pickup and delivery area
between the legs, and some terminals use the backreach area to land boxes that
are being shifted prior to re-loading.

3.11.8 The operational significance of Wheel span or Rail Gauge is that it must
be wide enough to allow uninterrupted movement of mobile equipment delivering
and picking up containers between the rail legs. From the point of view of
terminal development, wheel span is also significant in that it determines the
intensity of the wheel loading on the quay, Wheel spans used to be in the range
15 to 20 meters, but newer cranes (particularly those serving tractor-trailer trains)
have spans of up to 35 meters, allowing delivery/receipt from several trains at
a time, and space for through routes to other cranes working the same ship. A
wheel span of 30.5 meters seems to be common in recently installed quayside
gantry cranes.

3.11.9 Clearance Between the Legs has assumed greater importance with the
increasing use of non-ISO-standard boxes. Containers are normally carried on
board in the fore-and-aft orientation, so the distance between the ship legs must
be sufficient to enable 45', 48' and possibly longer containers t< pass between
them as they move between the quay and the ship; Clearing of 16 meters would
be sensible for future orders, to accommodate the new generation of containers,
as well as large hatch covers. This dimension doe: of course, affect the overall
length of the crane.

3.11.10 Overall Length is important when working a vessel with two or more
giant cranes, as it determines how closely together the cranes can work and with
adjacent bays can be loaded or discharged at the same time. Lengths of the
buffers vary between 22 and 35 meters; the smaller the overall length the more
flexible ship planning and crane deployment become.

3.11.11 Clearance Under the Portal, the vertical clearance beneath the legs,
is particularly significant in Straddle Carrier Direct operations. Clearly portal
clearance must be great enough to allow straddle carriers to pass under, to drop
or pick up containers. The earliest gantry cranes had quite low portals, and rising-
arch straddle carriers (see Chapter 3} were used to work below them. In Japan,
low-portal gantries are still common, and low or rising-arch straddle carriers are
still in demand there. Clearance under the portal of current gantry cranes ranges
from 8 to 13.5 meters, sufficient to accommodate one-over-one and one-over-two
straddle carriers respectively.

3.11.12 Selecting a suitable gantry crane is not, of course, simply a matter of

choosing the largest available. Cost considerations, and return on investment,
are crucial, and there are also significant civil engineering implications: the latest
gantry cranes, capable of handling Fourth Generation vessels, and incorporating
second trolley systems, weigh up to 1250 tonnes (compared with 400 tonnes for
the earliest types), and impose static loadings of about 80 tonnes per wheel on
the quay surface. Very special and extremely expensive construction methods

48
are needed to support such cranes, often with load-spreading concrete and steel
structures within the ground below the rails and in the quay wall, to disperse the
load as much as possible.

3.12 Operations
3.12.1 Gantry cranes serving the Ship Operation are in many ways the key
element of the Terminal System. The Crane Cycle is carried out in four stages:
for exports, the container is picked up by the spreader from between the crane
legs (either from a tractor-trailer set or from the quay surface, where it has been
placed by a straddle carrier or lift-truck), is conveyed over the ship’s rail to the
appropriate cell guide or slot position, and is lowered into that position, leaving
the spreader (after release) to be returned to the quay, where the next box is
waiting. For imports, the first stage is the attachment of the spreader to the box
in its stowed position, followed by its transfer to the quay and its lowering onto a
trailer or onto the quay surface; the spreader is then returned over the ship’s rail
to the position of the next box to be discharged. In ‘double-lift1 operations, after
depositing the export box the spreader moves to the slot of an import container in
a cell in the same bay, and lifts that out of the ship on the return leg of the cycle;
an even more rapid and efficient mode of operation but one which, for operational
reasons, is not widely practiced.

The crane is also frequently used to lift the heavy hatch covers over the ship’s
side and to place them on the marshalling area below the backreach of the
crane - and in, due course, to replace them when the Ship Operation has been
completed.

3.12.2 The other movement of the crane is the traverse along its rails, from one
loading/discharging position to another. As a cable-powered gantry crane travels,
it picks up (ahead of it) or lays down (behind it) its power-supply cable, which lies
in a trough alongside the crane rails. Other types pick up their power supply from
an underground bar system.

3.12.3 Operating Costs of quayside gantry cranes in Europe are of the order of
$400,000/annum (about 10% of purchase price), of which about 65% ($260,000)
is accounted for by labour costs, and 25% by maintenance (excluding major
overhauls and refurbishment), while power and lubricants contribute about 10%
of the costs. In developing countries, although local labour costs, might be lower,
annual operating costs are much the same because manning levels are higher,
the cost of spare parts is much higher, and there is a frequent need to import
maintenance technicians from overseas.

3.12.4 Although some terminal operators allocate one driver per shift to each
crane, the more common Manning practice is to provide two drivers and allow
them to interchange. About 58% of terminals transfer drivers between quay
cranes and other duties during a shift; a common practice is to alternate between
crane driving and checking, providing variety in the work programme and

49
reducing the periods of deep concentration. Typically, drivers spend a maximum
of two hours in the cab at a time during a 7.5-8 hour shift, with one refreshment
break of about 30 minutes; breaks should be staggered to keep operations going.

3.12.5 Careful selection of gantry crane drivers is extremely important, and there
is a crucial inventory of necessary skills, aptitudes and physical attribute. Apart
from good general health and fitness, high visual acuity and depth (distance)
perception are essential; the cab is situated some 20-30 meters above the
quay surface, and the driver must be able to position container; accurately on
quay transfer equipment and into the ship’s cell guides. Excellent powers of
concentration are needed, as driving is a demanding job in itself apart from the
strain of continuous communication with other operators and supervisory staff
and the absorption of a great deal of information horn voice and data links. A
high level of hand-eye coordination and psychomotor ski is needed to handle
the controls effectively, particularly in conditions of high wind and swell. It is
sometimes claimed that the driver’s ability is a better solution to control of sway
of the spreader beam and container at high operatic speeds than the fitting of
expensive and complex anti-sway devices. Driver also have to be able to work
alone at height and to be highly motivate and well trained. Although the 1985
Containerization International indicated that 17% of terminals do not provide
training for gantry crane driver specialized training is generally agreed to be
essential. Typical programme include classroom, on-the-job and in-service
training of about three month duration, with strict assessment and certification a
regular feature.

3.13 Performance
3.10.1 There is considerable disparity between manufacturers’ claims and
operators experience in gantry crane operating performance and utilization.
Manufacturers’ claims on performance rates are based on the theoretical cycle
time, calculated from hoist and trolley speeds, etc. These figures will be much
higher than those achievable under operating conditions. Even operators tend to
exaggerate performance (for commercial and promotional purposes) by quoting
rates achieved at peak periods or under ideal conditions. What should be quoted
are average rates that can be sustained consistently under normal conditions.
Terminal operators are interested in two primary indicators of gantry crane
performance: the total number of container moves a crane can make per annum
and the Hourly Handling Rate, which is clearly a function of the crane cycle time.
The latter is of particular interest to the ship operator.

3.13.2 Early cranes were designed for 2000 operating hours a year and an
assumed life of 15 years. At an assumed working rate of 25 crane cycles per
working hour, this amounted to an expected 750,000 cycles over the crane’s
working life. In the 1970s, these design parameters were increased to an
assumed lifespan of 25 years and 4000 hours of use per year, a possible lifetime
total of 2.5 million crane cycles (given major overhauls and refurbishment every

50
10 or 15 years). Post Panamax cranes, built to higher specifications and with
more rigid structures, are assumed to have a life of 30-40 years and, with their
second-trolley systems and with hoist and trolley speeds some 100% higher than
earlier generations of crane, can achieve 55 moves/hour. This could amount to
6.5 million crane cycles over their lifetimes, given regular refurbishment.

3.13.3 The evidence from leading European operators is that, although their
terminals operate on a three-shift system, seven days a week, most of their
cranes record between 200 and 350 operating hours a month (in north America
as few as 130 hours a month) - a Utilization level of 30-60%. Containerization
International’s 1987 survey endorses those figures, revealing a worldwide gantry
crane Utilization of about 25% of their available working lives. These low figures
are not surprising when it is remembered that berth Occupancy at a container
terminal should not, for operational reasons, exceed about 50%. One of the
problems of-container terminals is the extent of peaking - on some days, every
berthing point might be occupied and all cranes in operations. On other days,
the berth may be empty. Ship operators demand two conditions before entering
into an agreement to use a terminal: that a minimum number of cranes will be
allocated to each of their vessels on each call (usually two for a second or third
generation vessel, three for the largest ships) and that minimum daily handling
rate will be guaranteed typically 700 moves/ day). To meet these obligations, it
is often necessary for the terminal operator to build-in excess capacity, and so
cranes will inevitably be idle for much of the time.

3.13.4 Although (perhaps because) Utilization is low, the maintenance

record of quayside gantry cranes has been very good and Availability is
extremely high. Figures are consistently in the range 95-98% (based on
possible machine hours of 600 a month). Downtime is very low, at 2-5%, with
most preventive maintenance (which accounts for about 50% of Downtime)
being undertaken when the crane is not required for operations; only 60-100
operational hours are lost per year through unplanned maintenance and repair.
Breakdown repair, accounts for 40% of Downtime, and equipment damage just
10%. Some terminals in the Far East report Downtime of 25 days a year, while
80% of quayside gantry cranes are ‘down’ for fewer than 15 days. The 1985
Containerization International survey concluded that Downtime amounts to about
14.5 days per year on average -4%

3.13.5 The causes of breakdowns/repairs are mechanical, electrical and

hydraulic. The major site of mechanical failure is the spreader beam, responsible
on average for about 50 hours of Downtime per year - a third of total Downtime.
At Felixstowe, between 80% and 85% of operational Downtime is caused by
spreader beam damage and defects, and the 1987 Containerisation International
survey quotes the spreader as giving rise to about 30% of total Downtime.
The main reason seems to be a lack of robustness in the engineering and the
resulting damage to hydraulic connections and electromechanical switches
when spreaders come into contact with ships, vehicles etc. Such risk of damage
is particularly severe when handling non-cellular vessels and when ships have

51
a list. Because of such vulnerability, telescopic spreaders were not popular in
the past, but they are increasingly common, now particularly where the mix
of box sizes and types makes them almost essential. Considerable research
and development effort has gone into improving spreader beam reliability and
robustness, in fact, though terminal operators still maintain several spare sets for
replacement in event of damage: worldwide, about 1.75 spreaders are owned
for every crane. Other prominent and frequent causes of mechanical failure are
damage to drive motors, crane travel mechanisms (including trolley wheels and
rails), sheaves and sheave bearings, hoist cables, and trolley electrical cables
(due to the continuous looping and the effects of wind).

The major causes of electrical breakdowns (which cause about 40% of total
Downtime) are failures of limit switches, relays and interlocking (these present
major maintenance diagnostic problems) and for hydraulics, it is hydraulic
couplings and ruptured hoses (particularly in the spreader).

3.13.6 Deciding precisely how many cranes to acquire for a specific throughput
is thus a vital problem for terminal planners. Although some terminals claim
handling rates of 90.000 moves a year per crane, it is clear from the collected
and published data that 50.000 moves per year is a more realistic estimate.
Containerization International’s 1985 survey revealed that 61% of the
world’s ship-to-shore gantry cranes handled fewer than 1000 TEU per week
(approximately 830 moves/week), i.e., about 40.000 moves/per crane/year,
though major ports in the Far East handled up to 1500 TEU per week per crane.
In fact, independent evidence suggests that some Far East terminals are now
achieving about 70.000 moves/year/crane, and the new post-Panamax cranes
could exceed such figures, provided the demand was there.

The actual rate achieved depends, of course, not just on demand but also on
the type of ships handled: not only are rates inevitably lower with conventional,
multipurpose and other non- cellular vessels than for cellular ships, but first,
second and third generation container ships also handle at different rates. Other
factors include the mobile container-handling ‘back-up’) system used and the
quality of terminal management. In many African countries, handling a high
proportion of multipurpose ships, annual handling rates of 40.000 moves per
crane may be good.

All of these factors must be considered when determining the number of cranes
to acquire, and it is wise to accept more realistic throughputs than manufacturers
might claim. There is, however, obviously a physical limitation to the number
of cranes or service points that can be placed on a berth; there must be a
minimum distance between cranes when they are working. In 35.6% of terminals
(Containerization International, 1985) the average length of quay per crane is
150 meters, while a further 28.7% allocate one crane per 150-200 meters.

The number of cranes is not just determined on the basis of annual throughput
but also by the -level of service guaranteed to ship operators. Despite the present
alleged overcapacity, many ports are still ordering new cranes to guarantee rapid
turnarounds to win business at a time of intense competition - a vicious circle.

52
3.13.7 Considerable difference exist between claimed hourly handling rates
although many terminal operators claim handling rates of 40-50 moves an hour
(even as high as 60 moves per hour), it the average sustained performance
which is of greatest relevance, taking into account handling containers from
different types of vessels, different stowage locations, hatch cover handling and
other non-productive movements, operational delays, crane shifts etc. Average
sustained handling rates at most major terminals seem to be in the range of
18-20 moves per crane working hour; this accords well with Containerization
International’s survey figures of 20-25 TEU per hour. In the most extensive
published survey, covering 7 million crane cycles recorded over seven years, the
average sustained handling rate was 17.7 moves per working hour. So, for daily
planning purposes, it would be sensible to apply rates of 20 moves/hour, to allow
for variations in demand, non-productive periods, delays and Idle Time, and the
limitations of the back-up container-handling system.

3.13.8 Of greater interest to ship operators are the handling rate per Ship Hour in
Port and the Daily Transfer Rate between ship and terminal. Available data from
ship operators show wide regional differences: average gross hourly handling
rates/ ship for Second and third Generation ships at major terminals in the far East
are in the 40-60 range (depending on whether two or three cranes are allocated
per ship) and Daily Transfer Rates range between 300 and 1200 containers,
typically 800-1200. In Europe, the corresponding figures are 35-45 per hour, 600-
800 per day, whereas in Africa and the Indian subcontinent, with a high proportion
of non-cellular tonnage, average rates are 5-15 per hour, 100-250 per day.

3.13.9 There has been considerable emphasis recently on improving gantry

crane handling rates, and trolley travel and hoisting speeds have been increased
significantly. Trolley travel speeds have risen from about 125 meters/minute
in the early 1960s to over 200 meters/minute in the 1980s, while hoist speeds
have gone up from 30 meters/minute to 80 meters/minute under maximum load
and as high as 125 meters/minute under low loads. These changes have been
aimed at speeding up the crane cycle, particularly with the cranes of 40-50
meters outreach, where trolley travel distances can exceed 112 meters. At these
high speeds it has been essential to install systems to suppress acceleration/
deceleration effects and to reduce load-swinging.

3.13.10 We can now analyze further the costs of the ship operation with a gantry
crane. For a relatively modest-sized gantry crane, taking a purchase price as
$3,500,000 and a working life of 25 years, we can work out its Annual Capital
Recovery (at a Discount Factor of 12%) as $450, 000. Its operating cost (Section
2.3) is about $400.000, which gives an annual total cost of about $850.000.
Assuming further that it is operational for 3500 hours in the year, its hourly cost is
about $ 245 and, at a handling rate of 20 moves/ hour, that gives a handling cost
of about $12 per box. If the handling rate is only 15 moves/hour (more typical of
the third World), the handling cost would be about $16 per box.

For a ‘post-Panamax’ gantry crane, costing about $6.000.000 and with a lift
expectancy of about 35 years, the Annual Capital Recovery is about $735,00

53
(which, with an operating cost again of $400.000 a year, gives a total annul cost
of $1.135.000 Assuming the crane works 3500 hours, that gives a to cost of
about $325 an hour. At an average handling rate of 30 moves a hour, the cost
per container works out at about $11 and at 20 moves per hour, it would be $16
per box.

Check Your Progress 2 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
a. Write briefly about the performance of quayside gantry cranes.

b. Describe: i) lifting capacity ii) backreach

54
 CHAPTER - 3
STRADDLE CARRIERS

3.14 Introduction
3.14.1 The straddle carrier is a wheeled frame which lifts and transports a load
within its framework. In spite of problems with the earliest generations of straddle
carriers, they are still the most popular form of container-lifting device; 1600 of
them had been sold by the beginning of 1985, and the current market is about
100-120 machines a year worldwide, at a price of around $500.000.

3.14.2 The popularity of the straddle carrier is undoubtedly due to its versatility;
it can perform all activities within a container terminal. In an all-straddle carrier
operation, known as the Straddle Carrier Direct system, the machines are used
both to transfer containers between the quayside and the container yard and to
stack them in the yard; they are also used for intermodal movements in receipt
-delivery and for movement to and from the CFS. In the Straddle Carrier Relay
and various combination systems the machines are used for stacking in the
container yard and for working at the grid, while other equipment services the
Quay Transfer Operation and moves containers about the terminal.

So the key to the straddle carrier’s popularity is its operational flexibility, its ability
to move anywhere in the terminal as needed, to perform any of a wide range of
activities. It also has considerable selectivity: it can move quickly and directly to the
required working position and gain rapid access to the container or storage slot.

3.14.3 The straddle carrier has a long history, but was first built for moving
containers (as a Van carrier*) in 1957 by the Clark Equipment Co. Initially it was
designed for carrying 24* boxes weighing up to 20 tonnes, and stacking them
one-over-one, i.e., It could traverse a row of containers, carrying one under its
arch, and stack that one on top of a grounded container.

55
Straddle carrier production really got under way in 1965, when it was built for ISO
boxes and could stack 20' boxes one-over-two. By 1967, straddle carriers were
also being built by Belotti, TCM and Mitsubishi, and by 1968 these manufacturers
had been joined by Peiner, Demag and Rubery-Owen.

3.14.4 Early models had 6 wheels and were driven by a hydraulic system or
chain drive. Both systems had deficiencies; hydraulic systems leaked, making
terminal surfaces dangerous; chain-drives lost tension, posed safety problems
and were easily damaged. Early models also experienced problems with their
‘rising arch’ design, in which the upper part of the frame, together with the cab
and the hoist mechanism, telescoped within the lower frame to allow pickup/
delivery below the legs of the ship-to-shore gantry cranes existing then, which
had low portal clearance. The rising arch suffered high stress on the tops of the
lift-cylinder rods. Fixed frames, built to traverse up to 3-high stacks (i.e. to stack
‘one-over-two’) were an early improvement, but could not pass under the legs of
many existing gantry cranes.

The change, in 1975-76, to diesel-electric drive (Nelcon) and to shaft-drive

(others) were both major improvements, and the increase from 6 to 8 wheels,
with 2, 4 or all of them driven, was another development. Ferranti took over Clark
in 1977 and Rubery owen in 1978, and improved the earliest of the straddle
carrier designs.

3.14.5 There are now two main types of carrier; twin-engined, tow mounted
types and single-engined, top-mounted ones. Almost all are now fixed-arch,
shaft-driven and 8-wheeled, with ram or motor lift, usually hydraulic. 3-high
stacking is still favourite (about 80% of total sales), though a range stacking from
2-high to 5-high is available. 6-wheeled and 10-wheeled alternative designs are
also available.

3.15 Specifications
3.15.1 The steel framework of a straddle carrier is built of tubular or (more often
now) girder or box-section steel. Current machines have the following range of
principal dimensions and operational specifications:

3.15.2 Overall Height varies between about 9 meters (for rising arch and smaller
fixed-arch designs) and 15 meters (for those stacking 1-over-3): 1-over-4
machines have an overall height of about 17.5 m. This dimension is important in
relation to clearance under fixed equipment, e.g.. the legs of a quayside gantry
crane, and quayside work is restricted for practical purposes to 1-over-2 stackers.

3.15.3 Lift Height (below the spreader) determines the stacking capability
of. the machine. Choices of 5.5 meters. 9 meters and 11.7 meters lift height
are commonly available, allowing 1-over-1,1-over-2 and 1~over-3 stacking
respectively. Lift height could be a critical feature if box dimensions increase in
the future A machine just capable of stacking 8'.6" boxes 1-over-3 will not be able
to stack 91 or 9'.6" boxes to that height.

56
3.15.4 Overall length can be as small as 9.0- 9.5m, in which case a 40' container
will project to the front and rear when being carried, but many machines now
have lengths of about 12.3 meters (i.e. length of 40' box) so that the container
is protected (by some sort of buffer/bumper) during transport. When considering
terminal design, the length of the carrier is not likely to be the only significant
factor, of course; the long dimension of the container will often determine the
manoeuvreing space required, or the position of the cab, if it projects significantly
to the front or side.

3.15.5 Inside Width is about 3.0 to 3.5 meters for genera I-purpose, container
yard straddle carriers, 3.5 to 4.0 meters for machines used at rail terminals (so
that the carrier can traverse a train of rail wagons). This dimension could be
significant if box widths increase beyond the present 8' width, as is being actively
considered at the moment; spreaders for 8’6" wide boxes may not be usable
within the narrower-framed machines.

3.15.6 Outside Width varies between the 4.3 to 4.5 meters of general-purpose
straddle carriers and the 4.8 to 4.9 meters for machines designed for rail
terminals. Clearly, this dimension largely determines row spacing in the container
yard and, consequently, stacking density.

3.15.7 Minimum, Outer Turning Radius varies between 92 and 109 meters This
influences access aisle way width; airways about 20 meters wide will allow left-
end right- turning straddle carriers to move simultaneously in the same aisle way.

3.15.8 The Weight of the machine is from about 48 to about 58 tonnes unladen
and up to 90 tonnes when carrying a full 40' container. The significance of this
lies in the demands made on the terminal surface. The important factor is, of
course, wheel Loading: how much weight is transmitted to the pavement under
each wheel- This will also depend on the number of wheels (4, 6, 8 or 10.)
Quoted static wheel loadings vary from 9 tonnes beneath each wheel to 12
tonnes. The number of wheels could, therefore, be an important factor when
choosing equipment for a specific terminal, to suit sub-surface conditions. A
10-wheeled straddle carrier, even if more expensive than a 6-weeled machine,
might be more economical if it allows a less expensive terminal paving to be
used. However, dynamic loading is just as important; the full weight of the vehicle
is thrown onto fewer wheels when turning or braking, and constant subjection to
such loads can cause the terminal surface to be rippled.

3.15.9 Lift Capacity is now at least 30.5 tonnes under the spreader (sufficient
for current 40' loaded containers) and is commonly 35 or even 40 tonnes; it is
worth considering the larger capacity schemes when buy trig now, to prepare for
possible increased ISO sizes over the next 15 to 2U years.

3.16 Operations
3.16.1 In the Straddle Carrier Direct system, the container yard laid out in a
series of blocks, each block containing 20-40 rows, 10 to 20 TEU slots

57
long (GO 120m), with wheel-spaces between the rows of 1 51.8 meters
(depending on drivers’ skill and machine width). Between the blocks are access
aisleways between 17.5 and 20 meters wide, allowing straddle carries to each
other safely at speed and to turn through right angles into the rows. The rows
run at right angles to the quay, to reduce travel distances to a minimum, and
the rows are kept relatively short for the same reason, longer rows also tend to
increase the risk of damage (as the straddle earners travel along them to and
from the target ground-slot), as well as reducing accessibility to the containers in
stack. The yard surface needs to be able to bear the weight of the machines (70
to 90 tonnes when loaded) without serious wear; static loads of 20 tonnes/m2 or
more have to be withstood. Levelness and smoothness of the surface are equally
important, to minimize wear and tear on the straddle carriers when moving at
speed and to preserve their stability.

3.16.2 Export containers are normally stacked 2 or 3 high, in a block rear the
quayside. Imports are stacked in a block to the landside (stacked alternately
one and two high within a row, for easy access without excessive shifting) while
empties are stacked 3 to 4 high (often by lilt trucks, in a block we! away from
the operational part of the container yard). So the average stacking heights are
1.5 for imports, 2,5 for exports and 3.5 for implies. This explain: why the most
popular straddle carrier type is still the 3-high stacker 0-ovei 2)-this suits most
statuses of boxes under most circumstances. There is good utilisation of space
with this system- up to 400 TED per hectare is easily possible for import-export
areas, and higher than that for empties stake in their ‘empties pool’.

3.16.3 The less desirable operational feature of the straddle carrier is the risk
damage to containers and equipment because of the high travel speech the
narrowness of the wheel spaces (necessary to achieve high stack densities) and
the height of the driver’s cab-some 10 to 12 meters about the yard surface. The
driver’s view of the box and stack is also restrict from some angles, so driver
skill is obviously an important factor in t’ context, and cab/control design must
minimize fatigue. Damage is common caused to boxes by misjudgement of the
height of the transported box the stack; it is usual now to lift and lower boxes
while traveling, adds to this danger.

3.16.4 For a two-crane operation, six straddle carriers are commonly used
on quay transfer when discharging, four when loading, so mean equipment
requirement on quay transfer is five machines. Four other straddle carriers are
needed for receipt/delivery, one on CFS duties and two in maintenance/reserve.
A useful equipment deployment figure, then, would be about 12 carriers per
two-crane terminal ‘unit’. Manning is commonly at the rate of three drivers for
two straddle carriers (allowing for relief changes within shifts and continuous
operation throughout a shift}-that’s about 18 drivers per shift. So total manning
(including the quayside gantry crane, supervision, checking, etc.) is normally 28
men per two-crane ‘unit’ per shift. Straddle carrier drivers need to be skilled and
well trained; some three months of classroom, practical and on-the-job training
are needed.

58
3.16.5. In the Straddle Carrier Relay system, the quay transfer operation is
performed by terminal tractor-trailer sets. The straddle carriers pick up containers
from an interchange point and stack them in rows, while the tractors take the
empty trailers back to the quay apron, etc. Carriers also move containers
between the yard and inland transport at a grid. Container yard layout is in blocks
and rows, as for the Direct system, but the rows are here parallel to the quay,
to provide an interchange point for the blocks, at which the tractor-trailer sets
transfer their boxes.

3.16.6 The Relay operation requires fewer straddle carriers than the Direct
system. For a 2-crane operation, three or four straddles are needed for stacking
in the container yard, another three or four on receipt/delivery, one on CFS duties
and two in reserve- say 10 machines altogether. In addition, six to eight tractor-
trailer sets are needed for quay transfer, so manning for the relay operation
required 15 straddle carrier drivers and eight tractor drivers, plus the crane
drivers, supervisors, etc. about 33 men per shift altogether for a two-crane unit’.

3.16.7 The Straddle Carrier Relay system is attractive where quay transfer
distances are Song as tractor-trailer sets are more appropriate for long quay
transfers. Another advantage, compared with the Direct system, is the slight
reduction in capital outlay-two fewer straddle carriers per two-crane ‘unit’. The
tractor-trailer sets used instead for quay transfer are much cheaper to buy, and
also more robust and cheaper to operate and maintain, while driver skill ;s less
demanding There is also less wear and tear on the straddle carriers when they
are not used for quay transfer, which reduces demand on maintenance

3.17 Performance
3.17.1 The number of container moves possible per hour depends on a number
of factors: travel distance, travel speed, hoist speed, ease of access and the
nature of the straddle carrier activity. It is difficult, therefore, to quote a useful
‘average’ handling rate for a straddle carrier, when it will vary with circumstances-
is the straddle carrier on quay transfer duty, stacking in the yard, handling
imports, exports or empties, etc.? However, some estimates can be made, based
on specifications and standard terminal layouts. For example, straddle carrier
travel speeds range between 20 and 30 kph empty, 17 and 25 kph loaded; hoist
speeds range between 10 and 30 meters/minute empty, 8 and 18 meters/ minute
loaded. Straddle carriers are certainly capable now of achieving 20 moves/hour
in a Direct operation under favourable conditions, but a sustained quay transfer
handling rate of between 12 and 15 moves/ hour (depending on travel distance)
is more realistic. This compares favourably with the figure of 8 moves/hour
accepted for the earliest straddle carriers. However, handling rates for Receipt/
Delivery and CFS activities of 12 moves/ operating hour is probably a useful
estimate for calculations based on throughput.

59
3.17.2 For planning purposes, when estimating equipment demand, a factor
of one straddle carrier per 8000-10,000 box throughput was common for
older machines, but for current models a figure of one per 12,000-14,000 box
throughput is more appropriate. Based on a range of 2.5 to 3 moves per box
transit, this amounts to between 25,000 and 40,00 lifts per machine per year.

3.17.3 Availability figures for straddle carriers are currently much better than, say,
ten years ago. Based on a possible operating month of 600 hours, values of 60%
(for existing older machines) to 95% (for newer designs) are quoted, with 85% as
a reasonable average now. Utilization is relatively low, however; figures as low
as 80 hours per month per machine are quoted, though a more usual range is
between 200 and 400 hours a month. A mean figure of 300 hours a month would
represent a Utilisation of only about 50 °X of the Available Machine Hours, which
indicates that ports are over-stocking with these machines to cope with peak
demand, and that they spend ; large part of their lives unused.

3.17.4 Downtime figures quoted by ports are extremely variable and a wide
variel of formulae are clearly used in calculating them. However, if an Availability
value of 85% is accepted as working average, then total Downtime may be
15% of operational time-about 90 hours per month. Of this total, aba 25% is
planned Downtime (preventive maintenance) and 75% of it repair of equipment
breakdown and damage.

3.17.5 Operating Costs average about $240.000 a year; this represents about
50 of the purchase price per year. Fuel, used at a rate of about 20 litre working
hour, is estimated as contributing (with lubricants) about 10% of t operating costs,
while maintenance including replacement materials such tyres and batteries,
contributes about 25%. Driver costs can amount to 61 of annual operating costs.

3.17.6 The Working Life of a new straddle carrier should be at least 15 years
(say 50.000 hours but, for calculating operating costs, we’ll assume a life of 12
years and a purchase price of $500.000. At a Discount Factor of 12%, the Annual
Capital Recovery is about $81400. When this is added to the operating cost of
$240.000 a year, the total annual cost amounts to about $321.000. Assuming
further that the machine operates for about 3500 hours a year, we can estimate
the total cost per hour as about $92. If the average handling rate is 12 move/
hour, the cost for handling each container comes to about $7.5.

3.18 Maintenance
3.18.1 Regularity of servicing is vital, but intervals vary widely from port to port,
manufacturer to manufacturer. The commonest intervals are 500-, 1000-and
2000-hour services, but some ports carry out a 250-hour service, too. Major
overhauls, including engines, are carried out at 10.000, 15.000 or even 30.000
hours; the interval depends on local operating conditions and circumstances.

Service intervals certainly seem to be increasing, and 1000-hour intervals are

likely to become the norm. On average, straddle carriers spend about 20 hours a

60
month on routine servicing (about 25% of total Downtime), the other 70 hours or
so being on-location or in-workshop repairs of breakdowns or accidental damage.

3.18.2 The causes of unscheduled repairs can be categorized as electrical,

mechanical or hydraulic, but the commonest causes are problems with electrical
components; failures involving electrical systems, alone or in combination
with other faults, account for between half and two-thirds of all defects. The
commonest electrical faults involve mechanical switches, micro-switches
and relays, which are susceptible to damage/deterioration through vibration.
The solution to these problems seems to be to replace the components with
proximity switches, solid state devices and printed circuit wiring. The most
vulnerable part of a straddle carrier is undoubtedly the spreader, which suffers
electrical, mechanical and hydraulic problems. To help to eliminate these,
Valmet has removed all electrical and most electromechanical components (all
junction boxes, relays and switches) from the spreader and placed them in a
weatherproof box on the top platform of the machine.

3.18.3 The annual maintenance Cost is currently estimated variously as between

8% and 15% of purchase price, i.e. $40,000 to $70,000 a year, with a mean
of about 12% ($60,000 a year); this agrees well with the estimated 25% of
total operating costs ascribed to maintenance. Labour contributes about 35%
of maintenance costs - some 60-90 man-hours per month on average. About
$35,000 (60%) are spent on replacement parts per machine per year.

Check Your Progress 3 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
Write briefly about the advantages and disadvantages of Straddle
Carrier.

61
 CHAPTER - 4
RUBBER TYRED YARD GANTRY CRANES

3.19 Introduction
3.19.1 Yard Gantry Cranes or Transfer Cranes were a development of industrial
overhead cranes. There are two distinct types. Rubber-tyred gantry cranes
(frequently referred to by the Paceco brand name, Transtainer or just as RTGs’)
run on heavy-duty tyred wheels (of straddle carrier type, in the main) while
rail-mounted gantry cranes run on steel wheels over fixed rails, 100 to 125 mm
wide. Although these two types of transfer cranes serve the same function, there
are distinct differences between them, apart from their wheels, and they will be
considered in separate chapters on this account.

3.19.2 Superficially resembling ‘stretched’ straddle carriers, rubber-tyred gantry

cranes span several rows of containers and can stack them up to five high (one-
over-four), yard gantry cranes are essentially container yard stacking devices and
are used in combination with other container-handling equipment, usually tractor-
trailer sets, for the Quay Transfer Operation. Tractor-trailer sets are also needed
for other duties, including movement to and from the CFS. At the CFS. the box is
either left on the trailer for packing/unpacking or is lifted off the trailer by yet more
equipment, usually a lift-truck.

3.19.3 Rubber-tyred gantry cranes were first built by Paceco around 1960, and
Drott-built machines began to be installed in 1969. By the beginning of 1970,
some 25 machines had been commissioned and in that year another 22 were

62
installed, by several manufacturers. Deliveries then increased steadily and by
1981 over 300 were in use, two-thirds of them built by Paceco and its world-wide
licensees. By 1985 nearly 500 machines had been installed, over half of them
Paceco types. Hitachi, which supplied its first yard gantry crane in 1974. is now
the second biggest supplier.

3.19.4 Port operators tend to suggest that rubber-tyred gantry cranes are
becoming relatively more popular, at the expense of straddle carriers, but
published figures indicate steady growth, paralleling that of straddle carriers
which are maintaining their popularity well. The most recent orders favour rubber-
tyred gantries rather more, and almost all World bank financed container terminal
projects have lately included the purchase of these machines.

3.19.5 The early rubber-tyred yard gantry cranes had a variety of spanj, troni
8 meters (covering just two container rows and a roadway) to over 25 meters,
but the range of 20-23.5 meters soon established itself as the most popular;
such cranes span 5 or 6 rows of containers and a roadway. Indeed. although
cranes spanning 7 rows and the roadway (27 metre span) are now available (and
probably represent an upper limit to rubber-tyred finally size), the 5 or 6 rows plus
roadway design remains the most popular. Smaller machines are, however, still
available for special purposes, e.g., a 12 meters (three rows plus roadway) by
Valmet.

3.19.6 Stacking height has increased markedly. The first Paceco transtainprs
stacked one-over-one (8’6" boxes) and it was not until 1972 that a gantry
stacking one over three was built, while the first one over four appeared in 1982.
Currently, one over three and one over four designs are eqally popular, though
paceco and Valmet still make one over two machines, too. Four high stackers
are made by Paceco, Mitsubishi and Marathon, while five high cranes are built
by Paceco, Mitsubishi. Nolcon. Morris, Valmol, MGM- IHI and Hyundai. Current
models stack 9’6" boxes to their rated height.

3.19.7 As with other container-handling systems, a general trend has been the
increase of lifting capacity, from 22 tonnes in early units to over 40 tonnes in
current models. Box length is not a problem with rubber-tyre gantries as boxes
are not handled through the framework.

3.19.8 Early RTGs had just four wheels, but an important development the
introduction of 8-wheeled and 16-wheeled cranes, designed to spread the
weight of the crane over a larger terminal surface area; 16 wheeled cranes are
available from Morris, MGM, Nelcon and Peiner. The motive power for rubber-
tyred gantries is diesel or (more commonly now) diesel- electric. Their power has
increased steadily, giving higher hoist and trolley speeds in current machines.

3.19.9 A major development has been the introduction and elaboration to

automatic location systems, sending the crane to the correct block position and
row and even locating the individual box in the row. Steering along (he block is
still normally a manual operation, though fully automatic steering is foreseen.

63
3.20 Specifications
3.20.1 Rubber-tyred gantry cranes have a massive framework of box section
steel, with an Overall height of about 17-19 meters arid Spans generally between
19.8 and 2G.5 meters. Overall Lengths of the framework vary between 9.3
meters (on 4-wheeled machines) and 11.6 meters (for 8-wheeled gantries) or
more.

3.20.2 Lift Height Under the Spreader is very similar, of course, to that of
equivalent straddle carriers: from 11.0 to 12.2 meters (on the four-high stackers)
to 13.6 to 15.1 meters (on the five-high stackers); the larger figures in each
case are for the latest machines, built to handle containers up to 9’6" high. Lift
Capacity can be 30.5 tonnes, 35.5 tonnes or 40 tonnes under the spreader,
according to choice.

3.20.3 The framework is, understandably, extremely heavy; the Weight of the
machine and load is between 100 and 140 tonnes when carrying a loaded 40'
container. The distributed load is about 50 tonnes per wheel for four-wheeled
machines but only about 13-16 tonnes per wheel for the newer 16-wheeled
designs. These values are extremely significant in terms of terminal surface
construction; it is common for RTGs to require special weight-bearing, narrow
roadways or runways along which the wheels can run, with reinforced concrete
beams or similar load-bearing systems, while the rest of the yard is surfaced
with relatively light-duty pavement. However, steel turning plates may need to be
embedded within the surface at the ends of blocks, so that the machines can turn
their wheels through 90° to move to another block.

Because of their lower wheel loadings, the 16-wheeled gantries may not require
reinforced runways and, as their wheels are carried in pairs on bogies, and rotate
as the bogies turn, steel turning plates are not required, either. So 16-wheeled
RTGs would appear to oiler the terminal designer considerably more flexibility,
when modifying the layout to meet changed traffic and other circumstances, than
machines with 4 or 8 wheels.

3.21 Operations
3.21.1 Rubber-tyred yard gantries operate exclusively in the container yard.
Transfer between the ship-side and the container yard is carried out (usually) by
tractor-trailer sets. These drive along the roadway or truck lane generally within
the span of the gantry, to pick up or deliver their containers, while the gantry
crane moves the containers between the trailers and the stack: and shifts the
boxes within the stack. For receipt/delivery, road vehicle are allowed onto the
terminal and along the roadway to the appropriate row; there is not normally an
interchange point in this system as there is with straddle carrier systems.

64
3.21.2 The containers within the storage area are normally arranged in long
rows parallel to the quayside, with about 30 TEU slots per row (which is thus
about 200 meters long). There are usually live or six rows per block, plus the
truck lane, giving a total block width of 22.S to 26.5 meters. At the ends of the
blocks are roadways about 20 meters wide, and an extra roadway space is
provided between adjacent blocks. The wheels of the rubber-tyred gantries can
turn through a right angle, so that the equipment can be moved from one storage
block to another as required, to meet operational needs; while RTGs are not as
operationally flexible as straddle carriers, they do offer a degree of flexibility in
this way.

3.21.3 The main attraction of yard gantry systems is their economical use of
land area because the machines stack high and densely; wheel spaces are not
needed between container rows. Average operational stacking heights with RTGs
are 2.5 for imports and 3.5 for exports; the 1985 Containerization international
survey gives a mean stacking height for all yard gantry systems as three boxes.
Assuming a 50:50 import/export split, about 700 TEUs can be stacked per
hectare. Not surprisingly, then, it *is the larger terminals, with high throughputs,
that favour yard gantries: one-third of terminals with 10,000 TEU container yard
capacities use these systems. RTG systems are also attractive where land
area for stacking is limited. However, the high and dense stacking means that
terminal planning and container control need to be particularly efficient if delays,
congestion and other operational problems are to be avoided.

3.21.4 Operating Costs are moderately high for rubber-tyred yard gantry cranes.
The purchase price of an RTG is about $750,000-900,000, and annual operating
costs amount to about $250,000 per machine, i.e. about 30% of purchase price.
Of total operating costs, about 60% is accounted for by labour costs (in Europe,
at least), 15% by fuel and lubricants (machines consume 18-20 litres of fuel per
operating hour) and 25% by preventive maintenance and repair.

3.22 Performance
3.22.1 Rubber-tyred Gantry Cranes are only moderately rapid machines in
operation, with travel speeds of 90-150 m/minute (5.5-9 kph)-about half the
speed of straddle carriers - and transverse trolley, speeds of 50-70 m/minute.
Hoist speeds vary between 9 and 23 m/minute when lifting a container. 18 and 49
m/minute when empty; the higher values are available with newer, ‘high- speed’
machines.

3.22.2 As with other handling systems, operating performance varies with

demand and distance traveled between moves, and will obviously be heavily
dependent on the ability of the quay transfer equipment to ‘service’ the gantry
cranes. The port of Felix stone reports a performance of 30-35 moves/ hour
at peak and an average of 20 moves/hour. The Containerization International
(1985) survey found rates of 18/hour (Australia) to 27/hour (North America), with

65
an ‘average’ of 21 moves/hour. Krupp RTGs at Hamburg move about 18 boxes/
hour. A realistic attainable average performance ewer a shift, including moves
between blocks, would seem to be about 20 boxes/ hour. Assuming an average
usage of about 65 hours a week, this would represent an annual performance of
about 65,000 box moves per machine.

3.22.3 For a two-quayside-crane operation, each crane handling about 25 boxes

per hour, about three RTGs will be needed in the container yard handling the
containers to and from the quay-transfer equipment (six to eight tractor- trailer
sets per 2-crane ‘unit’), with another one or two on receipt/delivery and handling
of vehicles for CFS work, and one in reserve say six machines per 2-crane
‘unit’. Felixstowe has 31 RTGs altogether, serving a total of 13 quayside gantry
cranes, on the basis of one RTG for every 20,000 containers handled through
the terminal. At the high stacking densities of RTG container yards, it is estimated
that each box has to be handled between 3 and 3.5 times during its transit
through the terminal, so the performance rate is between 60,000 and 70,000 lifts
per machine per year,

3.22.4 Manning is normally two men per RTG- one driving and one acting as
checker in the ground-level cab, so that total manning for a 2-quayside crane
‘unit’, including drivers for the quay-transfer tractors, supervisors, etc., would
be about 30-32 men. While the RTG drivers need to be very highly skilled, the
tractor drivers need only moderate levels of skill. RTG drivers should be given
about three months’ training, including sessions on operational and safety
aspects of the job and on-the-job training with an expert. Strict performance tests
must be given during and after training.

Availability figures for RTGs are usually quoted in the range 90-95%, though one
operator (Glebe Island Terminals) reports only 65-75%, saying ‘that its RTGs
“incur the greatest downtime of all their equipment, because of continuous rough
usage”. Figures for Utilization are generally low. e.g., about 40% (of total hours,
i.e., about 250' hours per month). The Containerization International (1985)
survey confirms an ‘average’ usage (for all types of yard gantry crane) of about
250 hours per month varying between 170 hours/month in North America and
over 300 hours/month in Australasia. Clearly, ports are ‘over stacked’ with yard
gantry cranes to cover peak demand, and availability is unlikely to be a problem.

Downtime is said to average about 25 hours/month (about 4-5% of working

hours), but varies widely, from about 7 hours per month in North America to
48 hours/month in Latin America. The 25 hour figure could we’! represent
‘unplanned’ Downtime only, since the Port of Singapore records show that 13
days each year are ,set aside for planned maintenance per machine - say 26
hours per month. Total Downtime is more likely, therefore, to average about 50
hours a month - say 8%

The working Life of RTG is currently at least 15 years, at an operating rate of

3000-3500 hours per year, giving at least 45.000 working hours over its life. The
latest generation of machines should, in fact, comfortably exceed this lifespan;

66
performing perhaps a million moves in a 20-year life (provided the machine is
well looked after). At a purchase price of $850,000 and an operational life of 15
years, the Annual Capital Recovery {at a discount rate of 12%) is $125,000. With
operating costs at $250,000 a year, Total Annual Costs are thus about $3,75,000
At 3000 working hours a year, the cost works out at about $125 an hour and the
handling cost, at 20 moves/hour, is about $6.25/move.

3.23 Maintenance
3.23.1 The port of Singapore plans 13 days preventive maintenance per year
for its RTGs, and its Availability figures indicate some 30-60 hours a month
of maintenance and repair time, with perhaps 15-30 hours of unplanned
Downtime. The Containerization International (1985) survey shows that G0% of
repair jobs are to do with electrical faults and a further 8% with combinations of
electrical and hydraulic or mechanical defects Minor electrical faults, particularly
involving electrical drives arid control systems, account for most maintenance
and repair jobs, but other causes of breakdowns are anti-sway system faults,
hydraulic leaks and seals, and problems with hoist ropes. Accidental damage
accounts for less than 1% of defects, and spreader damage probably accounts
for most of this.

3.23.2 The Maintenance Cost is about 8% of purchase price per year - some
$60,000-70,000 per year. Maintenance costs for RTG terminals worldwide were
given in the Containersaticn international (1985) survey as varying from $10.000
to over $40,000 per machine per year, with an average of abut $35,000, but it
seems likely that these figures did not include labour costs, which make up about
65% of total maintenance costs. Spares (including tyres and batteries) account
for about 30% of the costs and consumables the remaining 5%. Tyres currently
have lives of 4-5 years.

Check Your Progress 4 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
Write briefly about operations of a rubber tyred gantry crane.

67
 CHAPTER - 5
RAIL-MOUNTED YARD GANTRY CRANES

3.24 Introduction
3.24.1 Rail-mounted yard gantry cranes, like rubber-tyred gantry cranes, were
developed from industrial overhead cranes. They span several rows of containers
and can stack them upto five high (one-over-four). They run on steel wheels
over fixed rails, 100 to 125 mm wide, and are essentially container yard stacking
devices. They are used in combination with tractor- trailer sets, (or, in a few
cases, straddle carriers) for the Quay Transfer Operation, for CFS duties and
other terminal movements.

3.24.2 Rail-mounted gantry cranes were first installed in container yards in

1968, when two Drott cranes and three others were commissioned. Eight more
machines were delivered in 1969 (two more Drott, three Pacecos and three
others), ten in 1970 (three of them paceco), 15 in 1971 and 13 in 1972.

By 1980, over 150 rail-mounted gantries had been installed, 46 of them by

Paceco, 13 Hitachi, 11 Nelcon, 9 Krupp, 8 Mannesmann, 6 Mitsubishi and the 5
early Drott machines. By 1985, 200 rail-mounted gantries were in use. Whereas
rubber-tyred gantries are fairly well distributed around the world, the majority
of rail-mounted gantries are in Europe (41%), with just 23% of them in North
America and 19% in the Far East (1981 data).

3.24.3 It is important to distinguish between two distinct types of rail-mounted

gantry crane; those used for stacking in the container yard and those used
on receipt/delivery operations at rail terminals. The latter are by far the more
common type (possibly accounting for two-thirds of installed gantries); they
are generally small gantries, spanning perhaps two or three rail tracks and a

68
roadway. Container yard rail-mounted gantry cranes generally have large spans,
and about 65 of these large-span gantries had been installed by 1985, about 40
of them after 1976.

3.24.4 Rail-mounted gantry cranes have become steadily larger since their
introduction, as they have become more specialized. Stacking cranes with
spans up to 36 meters (covering 12 or 13 rows of containers) were soon joined
by larger gantries, with spans of up to 60 meters. The largest type (used at
Matson terminals in Los Angeles and Richmond) has a span of over 100 meters.
Stacking height seems to have stabilized from earliest days at one-over-four. As
with other container-handling systems, a general trend has been the increase of
lifting capacity, from 22 tonnes in early units to over 40 tonnes in current models.
Rail-mounted gantries are generally electrically powered, by cable or by their own
local generators.

3.24.5 The major development has been the introduction and elaboration of
automatic systems. Rail-mounted cranes lend themselves to a completely
automatic operation, with the driver merely acting as a back-up to the terminal’s
central computer system. The computer sends the crane to the correct block
position and row, and even locates the individual box in the row.

3.25 Specifications
3.25.1 Like RTGs, rail-mounted gantry cranes have massive framework of box-
section steel, though the span between the legs is generally much greater than
rubber-tyred machines - up to GO meters, accommodating 20 rows between the
legs. Railhead gantries have smaller spans, of about 8 meters. A major feature
of rail-mounted gantry cranes distinguishing them from RTGs, is a cantilever
extension to the framework on one or both ends of the span, with outreach of
from four meters up to 16 meters or so. One of these cantilevers allows up to
three rows of boxes to be stacked outside the rails, in addition to those stacked
between the rails while the other extension covers a service roadway. Terminal
tractors and road vehicles drive along this roadway, to deliver and pick up the
containers to and from the stack.

3.25.2 Overall Height and Lift Height are similar to those for rubber-tyred
gantries. Heights vary between 17 and 19 meters, and lift heights are between 11
meters and 15 meters.

3.25.3 The Wheelbase is about 15 meters, and Overall Length is about 20

meters. The dimensions are important, since containers are usually handled
through the framework as they are moved between the stacks and the service
roadway current designs allow ample space (about 15 meters) between the
uprights for 40' containers to pass through between the stack and the roadway-
indeed, 45' containers can generally be accommodated. However, clearance
needs to be checked carefully when rail-mounted cranes are being procured as
future 48' containers might pose problems.

69
3.25.4 The Weight of the larger rail-mounted gantries, when carrying a full 40'
container, is 300-370 tonnes including the spreader (which is usually a fully
rotating design). For gantries with 16 wheels (eight pairs on four bogies) the
distributed static load is thus about 20-25 tonnes per wheel, but the smaller rail-
mounted gantries, paradoxically, might place greater loads on their fewer wheels;
e.g. those at ECT Home Terminal put loads of 40 tonnes (360 KN/m2) per wheel
on the 100 mm rails. To bear such weights, the rails are mounted on massive
concrete beams, and piling might be needed where the sub-surface is not strong.

3.26 Operations
3.26.1 In their container yard versions, rail-mounted yard gantry cranes operate
exclusively as container stacking machines, while tractor-trailer sets are (usually)
responsible for quay transfer The tractors drive along the roadway or truck lane,
generally outside the rail under one of the cantilever extensions, to pick up or
deliver their containers, while the gantry crane moves the containers to and from
the stacks and shifts the containers within the stack. For receipt/delivery, road
vehicles are allowed onto the terminal and along the roadway to the appropriate
row; there is not normally a ‘grid’ interchange point in this system as there is with
straddle carrier systems (though the system at ECT Home Terminal does use
such an interchange point, and straddle carriers and tractor-trailers are used as
intermediate transport devices).

3.26.2 As for RTG operations, the main attraction of the rail-mounted yard
gantry system is its economical use of land area because of the machine’s
high and dense stacking ability (provided, of course, that the terminals planning
and control systems are efficient). The storage blocks tend to be larger in both
dimensions than for rubber-tyred machines. In Hong Kong, for example, the rails
are 375 meters long with a gauge of 44 meters, i.e. spanning 15 rows, with 65
TEU slots per row. Several cranes will work along the same stretch of rails - four
machines in Hong Kong each stacking one over five. With average stacking
heights of 4.5, the Hong- Kong terminal can accommodate 4000 containers
under the gantries (a density of about 1000 per hectare). Having several gantries
working speeds up operations, of course, but also allows continuation of service
if one gantry is out of operation.

At Multi terminals, Rotterdam, the container yard is set out in two blocks, each
about 500 meters long (80 TEU slots), with 12 rows of container between the
rails and three more rows under one cantilever. The three gantrie per block stack
one over four; at an average stacking height of 3 5 this results in about’ 4200
boxes being stackable per block, as a density about 850 per hectare. At ECT,
each stacking area is some 300 meter long (50 TEU slots per row) by 60 meters
wide {20 rows), giving a stack density of about 930 TEU/hectare, when the 15
meter-wide roadways either side of the yard (for straddle carrier access) are
included.

70
3.26.3 Operating Costs are high for rail-mounted yard gantry cranes, the
purcha price of a medium-sized rail-mounted gantry crane (with a 30 meter sp
and 8 meter outreach either side) is between $2.2 million and $2.5 million Its
operating cost is about 15% of its purchase price per year, i.e. $350,C or so
per year. Drivers salaries account for about 55% of operating costs in Europe,
maintenance for about 30% and power (electricity) and lubricants the remaining
15%. For a smaller rail-mounted gantry crane, as used at rail. the purchase price
is about $1 million, and annual operating costs are equivalent to about 27%
of purchase price, at about $270,000. Labour contributes about 55% of this,
maintenance 30% and power, lubricants, etc 15%, as for the larger cranes

3.27 Performance
3.27.1 Because the span of a rail-mounted gantry crane is larger than for a RTG,
trolley speeds can be faster - up to 150 m/minute is achievable. Hoist speeds are
also higher, at 30-60 meters/minute, and the gantry itself can move along its rails
at 100-150 meters/minute. However, operating performance varies with demand,
distance traveled and the quay transfer operations ability to feed the crane, and
overall performance is not dramatically faster than that at a RTG. The reason is
that, as stacking density increases, so do the number of ‘unproductive’ moves in
accessing boxes. Travel distances are also higher in the very long blocks usual in
rail-mounted systems

3.27.2 In practice, ECT achieves 24 moves/hour, with a theoretical park rate of

30 moves/hour, for its larger gantries at Home Terminal, and up to 40 boxes/hour
with its smaller gantries (32 metre gantries, spanning 7 rows plus a roadway) at
Delta Terminal. Almost certainly, handling rates over a shift will average at about
25 moves/hour overall, including in stack movements and receipt/delivery, as well
as movements relating to quay transfer. For planning purposes when determining
equipment requirements a factor of one rail-mounted gantry crane to 35,000 to
40,000 box throughput is used. Based on high stacking, with 3 to 3.5 moves per
box transit, this represents between 105,000 and 140,000 lifts per machine per
year, i.e. 25 to 32 moves per operating hour.

3.24.3 Assuming that three rail-mounted gantries are deployed per two quayside
gantry cranes, and that each requires a driver and a checker, while six to eight
tractor drivers are needed for quay transfer, the total Manning for a two-crane
‘unit’ will be about 24 men per shift Only the crane drivers need to be particularly
highly skilled, and they need to be fully trained In some three months of training,
they will have received classroom instruction on operational and safety aspects
of driving, as well as practical and on- the-job training, given by experienced
drivers.

544 The very special system at Matson’s terminals operates on a d principle,

as one cantilever of each gantry extends into the quayside opening area,

71
containers being delivered below it via a special transport system, white the
other cantilever serves the receipt/delivery area, so that the container yard and
shipside operations are fully integrated. They are also fully automated, and the
powerful motors allow extremely rapid transport of the boxes; the gantry drive
achieves 106 meters/minute, the trolley traverses at 244 meters/ minute and the
hoist drives at 68.6 meters/minute. However, the operating performance of this
system has been disappointing well below its design capacity.

3.27.4 Availability figures for rail-mounted cranes as high as 96% are quoted,
with Utilization of about 55-60%. There is little doubt that ports have ’overstocked’
with yard gantry cranes (as they have with other equipment) to cover peak
demand, and Availability is unlikely to be a problem Downtime is not very different
from that for RTGs. For example, at ECT, Downtime of its rail-mounted gantries
averages 24 hours per month, with ‘breakdowns during operations’ amounting to
about 12 hours a month, while routine maintenance accounts for the other 50%
of Downtime.

3.27.5 The rail-mounted gantry cranes at ECT work for about 3000 hours a
year. but could do at least 4000 hours a year and could expect a working life
of 25-30 years. Based on an estimated 100,000 moves a year, that amounts to
about 2.5 to 3 million moves altogether. For a crane costing $2.35 million, the
Annual Capital Recovery at a life of 25 years amounts to about $300,000. When
the operating cost of $350,000 a year is added, the total cost adds upto about
$185/hour. Assuming a handling rate of 25 move/hour, the cost of handling is
about $7.5/move. Circumstances can combine to make rail- mounted systems
attractive. Particularly where land area is limited and where ground conditions
make RTG (or, indeed, straddle carrier) operation expensive in terms of terminal
pavement construction.

Check Your Progress 5 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
Write briefly about Rail Mounted Gantry Crane

72
 CHAPTER - 6
TERMINAL TRACTORS AND TRAILERS

3.28 Introduction
3.28.1 Terminal tractors and their trailers or chassis are among the commonest
of equipment types on container terminals. There were over 4000 units in service
in 1985, over 600 of them built by Ottawa, 400 Douglas ‘Tugmasters’ (a brand
name commonly applied to all terminal tractors), and several hundred by each of
the other major manufacturers, Sisu, Capacity, BT and Oaf. Demand has been
fairly steady since 1975 (at about 200-300 per year}, apart from a peak in 1980
and 1981, to over 500 a year.

3.28.2 The tractor is basically a heavy-duty motive power unit, or ‘prime mover’,
filled with one of a variety of coupling devices for attaching rapidly to an over the
road chassis or a yard trailer. The tractor-trailer set is commonly used in the various
Relay and Combination types of container-handling systems, for transporting
boxes between the quayside and the container yard, as well as for transport to and
from a CFS and to Receipt/Delivery ‘grids’ in some systems. The tractor also has
a prominent role in the handling of containers to and from RoRo’ vessels, either
mounted on their over-the-road chassis or lifted (by front en< I loader) from their
storage position below deck, onto deck, onto low bed yard trailers.

3.28.3 Tractor-trailer systems have been used for container handling since the
earliest days of this form of unitization, and Sealand (the pioneer company in
container transport) remains dedicated to the principle of using over-the -road
chassis for transporting containers to and from the terminal container yard, using
tractors for in-terminal movement and quay transfer.

Mafi, one of the largest manufacturers, produced its first dedicated terminal
tractor in 1968 (this machine was still operational in 1985) while Sisu, another
major supplier, sold its first tractor in 1969, with specific RoRo designs shortly
afterwards.

3.28.4 Over the years the design has evolved gradually to become more and
more specialized for port work. For example, the cab has moved to an off-centre

73
position, with easy access to the trailer coupling device, brake cable connections
etc., and its seating and control layout have become modified for easy reversing,
with all-round driver vision a particular feature. Air-cooled engines, with improved
fuel efficiency, have become more common.

3.28.5 Two distinct types have evolved: four-wheeled tractors with drive to two
wheels (used in quay transfer and yard duties) and four-wheeled, four-wheel drive
tractors specifically for RoRo work, where they are required to climb and descend
ramps, often under flet and slippery conditions. The RoRo tractor generally has a
manual gearbox, for maximum power, while ‘level-ground’ tractors normally have
automatic gearboxes. Since a clean exhaust is essential for working between
decks of a RoRo vessel, those tractors are fitted with catalytic exhaust cleaners,
and they are also designed to produce as little noise as possible.

3.29 Specifications
3.29.1 Terminal tractors have a Length of about 5 meters, with a forward cab,
positioned to one side of the chassis. The platform behind the cab carries the
‘Fifth Wheel’ linking device, which is designed to lock into a corresponding device
on the chassis/trailer. The link can be elevated hydraulically so that, when it is
fully engaged, the forward end of the chassis or trailer is lifted clear of the ground
for movement. The design of the link is variable and can be complex; it is a
very important component, as all traction power has to be transmitted through
it. Sliding systems, ‘goosenecked’ designs (which allow the tractor to engage
with the coupling on a low trailer) and other forms of linkage are used by various
manufacturers, as well as a simple tow-bar coupling.

3.29.2 The engines (diesel powered) are now in the 160-240 bhp range, and
transmission is manual or automatic, through a torque converter; hydrostatic
transmission is available from BT and Mafi, who claim reduced fuel consumption
(because it allows the engine to run at constant speed) and noise, increased
braking efficiency and torque. However, the port of Gothenburg is the only major
user of hydrostatic transmission.

3.29.3 The capacity or ‘Fifth Wheel Rating* ranges from 20t up to 50t or more,
but the most popular size (comprising 45% of the total tractor population of about
4000 in 1984) is the 21-30 t range, with 32% in the 31-50 t range and only 2%
over 50 tonnes. The relative popularity of these capacities has not changed since
about 1976; the demand for all sizes remains constant. However, if the practice
of using tractors to pull trains of two or more trailers spreads, the proportion of
tractors with fifth wheel ratings of over 50 tonnes will inevitably rise. Note that
the fifth wheel capacity normally quoted by manufacturers relates to a speed of 5
kph; there is a significant de-rating at higher speeds, e.g. a 25 tonne capacity at
5 kph falls to only 14 t at 30 kph.

3.29.4 The turning circle is an important factor, determining roadway dimensions

in the storage area. For the popular Sisu machines the Minimum Outer Turnins

74
Radius is about 6.1 meters, and the Terberg tractors at Bremerhaven havi a
turning radius of 6.3 meters, while Levy quotes the minimum inside radius for its
machines-about 5.8 meters.

3.29.5 The trailer built solely for in-terminal use is a wheeled frame, with corner
flanges for guiding the containers onto the trailer as they are loaded, and for
securing them during quay transfer. The trailer may be designed expressly
to carry 20' or 40' containers, or it may be expandable and capable of being
adjusted to 20' or 40' length. Some designs of 40' trailers have central flanges, so
that they can also accommodate two 20' boxes. Current trailers for 40' containers
are rated up to 40 tonnes capacity, and 45' trailers can carry 48 tonnes.

The other category of trailer is more robustly constructed and licensed for
‘over-the-road’ use. Such ‘plated’ trailers, with twist-lock fittings to secure the
containers, are known as chassis (indeed, it is common to refer to all types of
tractor-trailer combinations as ‘chassis systems’).

3.30 Operations
3.30.1 In import quay transfer, the tractor with its empty trailer (or train of two
or more trailers) positions itself below the quayside gantry crane to receive
a container, then transports it to the appropriate storage slot in the container
yard (in the case of a yard gantry stacking system) or to an interchange point
(in the case of a straddle carrier relay or lift truck relay operation). After the
container has been lifted off, the tractor-trailer returns to the quayside for the next
container. In chassis operations, the container remains on its chassis while in
storage, and this system is also used in some terminals for ‘specials’, including
refrigerated containers.

3.30.2 Tractor-trailer operations are rapid, as travel speeds of 20-60 kph are
possible with current tractor units. The most popular range is 21-40 kph (46% of
tractors in 1984), with 41-60 kph next (26%); these proportions have not changed
significantly since the mid-1970s, though there are signs that the 41-60 kph
machines are becoming slightly more popular with time. Cycle times obviously
depend primarily on quay transfer distance, but it is generally taken that between
four and six tractors are needed for each ship-to-shore gantry crane in a pure
tractor-trailer system, three to four tractors per crane in relay operations using
straddle carriers, yard gantry cranes or lift trucks.

3.30.3 Manning is one driver per tractor, which gives total manning of some
28 men per shift per two-crane terminal ‘unit’ in a pure tractor-trailer system
(corresponding figures for relay operations are given in the relevant chapters).
Only moderate skills are needed; drivers need public and company truck-driver
licences, and need to be tested at the end of their company training period, which
should take about two weeks, including classroom training on operational and
safety procedures as well as practical and on-the-job instruction by experienced
driver-instructors.

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3.30.4 The purchase price of a tractor is between $50,000 and $75.000 for level-
ground tractors (RoRo versions are more expensive, costing up to $90,000). Its
Operating Cost is about $130,000 a year- about twice the purchase cost. Labour
costs contribute about 70% of this, fuel (at 10 to 12 litres of diesel/hour) and
lubricants (about 0.2 litres an hour) 15% and maintenance also about 15%. A 40'
over-the-road chassis may cost as much as $20,000 and a 20* chassis some
$18,000, but a yard trailer costs only about $15,000. Its operating cost is about
$2500 a year (15% of purchase price), entirely accounted for by tyres and other
maintenance items. Clearly, the tractor-trailer system is the cheapest type of
container-handling equipment to purchase, operate and maintain.

3.31 Performance
3.31.1 Tractors are generally considered the least sophisticated and most
reliable of container-handling machines, with the lowest Downtime and greatest
operational flexibility. Availability is quoted as 90% and Utilization is about 350
hours a month-say 60%. Downtime is about 10%, at about 60 hours a month.

3.31.1 Used on Quay Transfer operations in a Relay operation, a tractor-trailer

set performs 5 to 8 moves an hour- on average perhaps 7 moves/hour. Only
about 4 moves/hour are achieved in a Chassis System operation, where the
tractor has to be coupled to/uncoupled from the chassis at the beginning and enc
of each cycle.

3.31.3 The Working Life of a tractor is about ten years (though some 20 year-
old machines are still in operation) so, at a purchase price of $105,000 for
a tractor and three 40' terminal trailers, the Annual Capital Recovery will be
$18,GO (Assuming the set’s operating cost is about $137,500 a year, the total
cost i: about $156,100. If the set works for 4000 hours a year in a relay operation
the cost comes to about $39/hour and, assuming an average performance c 7
moves/hour, about $5.5 per move.

For a pure chassis operation, the cost is considerably higher, because one
chassis is required for every container handled and stored. Most chassis
operations are proprietary systems, anyway, and the financial arrangements and
ownership < the chassis are very different to (and incomparable with) the other
handling operations discussed in these chapters.

3.32 Maintenance
3.32.1 Some 60% of Downtime is unplanned, 40% due to preventive
maintenance About 25% of total Downtime is caused by damage repair, 20% to
repair following breakdown, and 15% is time waiting for spare parts to arrive. Of
the breakdown 90% are mechanical, 5% electrical and 5% hydraulic; drive axles,
brake and air systems are particularly liable to problems. Collisions with other

76
tractor-trailers, with straddle carriers or other mobile equipment when cornering
are the commonest accidents, with inattentive drives or misunderstandings, the
used cause. The fifth wheel linkage is a major cause of breakdowns.

3.32.2 Preventive maintenance is straightforward with terminal tractors, as they

are relatively simple mechanisms with familiar engines and transmissions. Apart
from daily driver checks (on fuel and oil levels, tyres, etc.) perhaps five or six
routine services per year should be scheduled; 1000-hour intervals are common,
with about three days needed for each service. About 15 man-hours per month
are needed on average for preventive maintenance. Major overhauls are needed
every four or five years, at about 15,000 hours. Normal workshop facilities, with
ramps, inspection pits and a standard range of tools, are perfectly adequate for
tractors Maintenance.

Check Your Progress 6 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
What is the use of Terminal Tractors & Trailers at terminals having
other container handling equipments?

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 CHAPTER - 7
LIFT TRUCKS

3.33 Introduction
3.30.1 Trucks (commonly and misleadingly referred to as Fork-Lift Trucks) have
become a prominent and universal means of handling containers in terminals.
Their familiarity, versatility and reliability have made them a popular choice for
terminal operators; there are over 1750 units of 15 tonnes capacity or more in
operation in the world’s seaports. In the present context, we are concerned with
lift trucks of capacities of 12 tonnes and over; most of these are exclusively
employed in handling containers at dedicated, multipurpose or conventional
facilities.

3.33.2 Lift trucks can be used in two principal ways. In some terminals,
particularly where the layout and configuration of quays dictate or where small
and expanding throughput is experienced, they are the primary back-up system
in what is dedicated lift-truck operation. In such cases they can be used in a
‘direct* system, where quayside jib, multipurpose or gantry cranes permit lifting/
loading of containers under the crane legs, or in a ‘relay* system using tractor-
trailer sets for the quay transfer operation. Alternatively, and more commonly,
they are used in combination with other primary systems; in this secondary,
supporting role - handling and stacking empty containers and performing
intermodal transfers. especially to rail-they are particularly efficient.

3.33.3 In-’front-end loader’ configuration, lift trucks can employ top, bottom or
side-lift spreaders to lift containers, and can also use a fork attachment which
engages with ‘fork pockets’ on the base of some containers (forklift attachments

78
are only suitable for lightweight or empty containers). Higher capacity trucks are
usually fitted with a frame which attaches at 2 or 4 points to the side or top of
the container; the frame can be either of fixed length or telescopic. The top-lift
attachment (a ‘spreader’ similar to those used on straddle carriers and gantry
cranes) is preferred for better load distribution.

3.33.4 Other machines comparable to front-end loaders and often included in the
same family, but employing very different designs and lifting principles, are the
Side-Loader and the Reach Stacker. The side-loader is a truck with a mounted
lifting device which lifts a container onto the side of the chassis, in which position
the box is carried to its storage position or pickup point. This design of lift truck
has, to all intents and purposes, disappeared as a primary means of handling
containers in dedicated terminals, as it is slow in operation, it cannot stack high
and can only stack in two-wide rows; it is now only to be found in a supporting
role in a very few multipurpose facilities.

In contrast with side-loaders, reach stackers are becoming more popular

because of their greater space efficiency, and they are increasingly found in a
supporting role on small and multipurpose terminals. Reach stackers are tractor-
like vehicles having a lifting boom located within the wheelbase; they resemble
mobile cranes; from which they have been largely developed. They are marketed
by five major manufacturers under such names as Port Packer, Piggy Packer,
Constacker and Yard King, but use basically the same principles.

3.33.5 Lift trucks were initially developed for military purposes during the Second
World War The early designs’ had poor manoeuvring characteristics, were
mechanically unreliable and had relatively low capacities (in the 3-tonne range).
In the 1950s and, particularly, the 1960s they began to be more widely introduced
into port work, initially in developed countries and eventually into developing
countries. Today, they are the workhorse of the port transport industry; their
versatility has improved with the parallel development of a wide range of
specialized attachments and they are now to be found handling many cargo and
commodity types and undertaking a variety of different port activities. They are
basically simple machines to operate.

3.33.6 Lift trucks had a poor maintenance record in the 1960s, particularly
the high-capacity machines, designed to carry heavy loads. This was primarily
because of torsional loadings imposed on the truck, and unreliable components.
However, further development work improved the .design and there was
considerable increase in capacity. Of these heavy-duty machines, models in the
20-30 tonne capacity range were most popular, being used primarily to handle
logs, timber, steek and machinery. They began to be used (as front-end loaders)
for handling containers and other unit loads in the 1960s, though early problems
were experienced. over stability and obstruction of the driver’s view by the bad.
Under intense competition between manufacturers, major improvements were
made in the strength of the frame, mast and carriages, and in transmission, drive,
braking and steering systems. The number of lift trucks grew appreciably in the
late 1970s and early 1980s with the introduction of machines of up to 52 tonnes
capacity, and their wider application in a supporting role on dedicated terminals

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3.33.7 The mid-1970s saw the introduction by Belotti of the reach stacker,
which was developed from the mobile crane and lift truck. The popularity of the
machine has grown and there is now a worldwide demand of about 90 machines
a year, particularly in the USA and Australasia. This design is clearly seen as an
alternative to our replacement for the lift truck and can be used for all the routine
tasks of container terminals, including intermodal handling operations. The
distinctive difference between them is the telescopic or fixed boom, hydraulically
activated, which allows the reach stacker to stack containers in rows up to three
deep. The boom also results in the machine being more stable when moving with
a load, because it can bring the load back to just within the wheelbase. When
stacking containers, however, reach stackers are no more stable than front-end
loaders. Reach stackers are also more complicated and expensive, particularly if
a telescopic boom is fitted to permit block stacking to two or three rows.

3.33.8 The reach stacker is, nevertheless, a very useful and versatile machine.
Like the front-end loader, it can be fitted with grapple arms or clamps for picking
up a container still attached to its chassis, for placing on rail wagons (piggy-
back1 handling or TOFC - Trailer On Freight Car’). Reach stackers are also
useful in handling ‘Swap-bodies’. Unlike the front-end loader, the reach stacker
gives driver vision unimpaired by a mast when moving forwards.

3.34 Specifications
3.34.1 The principal specifications to be considered when selecting lift trucks
for container handling are the lifting capacity, stacking height, wheel loading and
overall dimensions. We shall deal with these in turn, first for front-end loaders
and then for reach stackers.

3.34.2 The most popular front-end loaders in the late 1970s and early 1980s
were in the 20-29 tonne Lifting Capacity range, but the more recent trend is for
machines with 30 to 40 tonne capacities or more, reflecting the need to handle
full 40' and longer boxes. Over 60% of all heavy-duty machines in operation
have capacities of over 20 tonnes. Note that the quoted capacities are the
maximum permitted load, including the weight of the spreader beam. If fully laden
40' containers are to be handled, a lifting capacity of at least 30 tonnes will be
required under the spreader - a total lift of about 36-37 tonnes. Alternatively, if
only empty containers are handled, of about 2-3 tonnes weight (or 4-5 tonnes for
empty refrigerated containers), a smaller capacity machine will be sufficient; a 12
tonne lift truck is sufficient for standard empties.

3.34.3 Today, front-end loaders to be found on container terminals range from

8 tonnes up to 52 tonnes in capacity, although container-handling machines are
normally considered as being those in the 12-52 tonne range. In selecting an
appropriate capacity, terminal managers must consider the range of tasks to be
performed by the lift truck, and possible evolution in container dimensions and
weights. Prices vary considerably between capacities, e.g., a standard 12 tonne

80
machine, as used to stack empty containers, currently costs about $100,000,
while a 42-tonne machine costs about $300,000-spreader included in each case-
so correct choice is very important.

7.2.4 Care must be taken in interpreting a manufacturer’s quoted lifting

capacity since this relates to specific operating conditions; it is expressed at
a given ‘load centre’ and on the assumption that the weight of the container
being lifted is uniformly distributed on each side of that point. The load centre
is measured from the heel of the spreader carriage and, on lift trucks used for
handling containers, is typically quoted as 1200 to 1250 mm, although, since the
container itself is 2.44 meters wide, 1220 should be considered the bare value,
minimum and many critics claim that it should be greater. The tilt mechanism of
the mast (usually +/-5°) allows containers to be tilted back while being moved
about the terminal, which ensures that they are carried within the permitted load
centre. Even so, stability problems may occur when stacking fully laden boxes,
particularly at height, and when braking with the container elevated.

3.34.4 If the container is carried outside the load centre or is itself unevenly
loaded, the lifting capacity of the truck must be de-rated. For example, a machine
with a quoted 35-tonne capacity at 1200 mm load centre would be de-rated to
30 tonnes at 1600 mm and about 26 tonnes at 2000 mm. A major de-rating also
takes place when stacking containers at height, particularly in the fourth or fifth
tiers, and so it is necessary to build-in a considerable safety margin if three-high
or greater stacking is to be used. For example, a lift truck with an under-spreader
capacity of 32 tonnes is de-rated to 30 tonnes at four-high stacking and to only
20 tonnes when stacking five-high. This is a particularly important consideration
at the time of equipment procurement.

3.34.5 The second major selection consideration is Stacking Height. At the top
end of the range, front-end loaders are now available which can stack containers
six-high safely and efficiently, even in winds of up to 47 kph (Beaufort 7). There
is a small but growing interest in such high stackers and it is worth remembering
that new purchases should be capable of handling ‘high-cube* boxes (9’6"
high) to the required height, which means a lift height oft 9 meters for three-high
stacking, 11.8 meters for four-high and 13.4 meters for five-high stacking.

This high-stacking can be achieved with a fixed, one-section mast, but it is

frequently made possible by a duplex or triplex mast, an extending mast of two
or three sections. Extending masts have the advantage of tow overall height
when the mast is retracted, which allows use in areas of restricted height, such
as aboard RoRo vessels. For such applications, the important specification is
the ‘free-lift height’ i.e. the height to which the carriage can be raised without
the mast having to be extended. Single-section masts suffer far less wear and
tear than the more complicated duplex and triplex masts, however, and are to
be preferred whenever possible. Indeed, in spite of the current interests in five-
high and six-high stackers, machines with the more modest capability of stacking
three high are increasingly popular, with about 60% of all units in operation
currently in this category.

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3.34.6 A very important consideration is the Weight of the truck and
consequential Terminal Surface Loading, which is accepted as a major problem
with the front-end loader. When a lift truck is loaded, vertically the whole all-up
weight is transferred to the drive axle and, with big machines, this imposes high
ground loadings. For a 25-tonne truck, a ground loading of 60 tonnes/m2 may be
exerted, with even higher figures (up to 90 tonnes/m2) for the top-of-the range
models. Not surprisingly, terminal surfaces have to be built to a high specification
for this type of equipment, and even then damage and repair costs are high.

To help overcome these problems, manufacturers have reduced the unladen

weight of their machines as much as possible-often to as little as 50-55 tonnes
unladen (about 80 tonnes with a box) and have increased the number of wheels
on the front (drive) axle. Although six-wheeled machines are still most common (a
pair on each side of the front axle and two on the back), the latest designs reduce
terminal surface loadings by having eight wheels, three on either side at the front.
On some models, two of these wheels can be extended as outriggers, which
are claimed to aid stability (although this slows down operating performance
considerably). Other developments have been the introduction of large diameter
wheels and wide profile, low-pressure and high flotation tyres. Even so, careful
consideration must be given to terminal surface factors, particularly if lift trucks
are being deployed in a direct system Involving long travel distances and
constant braking,

3.34.7 Other principal specifications to consider are the overall dimensions of

the machine, typically 10.4 m length with spreader attached and 4.15 m width
(spreader not extended) for a 42-tonne machine. Outer Turning Radius is also
important in terminal layout, with 7.0-7.4 m possible with the ‘high capacity but
more manoeuvrable machines that have been recently developed. Except for
the tow profile machines intended particularly for work aboard RoRo Vessels
and in sheds, Overall Height to the top of the unextended mast ranges from 6.5
m to 9.6 m; RoRo machines can have overall heights as low as 3 m. 7.2.9
Reach stackers have a typical maximum rated lifting Capacity of 55 tonnes (with
the boom retracted) to about 40 tonnes (at a load centre of 1200 mm) - though
machines that can lift higher weights at greater load centres are available. Once
again, however, the rated capacity varies with lift height. Reach stackers at the
top of the range can typically stack containers five-high in the front row of a
container stack, four-high in the second row and three-high in the third. However,
their lifting capacity is very much reduced when stacking in these inner rows.
For example, a reach stacker rated at 40 tonnes at a 2000 mm load centre can
achieve this when stacking to the top tier of the first ‘row but can only lift 10
tonnes to that height in the second row and a mere 7 tonnes at the top tier of the
third row (though these capacities can be increased if auxiliary counterweights
are fitted), A Kalmar ’35-tonne’ machine can lift 35 tonne boxes, 9’6" high, up to
four-high in the front row but only a maximum of 18 tonnes to that height in the
second row. If such de-rating limits are acceptable, then reach-stackers can be
useful, but for full flexibility when planning operations, terminal operators really

82
need them to be able to lift boxes of at least 24 tonnes (i.e. a full 20' units) to full
height (and certainly to three-high) in the second row.

3.34.8 A reach stacker is classed as a mobile crane, and as such one of its
specifications has to be its Tipping Load, the load at which the machine will
topple over. Its rated lifting capacity has to be no more than 75% of the tipping,
load, providing a safety margin factor of 1.33. For a Valmet machine, the tipping
load is 45 tonnes at the front row.

3.34.9 The Overall Length of typical four-high reach stacker is 10.65 m, with a
Width of 4.5 m and an Outer Turning Radius of 8 m. The Overall Height of the
machine is 4.8 m with the boom lowered and retracted, and 14.0 m with boom in
the fully extended position. Maximum Stacking Height under the spreader is 12.2
m. Typically, unladen weights are 55 tonnes, and the same problems of Wheel
Loading apply as for front-end loaders.

3.34.10 The purchase price of reach stackers depends on the specification

and attachments required, but is typically of the order of $400,000 to $450,000,
including the spreader. This is significantly higher than for an equivalent capacity
front-end loader, costing about $300,000, While an empties stacker (12 tonne)
can cost as little as $100,000. In common with front-end loaders, reach stackers
have the comparatively short lifespan of ten years, though working lives are now
being extended, and front-end loaders can be re’urbished, replacing the mast, to
prolong their lives.

3.35 Operations
3.35.1 The lift truck is attractive to users because it is considered a simple
machine with relatively low initial cost, compared with other types of container-
lifting equipment, has relatively low operating cost and good maintenance
features. Most terminals today deploy a small fleet of lift trucks to support the
main handling equipment and to block-stack empty containers. Machines capable
of stacking five-high are commonly used on this task, and are particularly cost
-effective. Lift trucks can also be used for intermodal transfers, to and from
road and rail vehicles (Provided there is sufficient space between the rail tracks
and the rails are fitted flush with the terminal surface) and, if of low-profile
design, in RoRo operations, Fitted with other attachments, the machine can be
used to handle timber, steel, unit loads and other large, indivisible loads and,
consequently, they have been widely used on multipurpose and conventional
berths/terminals.

3.35.2 However, the front-end loader is not very effective at picking up or landing
containers on the quayside; containers are normally carried aboard vessels in
the fore-and-aft mode, and are loaded and discharged in this direction, and so,
unless the crane swivels the container through 90° or lands it in the backreach
area, it is in many cases impossible for the truck to approach the container
(between the gantry crane legs) at right angles to engage the spreader. Another

83
problem is that the quay construction might not withstand the high wheel loadings
.Furthermore, lift trucks generally cannot be used to move containers to and from
refer points’ (for plugging-in of refrigerated boxes) on the terminal,

3.35.3 However, in spite of these problems, front-end loaders are used on some
terminals as the principal back-up system. Opinion in the industry suggests
that they can be cost-effective at comparatively low throughput-up to 120,000
containers/years-where space permits or where terminal design makes it difficult
to employ other systems, e.g., Where container terminals have been developed
by converting general cargo berths and where it would be difficult to move
rubber-tyred gantry cranes, for example, from one quay to another. Where jib
cranes are used (so that there is no need to pick up or drop boxes between the
crane legs), the lift truck can be deployed for all terminal activities, including the
quay transfer operation - but even here they should not be used over long quay
transfer distances, because of their low safe travel speeds.

3.35.4 As the principal system, four or five lift trucks are needed per crane
on Quay Transfer and stacking, a total of nine for a two-crane ‘unit1. Four are
needed on Receipt/Delivery, two on CFS duties and one in reserve - a total of
about 16 machines.-At one driver per machine per shift, total Manning for such
an operation would be about 26 men per shift. Although drivers need not be as
highly skilled as for gantry cranes or straddle carries, training is still a vital factor.
About three weeks of instruction (classroom sessions on operational and safety
factors, practical instruction and on-the-job training) are needed.

3.35.5 More appropriate, perhaps, than a Lift Truck Direct Operation is to use
the machines in combination with tractor-trailer units, allowing the latter to
perform the high-speed quay transfer part of the operation and leaving the lift
trucks to serve the stacking/ unstacking and receipt/delivery functions and the
block-stacking of empty containers, to which they are well suited. In such a lift
truck Relay operation two or three lift trucks will be required on stacking for each
ship-to-shore gantry crane working - that’s about live per two-crane ‘unit1. In the
receipt/delivery operation, one lilt truck at the interchange point places containers
on trailers, on which they are then transferred to the yard, where a second truck
stacks them. Another machine or two will be on ‘empties’, CFS and other duties,
with one or two in reserve and maintenance. That’s a total of nine or ten per
two-crane unif, plus the tractor-trailer sets. Manning would be about ten lift truck
drivers and six to eight tractor drivers-about 26 to 28 men per shift altogether per
two-crane ‘unit’.

3.35.6 The major disadvantage of the front-end operation is its poor space
utilization. Containers are normally stacked in rows two boxes wide, to permit
access from either side (though empty containers can be stacked in rows four
boxes wide or even block-stacked by owner, by size and type). The large turning
circle required means that, to permit access at right angles to the containers,
aisles 18m wide have to be provided, even with specially designed compact
units. Stacked one-high, this would permit an average stacking density of about
125 TEUs per hectare. However, export containers can be stacked three high

84
and import boxes 1.5 high on average, so an overall stacking density of about
275 TEUs per hectare is possible in a 50:50 import-export terminal. Higher
stacking heights (subject to lifting capacity) would improve space utilization, but
at the expense of reduced accessibility - an important consideration for imports.
The front-end loader also has a poor storage and performance level when used
in selective yard operations, with long distances from one target slot to another,
and is not recommended for use on terminals handling more than, say, 120,000
TEUs a year. The machine’s relatively low operational (i.e. safe) travel speed
(compared with, say, a tractor-trailer set) also limits performance in the quay
transfer operation, particularly with long cycle distances.

3.35.7 The poor space utilization of the Iront-end loader is partially overcome
in the reach stacker design, although it must be said that there are very few
terminals that depend on reach stackers as the primary means of transporting
and stacking containers-and even those are terminals with relatively small
throughputs. In common with front-loaders, the reach stacker is used as a
secondary system, supporting the main handling equipment. Aisle widths can be
as small as 11 m in normal operations with 20' boxes when reach stackers are
deployed (but must be 15 m if 40' boxes are to be handled). They can be even
narrower if rotating spreader frames are used. Such spreaders are able to rotate
up to 120° and allow boxes up to 10 tonnes in weight to be carried in line with the
chassis, thus reducing the overall width of the laden machine. They also allow
the stack to be approached at an angle of up to 30° (whereas front loaders have
to approach stacks almost end-on); both factors contribute to the reduced need
for manoeuvring space between stacks.

3.35.8 The container yard layout in a reach stacker operation normally consists
of rows 15-20 containers long and, provided the machine has the necessary
lifting capacity, up to four boxes wide (allowing access to two rows from each
side). Rows six boxes wide are possible, but with only light containers (under ten
tonnes) stacked in the inner rows: this is particularly realistic for empties. Reach
stackers are less efficient on terminals handling a high proportion of loaded 40'
boxes because of their inability to stack them two or three rows wide. Assuming
an aisle width of 15 meters and one-high stacking, the stacking density is about
200 TEUs/hectare - a 60% improvement on a front-end loader system. Even if an
average stacking height lower than for front-end loaders is assumed (because
of the de-rating for stacking to the second and third rows of a block, in practice
restricting those rows to empty boxes) - perhaps an average stacking density of
400 TEUs/hectare would be possible-a 45% improvement on the front-loader.

3.35.9 The annual Operating cost of high-capacity front-end loader is about

$210,000 -equivalent to about 70% of the purchase price. Of this total, labour
costs account for 70%, maintenance and repair costs 20%, and cost of fuel
and lubricants 10%. Fuel is consumed at a rate of about 15-18 litres/hour by 40
tonne capacity machines and 10-13 litres/hour by 12 tonne units. Reach stacker
operating costs are similar, though their maintenance costs are claimed to be
lower, largely because the boom is more reliable and less damage-prone than the
mast; it is the mast of a front-end loader that causes the high maintenance costs.

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3.36 Performance
3.36.1 The number of container moves achieved per hour shows considerable
variation and reflects the different roles that lift trucks perform on container
terminals. A unit being employed solely for stacking containers in the containers
yard in a Relay system could be expected to achieve high handling rates, but
when used on the quay transfer operation; particularly over long distances, the
handling rate is lower; application is the major determinant of performance levels.

3.36.2 When used as the primary handling system in a Direct operation on a

relatively small dedicated terminal, lift trucks have a target of 15 moves/hour,
though under normal operating conditions average sustained handling rates of
6-8 moves/ hour are more common. Factors affecting performance are travel
distance and operating speed manufacturers’ figures for the latter are in the
range 20-30 kph, which suggests that the designed vehicle speed is unlikely
to be a limiting factor (though safe operating speed could well be). Used for
stacking in a relay system, with three tractor-trailer sets serving each working
crane, hourly handling rates of 10-12 boxes/machine can be achieved, it is
extremely difficult to determine handling rates when front-end loaders and reach
stackers are used in a supporting role because of the intermittent nature of this
work, but rates of 20 moves/hour are certainly possible when stacking empties in
one block. Intermodal handling rates are likely to be lower, because of the need
to position containers and the generally longer travel distances involved.

3.36.3 In common with other container-handling equipment, lift trucks have a

relatively low Utilization level. The Containerization International survey of 1985
showed that just over 72% of lift trucks are used for 50 hours or less in a week
and a further 16.7% for 50-70 hours a week, with an average Utilization of about
40 hours-about 25%. This amounts to an operating performance of about 2000
hours/year - entirely consistent with figures for the lift truck fleet at the port of
Bremen, which averages 1800-2000 hours/year; more highly utilized terminals
employ their lift trucks for 2500-3000 hours/year. One explanation for this
comparatively low level of Utilization is that, when they are used in a secondary
handling system, the demand for lift trucks is intermittent.

When used in a direct, primary system, assuming an average of 7 moves/ hour

for quay transfer, stacking and intermodal movements, this amounts to about
20,000 moves/year. In contrasts, when used exclusively for handling empties, the
annual number of movements could be as high as 30,000. With a machine life of
about ten years, that’s about 200,000- 300,000 moves altogether.

3.36.4 For planning purposes, a factor of one lift truck to between 6000 and
8000 box throughput is reasonable. Based on an average of three moves per box
transit, each lift truck in a Direct operation should achieve between 18,000 and
24,000 moves per annum.

3.36.5 Assuming a purchase price of $300,000 and a working life of ten years,
the annual capital recovery of a typical lift truck would be about $53,000. When

86
an average operating cost of $210,000/year is added, the total cost of owning
and operating a lift truck amounts to about $263,000/year. At a performance of
3000 hours/ year, the cost works out at about $88/hour and, at a handling rate of
7 moves/hour, a cost of $12.5/move.

3.36.6 The reliability of front loaders and reach stackers is extremely good, with
Availability regularly in the 90-95% range. Average monthly Downtime is about
30 hours/ machine, although the regional variations show much higher extremes,
particularly in Africa, where shortage of spare parts is frequently cited as the
major cause of maintenance delays. The Containerization International (1985)
survey also revealed that Downtime did not necessarily increase with age; on the
contrary, many newer machines had Downtimes greater than 30 hours.’ month
(though many of these were probably in African ports): over 65% of machines
having Downtimes in excess of 50 hours/ month were delivered after 1980. The
average time spent per month in preventive maintenance is 30 hours, so total
Downtime is about 60 hours a month-about 10%.

3.37 Maintenance
3.38.1 Little information is available on the major causes of Downtime or the
proportion of time lost from each cause. Lift trucks had a particularly poor
reputation for reliability in the 1960s, because of torsional loadings imposed on
the truck, leading to stress fatigue, particularly in the mast and its mounting.
Manufacturers did not recognize the extent of torsional loadings imposed on
the truck by containers swaying while being transported: frequent checks for
cracks are still needed. Early problems were also encountered with stability and
mechanical defects, with hydraulic failures a frequent complaint. Problems were
regularly encountered with masts (particularly with duplex and triplex systems) and
spreader beams, and tyre wear and damage were recurring problems. Significant
improvements have been made since then in design and maintainability, and
today’s machines are far more reliable and less expensive to maintain.

Check Your Progress 7 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
What are the drawbacks of Fork Lift Trucks?

87
3.39 LET US SUM UP
CHAPTER 1

Container flow through a terminal is a complex series of interconnecting activities

or subsystems, together summarizable as the ‘Terminal System’. The output of
the whole system is dependent on the capacity of the weakest link in that chain,
while the performance of each sub-system can be markedly affected by that of
the others; there is a great deal of interdependence between all terminal activities.
Not surprisingly, there is considerable variation in performance between terminals,
even those employing the same container- handling systems - equipment
specification is not the only determinant. There are differences in traffic volumes
and flows (e.g. import : export ratios) and also considerable variation in the quality
of management information, control and supervisory procedures.

CHAPTER 2

Ship Operation, consisting of the loading and discharging of containers between

the vessel and the quayside is one of the most important activities since all
incoming and outgoing containers must pass through the Ship Operation. It
ultimately determines terminal handling rates, and so it is often referred to as
the ‘dominant system.’ Movement between the quayside and the container yard
(most container terminals do not load/discharge directly to/from inland transport
or waterborne craft) is known as the Quay Transfer Operation; its particular
significance is as a regulator of the Ship Operation - it has a direct influence on
ship loading and discharging rates. The gantry crane’s function on the terminal is
a pivotal one. the speed with which it loads and discharges containers determines
the ship handling rate and sets an upper limit to the overall throughput of the
terminal. There is considerable disparity between manufacturers’ claims and
operators experience in gantry crane operating performance and utilization.
Manufacturers’ claims on performance rates are based on the theoretical cycle
time, calculated from hoist and trolley speeds, etc. These figures will be much
higher than those achievable under operating conditions.

CHAPTER 3

The straddle carrier is a wheeled frame which lifts and transports a load within
its framework. The popularity of the straddle carrier is due to its versatility; it
can perform all activities within a container terminal. In an all-straddle carrier
operation, known as the Straddle Carrier Direct system, the machines are used
both to transfer containers between the quayside and the container yard and to
stack them in the yard; they are also used for intermodal movements in receipt
-delivery and for movement to and from the CFS. The most commonly used
handling system is straddle carrier system- The main advantage of the system
are good space utilisation, high flexibility, ability to meet peak requirement, ability
to handle all owing to the weight distribution over eight wheels and compensating
suspension system. The Straddle Carrier cannot be used in case of dense stacks
or where space is a constraint.

88
Chapter 4

Yard Gantry Cranes or Transfer Cranes were a development of industrial

overhead cranes. Rubber- tyred gantry cranes (frequently referred to by the
Paceco brand name, Transtainer or just as RTGs’) run on heavy-duty tyred
wheels (of straddle carrier type, in the main). Superficially resembling ‘stretched’
straddle carriers, rubber-tyred gantry cranes span several rows of containers
and can stack them up to five high (one-over-four), yard gantry cranes are
essentially container yard stacking devices and are used in combination with
other container-handling equipment, usually tractor-trailer sets, for the Quay
Transfer Operation. Tractor-trailer sets are also needed for other duties, including
movement to and from the CFS. At the CFS. the box is either left on the trailer
for packing/unpacking or is lifted off the trailer by yet more equipment, usually
a lift-truck.. Port operators tend to suggest that rubber-tyred gantry cranes
are becoming relatively more popular, at the expense of straddle carriers, but
published figures indicate steady growth, paralleling that of straddle carriers
which are maintaining their popularity well.

Chapter 5

Rail-mounted yard gantry cranes, like rubber-tyred gantry cranes, were

developed from industrial overhead cranes. They span several rows of containers
and can stack them upto five high (one-over-four). They run on steel wheels
over fixed rails, 100 to 125 mm wide, and are essentially container yard stacking
devices. They are used in combination with tractor- trailer sets, (or, in a few
cases, straddle carriers) for the Quay Transfer Operation, for CFS duties and
other terminal movements. Rail-mounted gantry cranes were first installed in
container yards in 1968. It is important to distinguish between two distinct types
of rail-mounted gantry crane; those used for stacking in the container yard and
those used on receipt/delivery operations at rail terminals. The latter are by far
the more common type (possibly accounting for two-thirds of installed gantries);
they are generally small gantries, spanning perhaps two or three rail tracks and a
roadway. Container yard rail-mounted gantry cranes generally have large spans.

Chapter 6

The tractor is basically a heavy-duty motive power unit, or ‘prime mover’, filled
with one of a variety of coupling devices for attaching rapidly to an over the road
chassis or a yard trailer. The tractor-trailer set is commonly used in the various
Relay and Combination types of container-handling systems, for transporting
boxes between the quayside and the container yard, as well as for transport to
and from a CFS and to Receipt/Delivery ‘grids’ in some systems. The tractor also
has a prominent role in the handling of containers to and from RoRo’ vessels,
either mounted on their over-the-road chassis or lifted (by front end loader) from
their storage position below deck, onto deck, onto low bed yard trailers. Tractor-
trailer systems have been used for container handling since the earliest days of
this form of unitization, and Sealand (the pioneer company in container transport)
remains dedicated to the principle of using over-the -road chassis for transporting

89
containers to and from the terminal container yard, using tractors for in-terminal
movement and quay transfer.

Chapter 7

Trucks (commonly and misleadingly referred to as Fork-Lift Trucks) have

become a prominent and universal means of handling containers in terminals.
Their familiarity, versatility and reliability have made them a popular choice
for terminal operators. Lift trucks can be used in two principal ways. In some
terminals, particularly where the layout and configuration of quays dictate or
where small and expanding throughput is experienced, they are the primary
back-up system in what is dedicated lift-truck operation. The lift truck is attractive
to users because it is considered a simple machine with relatively low initial
cost, compared with other types of container-lifting equipment, has relatively low
operating cost and good maintenance features. Most terminals today deploy a
small fleet of lift trucks to support the main handling equipment and to block-stack
empty containers. The number of container moves achieved per hour shows
considerable variation and reflects the different roles that lift trucks perform on
container terminals. A unit being employed solely for stacking containers in the
containers yard in a Relay system could be expected to achieve high handling
rates, but when used on the quay transfer operation; particularly over long
distances, the handling rate is lower; application is the major determinant of
performance levels.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:POSSIBLE ANSWERS

CYP 1 :

The first activity is the Ship Operation, consists of the loading and discharging
of containers between the vessel and the quayside. Movement between the
quayside and the container yard is known as the Quay Transfer Operation.
Containers are generally stored temporarily in the container yard while
documentary, administrative and other formalities are completed, The Receipt/
Delivery Operation, through which all FCL containers flow is the next terminal
activity.

CYP 2 :

a. There is disparity between manufacturers' claims and operators

experience in gantry crane operating performance and utilization.
Manufacturers' claims on performance rates are based on the theoretical
cycle time, calculated from hoist and trolley speeds, etc. These figures
will be much higher than those achievable under operating conditions.
Even operators tend to exaggerate performance (for commercial and
promotional purposes) by quoting rates achieved at peak periods or
under ideal conditions. Terminal operators are interested in two primary
indicators of gantry crane performance: the total number of container

90
 moves a crane can make per annum and the Hourly Handling Rate, which
is clearly a function of the crane cycle time. The latter is of particular
interest to the ship operator.
b. i) Lifting Capacity is expressed in either tonnes under the crane head'
or 'tonnes under the spreader: the latter is more useful for operating
purposes since it takes account of the spreader beam itself, which can
weigh up to ten tonnes and thus reduces the rated capacity of the crane.
ii) The backreach is the distance between the inboard crane rail and the
maximum landward position of the trolley and spreader, it varies between
8 and 30 meters, depending on operational needs; backreach must at
least be sufficient to allow hatch covers to be landed clear of the container
pickup and delivery area between the legs, and some terminals use the
backreach area to land boxes that are being shifted prior to re-loading.
CYP 3 :

The most commonly used handling system is straddle carrier system- The main
advantage of the system are good space utilisation, high flexibility, ability to meet
peak requirement, ability to handle all owing to the weight distribution over eight
wheels and compensating suspension system.

The equipment has a very high damage factor and needs intensive maintenance.
It cannot be used in case of dense stacking of containers.

CYP 4 :

Rubber-tyred yard gantries operate exclusively in the container yard. Transfer

between the ship-side and the container yard is carried out (usually) by tractor-
trailer sets. These drive along the roadway or truck lane generally within the span
of the gantry, to pick up or deliver their containers, while the gantry crane moves
the containers between the trailers and the stack: and shifts the boxes within the
stack. For receipt/delivery, road vehicle are allowed onto the terminal and along
the roadway to the appropriate row; there is not normally an interchange point in
this system as there is with straddle carrier systems.

CYP 5 :

Rail-mounted yard gantry cranes, like rubber-tyred gantry cranes, were

developed from industrial overhead cranes. They span several rows of
containers and can stack them upto five high (one-over-four). They run on steel
wheels over fixed rails, 100 to 125 mm wide, and are essentially container
yard stacking devices. They are used in combination with tractor- trailer sets,
(or, in a few cases, straddle carriers) for the Quay Transfer Operation, for CFS
duties and other terminal movements. Rail-mounted gantry cranes were first
installed in container yards in 1968. The trolley speeds can be faster for RMG,
as compared to RTG because of larger span. Hoist speeds are also higher. The
equipment provides economical use of land area because of its high and dense
stacking ability.

91
CYP 6 :

The tractor-trailer set is commonly used in the various Relay and Combination
types of container-handling systems, for transporting boxes between the
quayside and the container yard, as well as for transport to and from a CFS and
to Receipt/Delivery 'grids' in some systems. The tractor also has a prominent role
in the handling of containers to and from RoRo' vessels, either mounted on their
over-the-road chassis or lifted (by front end loader) from their storage position
below deck, onto deck, onto low bed yard trailers. The internal transportation of
containers is done by terminal tractors and trailers, though the Straddle Carriers,
wherever provided also transport containers. However, where Straddle Carriers
are not provided, transportation is done by Tractor Trailers. Tractor trailers also
supplement the transportation done by Straddle Carrier.

CYP 7 :

The Fork lift truck system can be used at ICFS with a relatively low throughput.
However, it suffers from the following draw- backs:

(a) productivity is lower than in the case of Straddle Carrier.

(b) Area requirements are high due to the necessity to provide sufficient
maneuvering space.
(c) Heavy pavement is required to withstand front axle loads of laden Forklift
trucks.

92
 6
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Institute of Rail Transport
Cargo and
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La Fkku

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Container
Handling

UNIT-4
Warehousing in India

Structure
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Concept of Warehousing
4.2 Need for Warehousing
4.3 Purpose of Warehouse
4.4 Benefits of Warehouse
4.5 Type of Warehouses
4.5.1 Ownership Warehouse
4.5.2 Products
4.5.3 Controlled Temperature Basis
4.5.4 Functionality
4.5.5 Mode of Transportation
4.6 Setting up of Warehousing Corporations in India
4.7 Objectives and Functions of Warehousing Corporations
4.8 Public Warehousing in India
4.9 Warehousing Network in India
4.10 Storage and Preservation of Stocks at the Warehouses
4.10.1 Storage Structure
4.10.2 Stacking
4.11 Commodity Profile of the Warehousing Corporations
4.12 Quality Control Operations in Warehousing
4.13 Insect Pests Associated in Storage

93
4.14 Diversified Warehousing Activities
4.14.1 Custom Bonded Warehouses
4.14.2 Excise Bonded Warehouses
4.14.3 Warehouses Run on Management Basis
4.14.4 Operation of Container Freight Stations (CFSs) and Port Side Container
Terminals (PSCTs)
4.14.5 Air Cargo Complexes
4.14.6 Specialised Storage Arrangements for Delicate/Perishable Commodities
4.14.7 Transit Warehouses
4.15 Incidental Services Provided by Warehousing Corporations
4.16 Stacking Methods
4.17 Equipments Used in Warehouse
4.18 Let us Sum Up
Check Your Progress : Possible Answers

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have gone through this unit, you should be able to:
OO Describe the need for different cargo handling system.
OO Describe different types of Cargo Handling Equipments.
OO Distinguish between the needs of handling different types of cargo
differently.

4.1 CONCEPT OF WAREHOUSING

India is pre-dominantly an agricultural economy. It has made rapid progress in
the field of agricultural production, storage, marketing and transportation in the
post independence era as a result of purposeful planning, growth and welfare
oriented policies of the Government With the recent liberalisation of the economy.
India is fast emerging as a self-sufficient country In India, agriculture provides
direct and indirect sustenance for more than 2/3rd of its population and even
then food production is, at times, not enough to meet the demands and we are
compelled to import food grains.

With the intensive agricultural practices such as use of improved and high
yielding variety of seeds, fertilizers, irrigation facilities, integrated pest
management etc., the need (or organized marketing and scientific storage
became imperative. The other factor was Rural Indebtedness In the absence
of any organised financial institution at rural level and due to lack of credit
worthiness the farmers had to borrow money on trust from village money lenders
on abnormal and high rate of interest The high rate of interest became a charge
on the produce and the farmers found it difficult to save for investment after
paying the loan and interest For development of agriculture, therefore, need was
felt for arranging cheap institutional credit through banks and other Institutions

94
As a result, the co-operative credit societies, land mortgage Banks etc developed
The co-operative banking system based its loans on credit worthiness as well as
the personal trust and on the basis of the crops grown It advanced loans to its
members on the strength of their assets and crop expectation But the farmers
suffered in lack of holding powers on his produce and he has to sell it after
harvest to meet his needs, it was, therefore, considered why could the produce
itself not be a good security for raising loans in addition to the general credit
worthiness It is in this context, the importance of the “Concept of Warehousing”
fully developed and tool shape

4.2 NEED FOR WAREHOUSING

Warehousing is the one of the most important component in the field of
agricultural or industrial activity as a whole. Warehousing forms an integral part in
the marketing chain. In a developing economy, a warehousing system which can
provide safe storage of products on scientific lines is vital.

In the agricultural sector, safe storage of agriculture surplus become instrumental

in facilitating cheap institutional credit. The warehouse receipt issued in token of
acceptance of goods alter ascertaining the quantity and quality of produce, the
receipt carries the guarantee that the quality and the quantity as described in
the receipt will be delivered to the holder of the receipt after the storage period
which is also mentioned in the warehouse receipt itself. The receipt provides an
assurance that the goods will remain safe upto the end of the storage period This
can be ensured only if the quality and quantity of the goods can be preserved
during the storage by adopting scientific techniques of preservation. To cover
the risk further, the goods are insured against fire, burglary, theft, floods, riots
and strikes etc. Barring the fluctuations in the price in the market, practically all
risks are covered. Warehousing thus, ensures the safe return of goods or value
thereof to the depositors. The banking institutions accept the Warehouse Receipt
as a good security and advance

4.3 PURPOSE OF WAREHOUSE

– To create Buffer stock (Buffer between supplier and user)
– To create a safety stock (To meet out the need in case of delay between
ordering and receiving the goods.)
– To hold insurance stock (To meet out the emergent requirement like
stock of motors to replace in sudden failure.)
– To store seasonal stock (For commodities produced / manufactured in a
season.)
– To accommodate strategic stock (these are the local / imported items
stored for consumption in future in a project.)

95
– To hold trading stock (Stock whose value is likely to increase)
– Dead stock (Space for storing unused items )

4.4 BENEFITS OF WAREHOUSE

OO Ensure regular supply of goods in the market. Hence helps to stabilize the
prices.
OO Enable farmers to avoid distress sale of their product.
OO Facilitates safe custody of goods.. Minimize the risk of fire, loss, damages
theft etc.
OO Provides facility of sorting, blending, , packing, grading, and processing of
goods.
OO Prospective buyers can inspect the goods.
OO The owner can borrow the money against the warehouse receipt.
OO Deferred payment of duties.

4.5 TYPES OF WAREHOUSES

Ware house can be classified into different types on the basis of the following
factors:-

4.5.1 Ownership warehouse

4.5.1.1 Private Warehouse:- licensed to a private person. Goods imported by or
on behalf of the licensee are stored in such warehouse.

4.5.1.2 Public warehouses:- The licensee can be individual or a co-operative

for storage of goods of the general public . Generally located near the
junctions of Railways, Highways and waterways.
4.5.1.3 Co-operative warehouses:-These are organized to provide warehousing
facility to members and other.

4.5.2 Products
Meant for specific product eg agriculture commodities, Industrial commodities
etc.

4.5.3 Controlled Temperature Basis

Refrigerated warehouses are meant for storing product in specific temperature
conditions

96
4.5.4 Functionality
4.5.4.1 Custom Bonded Warehouses:- licensed by the Govt to accept imported
goods for storage until the payment of custom duty. (under section 57 of the
Customs Act 1962.)

4.5.4.2 Excise Warehouses:- For excisable goods set up by Notification No. 47/
2001 CE(NT) dtd. 26.06.2001

4.5.4.3 General storage warehouse;- Store product for periodic deliveries

to a manufacturer or distributor center Distribution warehouse They perform
distribution services on behalf of their customers

4.5.4.4 Consolidation warehouses:- It involves pick and pack operations called

for special inventory management and picking procedure

4.5.4.5 Warehouse providing Value added services:- It provides a value

added services like repacking, gift wrapping, labeling etc. it provides labour or
special equipment to the customers.

4.5.4.6 Cross Docking and Trans loading Warehouses:- It involves tracking

containers or wagon movement

4.5.4.7 Break Bulk Warehouses:- That receive product in bulk often by wagons,
and then repack the product based on customer based requirement. It may
involve inspection and labeling in case of imported goods.

4.5.5 Mode of Transportation

These include Rail side warehouses, air cargo warehouses

Check Your Progress 1 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
What do you understand by :
i. Break Bulk Warehouse. ii. Customs Bonded Warehouse.

97
4.6 SETTING UP OF WAREHOUSING |
CORPORATIONS IN INDIA
The concept of public warehousing in India is of a recent origin. The Agricultural
Finance Committee set up in 1945 had gone into the details of rural indebtedness
and the high rate of interest They suggested some measures which pointed out
to the need of creating ‘Negotiable Paper” on the strength of which advances
can be secured for the agriculture sector from the credit institutions For creation
of such a paper, on the basis of the value of the goods, a storage agency which
could ensure safe storage and return of produce on demand was considered
essential.

The Rural Credit Survey Committee set up by the Reserve Bank of India in
early 1950, gave its report in 1954. The Committee deeply studied the system of
farming, pattern of crop production and credit as well as other allied agricultural
problems and recommended various measures One of these was for the
establishment of warehousing system in the public sector The main reason
outlined by the Rural Credit Survey Committee was the investment in godown
construction. The private capital was shy of investment in godown construction
as this was not considered remunerative enough. The Committee, therefore,
recommended that the Government should set up an organization which can
construct godowns for scientific storage and run warehouses for the development
and promotion of warehousing activity on country wide scale and on commercial
lines.

4.7 OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS OF

WAREHOUSING CORPORATIONS
The recommendations of the All India Rural Survey Committee paved the way for
enactment of Agricultural Produce (Development and Warehousing) Corporations
Act. 1956 (since repealed and replaced by the Warehousing Corporations Act,
1962) and for setting up of Central and the State Warehousing Corporations.

The public warehousing in India envisaged a three tier system. Under the
Scheme, centres of All India importance are served by the Central Warehousing
Corporation. Centres of secondary markets and at district levels served by the
State Warehousing Corporations while the village and the community levels are
to be looked after by the co-operatives

The broad objectives of the Warehousing Corporations are-

i) Creation of negotiable paper to provide an instrument for expansion of

credit through commercial banks for the benefit of producers, dealers
and others.

98
ii) Adding to the nation’s real income by reducing wastage and losses in
storage and by promoting and developing warehousing and. scientific
storage facilities.
iii) Providing assistance in orderly marketing by introduction of standard
grade specifications and the Warehouse Receipt.
iv) Training of personnel to manage and run modern warehouses.
v) Providing assistance to Govt. and Govt. sponsored organizations in their
scheme of price support and price control.
The main functions of the Central Warehousing Corporation as envisaged in the
Warehousing Corporations Act, 1962 are:-

a) To acquire and build godowns and warehouses at such suitable

places in India as it thinks fit
b) To run warehouses for the storage of agricultural produce, seeds,
manures, fertilizers agricultural implements and notified commodities
offered by individuals, cooperative societies and other institutions.
c) To arrange facilities for the transport of agriculture produce, seeds,
manures, fertilizer, agricultural implements and notified commodities to
and from warehouses
d) To subscribe to the share capital of a State Warehousing Corporation.
e) To act as an agent of the Government for the purpose of purchase,
sale, storage and distribution of agricultural produce seeds, manures,
fertilizers, agricultural implements and notified commodities.
f) The Corporation may, at its and at the request of some parties concerned,
undertake disinfestation service outside its warehouses in respect of
agricultural produce or notified commodities.
g) The Corporation may at its discretion, act as agent for the purposes of
purchase, sale, storage and distribution of agricultural produce, seeds,
manures, fertilizers, agricultural “implements and notified commodities on
behalf of a company as defined in the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956)
or a body corporate established by the Act of Parliament or of a State
Legislature or a Cooperative Society.
h) To carry out such other functions as may be prescribed by the
Government from time to time.
In accordance with the provision (f) above, the Government under the CWC
Rules, 1963 have also prescribed the following three additional functions of the
Central Warehousing Corporation:-

i) Disinfestations Service
The Corporation may, at its discretion and at the request of the parties
concerned. undertake disinfestations service outside its warehouses in respect of
agricultural produce or notified commodities.

99
ii) Service as Agent

The Corporation may, at its discretion, act as an agent for the purpose of
purchase, sale, storage and distribution of agricultural produce, seeds, manures,
fertilizers. agricultural implements and notified commodities, on behalf of a
company as defined in the Companies Act, 1956 or a body corporate established
by an Act of Parliament or of a State Legislature or of a Cooperative Society.

iii) Consultancy Service

The Corporation may, at the request of the Central Govt. or any State Govt. or
a Corporation established by or under Central. Provincial or State Act or a Govt.
Company as defined in Section 617 of the Companies Act. 1956 or a Cooperative
Society, prepare any project or render consultancy service for construction of
warehouses or any matter connected therewith.

4.8 PUBLIC WAREHOUSING IN INDIA

The words ‘Warehouse’ and ‘Godown’ are synonymous. The terms like
warehouse, depositor, warehouseman etc. have been defined in the relevant
State Warehousing Acts under which Public Warehouses in India are licenced
and regulated for operation for specified commodities The definitions of these
terminologies as given in the Bombay Warehousing Act, 1959 are as follows:-

i) ‘Warehouse’ means any building structure or other protected enclosure

which is used or may be used for the purpose of storing goods on behalf
of the depositors but does not include clock rooms attached to Hotels,
Railway Stations, the premises of other public carriers and like.
ii) ‘Depositor’ means a person who deposits goods with a warehouseman for
storing in his warehouse and includes any person who lawfully holds the
receipt issued by the warehouseman in respect of the goods and derives
titled too by endorsement or transfer from the depositor or his lawful
transferee
iii) ‘Warehouseman’ means a person who has obtained a licence under this
Act for the purpose of carrying out his business of warehousing.
iv) ‘Person’ includes a firm, and any Company or Association or Body of
individuals whether incorporated or not.
The rights and obligations of warehouseman are outlined in the respective State
Warehousing Acts and rules framed there under. The warehouseman is required
to take care of the goods deposited in his custody as a man of ordinary prudence
would take care of his own goods He acts as a bailer and accepts goods for
safe keeping. He charges from the bailor certain consideration called “storage

100
charges”. He acquires lien on the goods deposited with him for recovery of his
dues.

A Public Warehouse is required to obtain a licence from the Licencing Authority.

The Licencing Authority satisfies itself about the storage worthiness of the
godown before granting licence The warehouseman is also required to obtain
Weigher, Grader and Sampler licences. A licened warehouse can issue a
receipt for the goods deposited in the warehouse in the prescribed form called
a “Warehouse Receipt”. This receipt may be marked as Negotiable or Non-
negotiable. If the Warehouse Receipt is Negotiable. the Depositor can draw
advance from any bank against the pledge of the Warehouse Receipt or sell the
goods without physical handling.

The advantages of using a public warehouse are>

i) Storage facilities can be availed of at desired locations as and when

required at a known cost.
ii) The goods can be despatched to the warehouses with the warehouseman
as a consignee. Arrangements can also be made by the warehouseman
for the clearance of the goods at the railhead and transportation to the
warehouse.
iii) Similarly, the goods can be delivered or despatched to the nominees/
allotees of the depositor.
iv) Entire inventory management is done by the warehouseman and the
depositor is made free from these costs and botherations.
v) The goods are handled properly and preserved scientifically by the
trained technical personnel without any damage or deterioration during
handling and storage
vi) The goods can also be insured against all risks like tire, flood, thefts etc.
at a nominal cost and the depositor is indeminfied against such losses.
vii) The goods can be kept in the public warehouse till such time the market
price is found remunerative enough for disposal of the goods and thus
“Distress Sale can be avoided.
viii) Advance can be obtained against the pledge of the Warehouse Receipt
from Banks
ix) By warehousing of goods, uncertainties in availability of raw material or
products due to supply dislocation is avoided.
x) Public Warehouses help in physical distribution of goods like food grains,
fertilizers, public distribution items, consumer goods etc. and, therefore,
help in marketing of products.
xi) Public Warehouses can also be used for grading, standardization and
packing of products, if the arrangements are on dedicated and long term
usage basis.

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4.9 WAREHOUSING NETWORK IN INDIA
Public Warehousing facilities in India are mainly provided by the Central
Warehousing Corporation (CWC) and Its sixteen subsidiaries, the State
Warehousing Corporations (SWCs). A Warehouse is established after
undertaking a detailed survey for identifying business potentiality While
conducting the survey, the following aspects are kept in view. The idea is to
ensure that the capacity put up is optimally utilized and the warehouse, which is
a profit centre functions viably

i) Crops grown in the area and their average.

ii) Details of mandies/markets in the locality.
iii) Commodities and quantum of movement of commodities to and from the
mandies/markets.
iv) Transport facilities through rail/road/ship/airways available for movement
of cargo.
v) Developmental activities such as irrigation facilities/construction of dam,
provision of electricity etc. that may enhance the crop production in the
area.
vi) Presence of export promotion zone/export oriented units etc. in the
vicinity.
vii) Presence of manufacturing industries such as fertilizer, sugar, cement,
paper, jute, textile etc. in the vicinity which may require warehousing
facilities for storage of raw materials and/or finished products.
viii) Storage facilities already available, if any, with different agencies in the
area as well as their utilization pattern.
ix) Additional storage requirements and in the manner the same is being met
for the present.
x) Projections of storage requirement for next 10 years.
xi) Availability of suitable storageroworthy godowns for hiring with their
details including rent
xii) Availability of suitable land for construction with details including cost.

As at the beginning of 1995, public warehouses at 1815 locations are being

operated by the Central Warehousing Corporation and the State Warehousing
Corporations.

The CWC which started functioning in 1957 with 7 warehouses in hired godowns
with 7,000 MT capacity had a phenomenal growth over the years. By the
beginning of 1995. the CWC is operating 450 warehouses throughout India
with a capacity of over 6.7 million tonnes. The growth of warehousing capacity
established by the CWC can be seen from the following table: CAPACITY

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 UTILISATION (Figures in MT)
FOR THE MONTH ENDING JULY, 2010 OF CWC

SN WAREHOUSE Const Hired Open Mgmt Total Utilization Util. %

1 AHMEDABAD 372488 100058 250819 41745 765110 648831 85

2 BANGALORE 456257 54005 26500 3586 540348 509417 94
3 BHOPAL 648957 89939 43900 43465 826261 753245 91
4 BHUBNESHWAR 149150 50780 0 212319 366547 365673 100
5 CHANDIGARH, PUNJAB 611450 47429 19945 0 678824 661216 97
6 CHANDIGARH, UT 622000 47429 21612 0 691041 673321 97
7 CHENNAI, TAMIL NADU 542571 14957 72874 1000 631402 614376 97
8 PUDUCHERRY 7350 0 0 0 7350 4021 55
9 ANDAMAN & NICOBAR 552621 14957 72874 1000 641452 621097 97
10 DELHI, KIRTI NAGAR 113315 22495 15385 0 151195 198822 132
11 DELHI, UTTAR PRADESH 23072 0 0 0 23072 23072 100
12 DELHI, HARYANA 23251 0 14300 0 37551 15104 40
13 ASSAM, GUWAHATI 64200 0 1383 0 65583 60936 93
14 GUWAHATI, NAGALAND 13000 0 0 0 13000 13000 100
15 GUWAHATI, TRIPURA 24000 0 333 0 24333 22836 94
16 HYDERABAD, AP 1155242 107863 50325 98009 1411439 1287569 91
17 JAIPUR, RAJASTHAN 268004 110346 12920 7801 399071 414587 104
18 KOCHI, KERALA 118939 3188 843 0 122970 109898 89
19 KOLKATA, WEST BENGAL 355559 146531 133118 16152 651360 498683 77
20 LUCKNOW 807650 20653 22569 5953 856825 714488 83
21 UTTARAKHAND 871640 27723 22569 5953 927885 782475 84
22 GOA 21905 0 8440 10743 41088 30990 75
23 MUMBAI 361429 187573 131861 226263 907126 712965 79
24 NAVI MUMBAI 203322 0 527340 0 730662 682545 93
25 PANCHKULA 364090 118863 10900 0 493853 494187 100
26 HIMACHAL PRADESH 7040 0 0 0 7040 5710 81
27 PATNA 93407 24149 12673 0 130229 122432 94
28 JHARKHAND 33950 0 941 0 34891 33353 96

GROWTH OF WAREHOUSING CAPACITY OF

CENTRAL WAREHOUSING CORPORATION

Sr. No. of Capacity (in lakh)

Year
No. Warehouses Metric Tonne
1. 1957-58 7 0.07
2. 1959-60 27 0.44
3. 1964-65 85 2.06
4, 1969-70 123 12.7
5, 1974-75 142 15.8
6. 1979-80 292 34.3
7. 1984-85 408 48.7
8. 1989-90 483 65.1
9. 1994-95 450 67.2

Besides the above, the State Warehousing Corporations also operate the
following warehousing capacities as at the beginning of 1995:-

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 WAREHOUSING CAPACITY OPERATED
BY STATE WAREHOUSING CORPORATIONS

Sr. Name of the No. of Capacity in

SWC Centres lakh tonnes
1. Andhra Pradesh 81 6.24
2 Assam 41 2.35
3. Bihar 49 2.54
4. Gujarat 50 1.59
5. Haryana 104 11 82
6 Karnataka 90 3.59
7. Kerala 64 2.25
8. Madhya Pradesh 291 14.98
9. Maharashtra 126 8.62
10. Meghalaya 5 0.11
11. Orissa 72 1.98
12. Punjab 110 27.10
13. Rajasthan 76 4.76
14. Tamil Nadu 62 5.92
15. Uttar Pradesh 110 12.79
16. West Bengal 34 2.49
Total 1365 109.13

4.10 STORAGE AND PRESERVATION OF

STOCKS AT THE WAREHOUSES

4.10.1 Storage Structure

The total storage capacity available with the Warehousing Corporations comprise
of the constructed godowns, hired godowns and the plinth/open storage space.
In addition to constructing their own godowns, the Warehousing Corporations
have also been hiring suitable storageworthy godowns from the market to
meet additional demands for storage space. Similarly, at times when covered
accommodation is not adequate, storage of such goods like paddy, metals etc.
is also undertaken in a open on raised plinth duly covered by polythene covers.
This technique is popularly known as CAP {Cover And Plinth) storage technique.

The capacity of a standard conventional godown of CWC is 5,000 MTs. The

godown consists of three compartments with carpet area of 10,000 sq. ft. each.
The compartments are separated from each other by a perfect partition wait
so that incompatible commodities from preservation and/or insurance point
of view can be separately stored. The godown is provided with high plinth of
2-21/2 ft. so as to avoid flooding as well as to make the godown rodent proof.

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Each compartment is provided with three doors of appropriate sizes with rolling/
sliding shutters. Air inlets at the bottom and ventilators at the top are provided
for the facility of cross ventilation. The sliding shutters, air-inlets and ventilators
are provided with wiremesh to prevent entry of birds where at the same time
facilitating cross ventilation. Godown roof is usually of corrugated asbestos
sheets.

Since in a standard conventional godown of 5,000 MT storage capacity, the total

carpet area of godown is 30,000 sq.ft., the thumb rule for determining storage
capacity of a godown is 6 sq. ft to one tonne.

The entire carpet area of the godown is not utilized for stacking of commodities.
During receipt and issues of stocks as well as during storage, various operations
such as haulage of stocks and equipments, movement of man and material
for inspection of stock heath, fumigation and disinfestations operations etc.
are required to be undertaken for which about 27°,, of the carpet area is left
as “Alleyway”. This is the space allowed between the walls and stacks and
in between two stacks for the above purposes. Further space to the extent of
about 8% of the carpet area is also left for operational requirement like receipt/
despatch of stocks, stacking of dunnage, disinfestations equipment etc. and for
standardization, rebagging, segregation. salvaging etc.
Conventional Warehouse

Racks designed for the storage of palletised products with a wide selection of goods.

This type of structure is suited to warehouses where goods are stored and picked from shelves,
either manually, or by means of special picking trolleys.

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 Pre -fabricated Warehouse

Features:- Prefabricated steel structure warehouse with the more. We provide finest quality
Prefabricated Warehouse to our respected customers. Due to high finish, durability and low
maintenance, these products are highly acclaimed in the market. These buildings are developed and
designed from finest more.
The construction of this type of warehouse is faster in comparison to normal steel
truss type structure

4.10.2 Stacking
Stack is a lot of the commodity stored and an ideal stack when fully is
perfectly cuboid in shape. In the Warehousing Corporations a standard stack
of food grains is of the size 30'(L) x 20'(B)x15'{H). For proper stacking, every
compartment has a well laid out stack plan. Stack outline is drawn on the floor
of the godown to demarcate stack area from alleyways/operational space. Every
stack is given a distinct number and for accounting purposes and computation of
storage losses etc. the stack is taken as an unit.

Commodities can be stacked in any of the following methods depending upon the
type of commodity, type of packages, shape of packages and duration of storage
contemplated:

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4.10.2.1 Block Stacking
This type of stacking is commonly adopted method where the bags/packages are
stacked lengthwise in one row and breadth wise in the 2nd row. These two rows
forming a block. Blocks are built adjoining each other over the entire stack area.
This type of stacking is most ideal because stack building is convenient less
cumbersome and the entire stack need not be disturbed if the part of the lost is to
be taken out. Peripheral accounting for periodical stock verification is also easier.

4.10.2.2 Criss-Cross Stacking

In this type of stacking, bags/packages are spread in the lengthwise direction
in the first layer over the entire stack area and in the breadth wise direction in
the second layer over the entire stack area. This is alternated till the maximum
permissible stack height.

While a criss-cross stack is most stable, building a criss-cross stack is time

consuming. In case of part delivery, the entire stack need to be disturbed
Therefore, it posses a problem in accounting and stock verification.

4.10.3.3 Simple Stacking

In this method of stacking, the bags/packages are just stacked one over the
other. This method of stacking is not resorted to in the warehouses since the
stack collapses very easily. Such type of stacking is generally followed at the
railway good shed. port wharf or at the godown varandah (receipt point) where
the stocks are just dumped for temporary storage before final despatch or
stacking.

4.10.3.4 Dunnage
Moisture in the stored commodities is one of the important factors causing
qualitative and quantitative deterioration during storage. Food grains which
are dried plant material tend to absorb moisture from all sources including
atmospheric air, godown floor, godown walls etc other stored commodities such
as jute, cotton etc. also absorb moisture from the floor. Higher the moisture
content in the stored commodities, faster is the deterioration due to insect
and microbial activities and, therefore, lesser is the storability. The stored
commodities also loose weight due to driage resulting in quantitative loss.
Permissible limits of such driage loss in different commodities depending upon
the period of storage are provided in the respective State Warehouse Rules.
Moisture content of the stocks at the time of receipt and delivery is. therefore,
recorded using appropriate type of moisture meter and duly authenticated by the
depositor.

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In order to prevent absorption of floor moisture by the bottom layer bags/
package’s, the commodities are stacked on appropriate dunnage. Following
dunnage materials are commonly used at the warehouses:

i) Wooden crates or HDPE crates of size 5’x2' or other appropriate size,

ii) Bamboo mats prepared out of closely woven bamboo strips
iii) Polythene films of at least 100 micron thickness.

While wooden crate is the most ideal dunnage. However, in view of the scarcity
to good quality wood due to restriction in deforestations and consequent high
cost, stocks at the warehouses are also stacked by providing two layers of,
bamboo mats with a sandwiched layer of polythene film.

Check Your Progress 2 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following
questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
Describe different types of Stacking.

4.11 COMMODITY PROFILE OF

THE WAREHOUSING CORPORATIONS
The agricultural produce (Development and Warehousing Corporations) Act,
1956 provided that the Central Warehousing Corporation may acquire, build and
run warehouses for storage of agricultural produce, seeds, manures, fertilizers
and agricultural implements offered by individuals, cooperative societies and
other institutions The term “agricultural produce was defined to mean any of the
following groins of commodities -

i) Food stuff including edible oil seeds

ii) Cattle fodder including oil cakes and other concentrates

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iii) Raw cotton, both ginned and unginned & cotton seed
iv) Raw jute
v) Vegetable oils.

Subsequently need was felt to extend the scope of commodities that could be
accepted for storage and, therefore, the concept of “Notified Commodities” was
introduced when Warehousing Corporations Act, 1962 was enacted. The Govt.
of India have so far notified 87 broad groups of commodities for acceptance in
the warehouses An illustrative list of the commodities accepted for storage at the
warehouses are given below;-

i) Food grains (including major and minor cereals), pulses, spices etc.
ii) Jute, cotton, textiles, garments etc.
iii) Tobacco, cigarettes, tendu leaves etc.
iv) Vegetable oils.
v) Fertilizers, cement, washing soda, soda ash etc.
vi) Paper and pulp including paper products arid paper machinery.
vii) Leather and leather goods.
viii) Wool, lac, tea, rubber etc
ix) Drugs and pharmaceuticals.
x) Organic and inorganic chemicals.
xi) Sugar, Gur and Jaggery
xii) Surgical and medical equipments.
xiii) Scientific equipments
xiv) Photographic paper, films and photographic equipments.
xv) Telecommunication equipments.
xvi) Earth moving equipments, commercial, household and office
equipments.
xvii) Arms and ammunitions.
xvtii) Transportation equipments like aircrafts, automobiles
xix) Hydro carbon oils including crude oil, aviation spirit, lubricating oil etc
The above is only an illustrative list of commodities and not an exhaustive
one.

Some of the major clients utilizing warehousing facilities of Warehousing

Corporations are

i) Food Corporation of India.

ii) State Trading Corporation

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iii) Minerals & Metals Trading Corporation.
iv) State Civil Supplies Corporations.
v) Cotton Corporation of India.
vi) Jute Corporation of India
vii) All Fertilizer Companies in the Govt cooperative, joint and private sectors
like RCF, NFL, MFL, FCI Ltd., HFCL, SPIC, IFFCO, KRIBHCO, JUARI
AGRO, GSFC etc.
viii) Different Commodity Trading Corporations.
ix) Hindustan Lever Ltd.

x) Nestle (India) Ltd

xi) ITC Ltd.

4.12 QUALITY CONTROL OPERATIONS

IN WAREHOUSING
One the objectives conceived while enacting legislation on public warehousing was
to add to the total national income by minimizing wastages and losses in storage
and by promoting and developing scientific warehousing. This objective continues
to be the main plan of the Warehousing Corporation’s programme of Activities

The food grains and other products are susceptible to quantitative and qualitative
deterioration by pests and pathogens, rodents, birds-etc. besides vagaries of
weather. Due to conflicting reports on Post harvest losses, the Govt. of India
appointed a committee in 1966 headed by Dr Panse, the then member of the
Planning Commission. The Committee estimated the post harvest tosses to be
around 9.3% out of which the losses during storage alone were estimated to be
at 6.6%. Agency wise bifurcation of the losses during storage for major cereals
as estimated by Dr. Panse Committee are as follows:-

i) Rodents - 25%
ii) Insects - 2.55%
iii) Birds - 0 85%
iv) Moisture - 0.68%
TOTAL 6 58%

The overall storage losses in food grains stored in CWC’s warehouses is

well within 0.5%. Thus, by minimizing the losses during storage, the CWC
substantially contribute to the Gross National Income of the country.

The Central Warehousing Corporation has so tar evolved codes of storage

practices for 232 different commodities stored in its warehouses. These codes

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prescribe various quality control measures required to be undertaken for scientific
preservation of stocks while in storage.

The goods received at the warehouses are inspected, graded and weighed to
determine their commercial quality and quantity. The Corporation undertakes
to return the same quantity and quality of the goods to the depositor subject to
normal shrinkage and driage or deterioration due to the inherent quality of the
goods/packages which are beyond the control of the warehouseman.

Stocks received are orderly stacked as per approved stack plan to facilitate
inspection, physical verification and periodic disinfostation. Fortnightly inspection
of goods is carried out to determine the stock health, development o! insect
infestation, if any, and to undertake fumigation, if necessary. Observations during
fortnightly inspections and quality control treatment given to the stocks are
recorded in the “STACK CARD/BIN CARD”.

Prophylactic spraying with insecticide such as Malathion 50% EC and DDVP

76% EC is given to the godowns and stocks to prevent cross infestation of sound
stocks from infested lots

4.13 Insect Pests Associated in Storage

At the time of receipt of fresh stocks as well as during fortnightly inspection
of stocks already in storage, sample is drawn and thoroughly inspected for
presence of insect and classified as Clear” (if sample is free from any live insect
infestation), as “Few” (if sample contains upto 2 live insect per kg. sample) and
as “Heavy” (if sample contains more than 2 live insects in kg. sample).

The following insects are commonly found in the warehouses attacking different
stored commodities:-

Sr. Common name of Scientific name Commodities attacked

No. Insects
i) Lesser grain borer Rhizopertha dominica Cereal grains
(Ghun)
ii) Rice Weevil, sund wall Sitophilus Oryzae or Cereal grains
sursuri Calandra oryzae
iii) Khapra Trogoderma grananum Cereals, pulses groundnut
cake and spices
iv) Pulse beetle Caflosobruchus pulses
chinensis
v) Rust red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum Milled products like atta
maida and suji
vi) Drug store beetle or spice Stegobium paniceum spices
beetle
vii) Cigarette beetle Lasioderma tobacco, cigars bidiss,
turmeric ginger, chilli, pods,
pepper

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Sr. Common name of Scientific name Commodities attacked
No. Insects
viii) Coffee bean weevil Araecerus fasiculatus Coffee beans, maize and dry
fruits
ix) Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella Cereal grains, paddy, jowar,
anajka Patanga sorghum, maize
x) Rice Moth, Chawal ka Corcyra cephalonica Rice, paddy and other
Patanga cereals

In case the stock is found with insect infestation, the same is subject to
immediate curative treatment in the form of fumigation with suitable lumigant. The
following common grain tumigants are used at the warehouses:-

Fumigant Dosage Exposure period

Aluminum 3 tablets per tonne or 3 to 5 days 100 to 140 tables for 100 cubic mtr.
Phosphide (At.p)
Methyl Bromide (MBr.) 1.5 to 2.2 kg. for 100 12 to 24 hrs. cubic mtr.
Ethylene Di 2.5 kg per 100 cubic mtr. 7 days Bromide (EDB)

4.14 DIVERSIFIED WAREHOUSING

ACTIVITIES
Although initially established for storage of food grains. fertilizers and other
notified commodities, the Corporation has diversified its activities in view of the
developing warehousing needs in the country and has expanded its activities
to the industrial warehousing as well To keep pace with the fast industrial
growth and for facilitating export trade, the Corporation has established suitable
warehousing facilities at Port Towns and other industrial cities in the hinterland.

4.14.1 Custom Bonded Warehouses

The Corporation has been operating Custom Bonded warehouses since 1975
under the licence from the Customs Department wherein imported capital
goods, components and raw materials are stored in the Bonded Warehouses on
deferred payment of duty1 basis. The Custom Bonded warehouses are licenced
under Section 57 of the Customs Act, 1962. The Corporation issues a “Warrant
for Goods” when goods are deposited in the Bonded Warehouses. The goods
are released when duty is paid by the depositors to the Custom Department
and release instructions are issued by the Custom Authorities. The CWC has a
network of 115 Bonded Warehouses with a capacity of 4.26 lakh tonnes

4.14.2 Excise Bonded Warehouses

The excise bonded warehouses are run by the Corporation by licence under the
Central Excise Rules. 1944 Exciseable commodities are allowed to be stored in

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excise bonded warehouses without payment of Central Excise Duty which is paid
as and when dutiable goods are removed from the warehouses.

4.14.3 Warehouses Run on Management

Basis
At places where storage accommodation is not available in the warehouses
of the Corporation, suitable storageworthy godowns on reasonable rent to
meet the specific requirement of the depositor are hired on behalf of the
depositor. The godown is then taken on lease by the Corporation for running
warehouse on management basis on mutually agreed terms and conditions.
In such cases, management charges are levied on area basis or as lump-
sum amount

4.14.4 Operation of Container Freight

Stations (CFSs) and Port Side
Container Terminals (PSCTs)
Containerization is the state of the art technology in handling and transportation
of cargo with multiple advantages. While the containerized cargo movement
started taking place in the developed countries during early titles, it was only in
the late seventies, the need for setting up of CFSs was felt in the country when
container vessels started calling at major Indian Ports. The CWC with its network
of warehouses spread over the length and breadth of the country and with its
long and varied experience in handling and storage of cargo, quickly adapted
to the situation and established the first CFS for stuffing and destuffing of ISO
Containers in June, 1982 by converting its Bonded Warehouse at Bhandup
(Bombay) as a CFS. It obtained licence from Custom Authorities under Section
49 of the Customs Act, WB2 and thus, became the first licenced CFS Operator
outside the port area in the country.

With the growth of containerization over the decades, the CWC has been
coordinating its efforts with the Indian Railways, Shipping interests, Shippers
Associations. Customs and Finance Ministries etc. and providing infrastructural
support for the export/import trade. Presently, the CWC is operating CFSs/PSCTs
at the following locations:

i) Bhandup (Bombay)
ii) Patparganj (Delhi)
iii) Royapuram (Madras)
iv) Virugambakkam (Madras)
v) Madhavaram (Madras)
vi) J.N Port (New Bombay)

113
vii) Kalamboli (New Bombay)
viii) Drongiri Node (New Bombay)
ix) Calcutta
x) Pune
xi) Adataj (Ahmedabad)
xii) Sanathnagar (Hyderabad)
xiii) Ludhiana

At the CFSs/PSCTs ot CWC, both LCL and FCL export/import cargoes are
handled. The PSCTs assist in decongestion of the ports by facilitating quick
transfer of import containers from the CT/CY as well as transfer of export
containers to CT/CY in time for shipment. At the CFSs/PSCTs custom officials are
housed. Banking and users convenience facilities are provided. Thus the CFSs/
PSCTs act as custom documentation centres as well as trade centers for the
benefit of the export/import agencies. At the CFSs/PSCTs, the following facilities
are provided’-

a) Export warehouse for aggregation, storage and examination of export

cargo,
b) An import warehouses with strong room facilities and facilities for storage
of hazardous cargo.
c) Public Bonded Warehouse.
d) Container yard for storage of empty containers with facility for cleaning
refurvishing and repairing of containers.
e) Modem equipments such as Top lifters, Reach Stackers/Heavy duty
cranes for handling of containers.
f) Forklifts (both diesel and battery operated), pallet trucks, platform trolley;
wheel barrens etc. for handling of cargoes of various types
g) Accommodation with office facilities for customs and users
h) Banking facilities, communication facilities, like pay phones, fax. telex etc.
i) Adequate parking space, canteen facilities etc

j) Electronic lorry way bridge for weighment of cargo and container;

k) Facilities for fumigation of cargo in containers as well as in break b before

stuffing with appropriate fumigant.
l) Reefer plug points for Reefer Containers.

The services provided by the CWC at its CFSs/PSCTs are as follows:-

114
For Exports:

i) Aggregation of export cargo, acceptance of cargo in inventorisation and

safe up keep.
ii) Consolidation of cargo destination wise and container wise.
iii) Documentation and inspection by export inspection agencies.
iv) Custom examination and clearance
v) Pre-shipment fumigation wherever required
vi) Destufling under export supervision.
vii) Sealing and transportation of containers to ICD/Gateway Port.
For Imports:

i) Taking over import containers from ICD/Entry Port and transhipment by

road to the CFS/PSCT.
ii) Destuffing of containers.
iii) Stacking of cargo in the import warehouses inventorisation storage and
safe up keep.
iv) Custom examination and clearance
v) Delivery of cargo to the importers on their carriage,
vi) Transhipment of cargo to the Bonded Warehouses wherever required.

The CWC has plans to establish CFSs at the following locations:-

i) Kandla
ii) Udaipur
iii) Kota
iv) Nasik
v) Kanpur
vi) Emakulam

Pest, control has been the specialization of the CWC. In fact, the CWC is the
only agency in the Public Sector authorized to undertake pre-shipment fumigation
of export cargo, ship fumigation etc. by the Export Inspection Council of India
CWC through its trained technical manpower undertakes such specialized
jobs like pre-shipment fumigation of export cargo, container fumigation, ship
fumigation etc. at its CFSs/ PSCTs with great ease. Fumigants like MBr/EDB
are used as per the dossage required by the exporters/importers and nominal
fumigation charges are collected. The fumigation certificate issued by the
Corporation is accepted by the Quarantine Authorities, Shipping Lines etc.

115
Depending upon the requirement of the trade, the CWC has also provided
facilities of reefer plug points gor handling and storage of refrigerated containers
for perishable commodities like meat, marine products, fruits, vegetables,
menthol etc.

4.14.5 Air Cargo Complexes

In order to further meet the requirement of the trade and industry in handling of
air freighted cargo, the CWC has established air cargo complexes at Amritsar
and Goa. The air cargo complex at Amritsar mainly promotes exports from
Punjab. Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh for Afganistan and
middle East countries. The air cargo complex at Singanallur (Coimbatore) is next
in the line.

4.14.6 Specialised Storage Arrangements for

Delicate/Perishable Commodities
Certain commodities like fruits and vegetable, dairy products, pharmaceuticals.
seeds etc. require temperature controlled storage arrangements If stored under
normal atmospheric conditions, these commodities deteriorate and loose their
commercial value The CWC has, therefore, set up air conditioned warehouses
as well as cold storages for storage of such delicate/sensitive and perishable
commodities. The Corporation’s muttistoreyed air conditioned warehouse at
Calcutta is mainly utilized for storage of drugs and pharmaceuticals, dairy
products, seeds, vegetables and flower seeds, shellac (a forest produce), while
in the air conditioned warehouse at Madras, delicate commodities like imported
liquor are stored. The CWC is running cold storages at Hyderabad, Agartala and
Bombay for storage fof fruits like grapes, apple pineapple and other commodities
such as marine products etc are stored under temprature controlled storage
conditions. Estab-lishment of chain of cold storages at important producing/
processing centres such as Nasik, Pune, Bangalore and at the same locations in
the east coast tor marine products is under consideration.

4.14.7 Transit Warehouses

The CWC is actively involved in development and operation of transit
warehouses of appropriate capacity and of international standard in the Satellite
Freight City (SFC) being developed by the Govt. of India in the vicinity of Indira
Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi. The transit warehouse in the SFC wilt
thus decongest the air cargo terminal. Similarly. CWC is also contemplating
to establish transit warehouses at border towns viz. Petropol in W.B. (at Indo
Bangladesh border), Moreh in Manipur (at Indo Mynamar border and at Raxaul in
Bihar (at Indo Nepal border).

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4.15 INCIDENTAL SERVICES PROVIDED
BY WAREHOUSING CORPORATIONS
Apart from providing facilities for storage of commodities, the Warehousing
Corporations also provide the following incidental services to the customers:-

a) Handling and Transport

In order to serve the depositors better, the Corporation also provides
handling and transportation facilities to its bulk depositors on request
wherein the work of transportation of goods from the rail heads to the
warehouses and by vise versa as well as handling of goods at the time
of receipt and issues are provided. Along with the storage charges,
supervision charges ranging from 5 to 10% depending upon the volume
of business is levied on the depositors.
b) Pest Control Services
Since about 70% of the agriculture produce remains at the farm;;
and community level under faulty storage conditions, the real aim of
minimizing the losses and adding to the gross national income could not
be achieved. With this end in view and to extend the benefits of scientific
storage among those who are not utilizing this facility at the warehouses,
the Corporation has also launched its Disfestation Extension Services
Scheme (DESS). Under this Scheme, scientific preservation facilities
such as spraying, fumigation, dusting, rodent control etc. are carried out
in the premises of the producers, traders, millers, cooperatives, exporters
etc. The Corporation has further diversified this activity under which pre-
shipment fumigation of export cargo at the Ports and Container Freight
Stations and exporter’s premises are undertaken. Besides, fumigation of
ships, a ire rafts, deinfestation of Railway Coaches are also undertaken
by the trained technical personnel’s of the Corporation.
c) Distribution and Sales
The Central Warehousing Corporation also undertakes sales and
distribution of commodities on behalf of the Govt. and Govt. sponsored
organizations and other depositors in respect of items like fertilizers, oils,
cement etc. In 1992-93 CWC undertook as an agent of FCl for clearance
and handling of imported wheat of 19 ships at J.N. Port, New Bombay.
d) Procurement of Foodgrains
CWC for the first time undertook procurement of wheat as an agent of FCl
in 1992-93 at selected centres in UP, Bihar and Rajasthan. In 1993-94
CWC again undertook procurement of wheat as an agent of FCl in few
centres in UP and thus supplemented in the efforts of the Government in
price Support and Price Control.

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4.16 STACKING METHODS
OO Free stacking:- Stacking on the floor with or without Dunnage is referred
to as free staking.. Various goods packed in bags ,drums , tins cartons
wooden boxes etc are stacked on free stacking . Ensue stack is strong
enough, seepage free
OO Stacking bags.:- National storage agencies have designed such
a warehouse of 5 thousand tones capacity. It can be modified to
accommodate other commodities. A warehouse is divided into 4-5
compartments to store the commodities according to prescribed code of
storage practice.
The floor is divided in to stacks or block area of uniform size. These stacks are
marked with 2’ line painted in black or white.

Generous aisle space should be left between the stacks to stacks and walls.

The main aisle should be wide enough to haulage and disinfectant treatment.

The stitched side of the bag should be inside the stack.

The height of the stack shall be depending upon physical or chemical properties
of the commodity, packing material, height of the warehouse, load bearing
capacity of the floor, code of practice.

4.17 Equipments used in warehouse

A. Fork lift.;- It may be diesel , petrol or LPG operated.
OO Their capacity varies between 1 to 40 MT ton and some have lifts of
up to 10 meters.
OO Multipurpose fork lift truck can be fitted with different attachment to
handle specific load like, carpet, drums , bales or tubes. In principle
they are two basic types ;- counterbalance and reach.
OO Fork lifts improve storage potential, reduce risk of injury and cuts the
stacking times.
B. Palletizer: machines that arranges product on a palates for shipping,
storing or moving. Palletizer have a feed area where it receive the goods
to be palletized. Palletizer are used in multiple units to be shipped or
store. Placing the units on the pallets make stacking and moving the load
easier and more efficient.
Plallatizer can work with drums , sacs, bags, cans cases and various
other product types. These are of different types like. Automatic palletizer,
bag palletizer, can palatalizer, drum palletizer, and robotic palletizer
OO Depalletizers remove product by layer from pallets for leveling or
storing.

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C. Conveyor system:- These can be efficient and labour- saving devices
for moving items from one section of warehouse to another.
OO It is common piece of materials handling equipment that moves bulk
materials . It may work manual operation or through a power source.
OO Gravity conveyer do not require a motor
D. Automatic Guided Vehicle( AVG):-
OO It is a mobile transport unit that is battery operated, unmanned and
computer controlled. AGVs are programmed to derive to select point
and perform designated function.
OO Common procedures include load transferring, pallets loading /
unloading, towing etc.
E. Cranes:- It is an equipment These equipments are used in handling of
heavy cargo. It can be overhead cranes or stack cranes. Their capacity
varies from 10 MT to 40 Mt.
F. Radio Frequency Identification( RIFD) It is a silicon chip based
transponders. It consist if an antenna, reader, and a (Tag) responder. A
RFID tag is an objective that can be attached to or integrated int product
fr the purpose of identification using radio waves.
G. Lifts:- a service lift of 10’ *10’is envisaged for the transportation of the
goods.
H. DG set :- provision is made for DG set for providing standby electric
power.

Check Your Progress 3 :

Notes:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following
questions.
(b) Write your answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
Describe the Handling Equipments in a Warehouse.

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4.18 LET US SUM UP
India is pre-dominantly an agricultural economy. It has made rapid progress in the
field of agricultural production, storage, marketing and transportation in the post
independence era as a result of purposeful planning, growth and welfare oriented
policies of the Government With the recent liberalisation of the economy. India
is fast emerging as a self-sufficient country In India, agriculture provides direct
and indirect sustenance for more than 2/3rd of its population and even then food
production is, at times, not enough to meet the demands and we are compelled to
import food grains. The warehousing requirements differ from product to product
and region to region. The different types of warehouses cater to different functions,
including the statutory functions of Customs and Excise. The construction of the
Warehouse, the value added services and the other requirements vary greatly
depending on quality and quantity of the cargo, period required for warehousing
and the nature of cargo. The location of the warehouse also plays an important
factor in the provision of warehousing services to the users.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:POSSIBLE ANSWERS

CYP 1 :

i. Break Bulk Warehouses:- That receive product in bulk often by wagons,

and then repack the product based on customer based requirement. It
may involve inspection and labeling in case of imported goods
ii. Customs Bonded Warehouses:- licensed by the Govt to accept
imported goods for storage until the payment of custom duty.( under
section 57 of the Customs Act 1962.)
CYP 2 :

Block Stacking - This type of stacking is commonly adopted method where the
bags/packages are stacked lengthwise in one row and breadth wise in the 2nd
row. These two rows forming a block. Blocks are built adjoining each other over
the entire stack area.

Criss-Cross Stacking - In this type of stacking, bags/packages are spread in

the lengthwise direction in the first layer over the entire stack area and in the
breadth wise direction in the second layer over the entire stack area. This is
alternated till the maximum permissible stack height.

Simple Stacking - In this method of stacking, the bags/packages are just

stacked one over the other. This method of stacking is not resorted to in the
warehouses since the stack collapses very easily. Such type of stacking is
generally followed at the railway good shed. port wharf or at the godown
varandah (receipt point) where the stocks are just dumped for temporary storage
before final despatch or stacking.

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CYP 3 :

A. Fork lift : It may be diesel , petrol or LPG operated. Their capacity

varies between 1 to 40 MT ton and some have lifts of up to 10 meters.
Multipurpose fork lift truck can be fitted with different attachment to handle
specific load like, carpet, drums , bales or tubes. In principle they are
two basic types ;- counterbalance and reach. Fork lifts improve storage
potential, reduce risk of injury and cuts the stacking times.
B. Palletizer: machines that arranges product on a palates for shipping,
storing or moving. Palletizer have a feed area where it receive the goods
to be palletized. Palletizer are used in multiple units to be shipped or
store. Placing the units on the pallets make stacking and moving the load
easier and more efficient.
C. Conveyor system: These can be efficient and labour- saving devices for
moving items from one section of warehouse to another. It is common
piece of materials handling equipment that moves bulk materials . It may
work manual operation or through a power source.
D. Automatic Guided Vehicle (AVG) : It is a mobile transport unit that
is battery operated, unmanned and computer controlled. AGVs are
programmed to derive to select point and perform designated function.
Common procedures include load transferring, pallets loading / unloading,
towing etc.
E. Cranes : It is an equipment These equipments are used in handling of
heavy cargo. It can be overhead cranes or stack cranes. Their capacity
varies from 10 MT to 40 Mt.

REFERENCES

1) Systems, Procedures and Practices of Scientific Warehousing

OO Handbook of CWC.
2) The Warehousing Corporations Act, 1962

3) Warehousing Corporations in India, a study - O.N. Chhibber

4) Warehousing & Distribution - Dr. S.C. Sharma

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