Problem Solving and Reasoning

MODULE 3
LEARNING OUTCOMES

General Objectives
The purpose of this module is to introduce the students to Problem Solving
and Reasoning

Specific Objectives
As a result of this lesson, students will be able to:
1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
by mathematics and mathematical concepts;
2. Write clear and logical proofs;
3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s four
steps; and
4. Organize one’s method and approaches for proving and solving problems;

Introduction
Mathematical reasoning is the critical skill that enables a student to make use of
all other mathematical skills. Mathematical reasoners are able to reflect on solutions to
problems and determine whether or not they make sense. It also enables a student to
make use of all other mathematical skills. With the development of mathematical
reasoning, students recognize that mathematics makes sense and can be understood. ...
They appreciate the pervasive use and power of reasoning as a part of mathematics.

2 Main Types of Mathematical Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

I Inductive reasoning, also known as induction, is a kind of reasoning that

constructs general propositions that are derived from specific examples based on
previous observations. One important aspect of inductive reasoning is
associative reasoning: seeing or noticing similarity among the different events or
objects that you observe. For example, if you throw a ball in the air and it comes
back down, again and again, you observe the same event happening and are
likely to conclude that when you kick a ball in the air, it will come back down.
Inductive reasoning is probabilistic; it only states that, given the premises,
the conclusion is probable. Consider these simple logical statements, known as
syllogisms. Here is a statistical syllogism to illustrate inductive reasoning:

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1. 90% of humans are right-handed.

2. Joe is a human.
3. Therefore, the probability that Joe is right-handed is 90%. If you were required to guess,
you would choose “right-handed” in the absence of any other evidence.
Here is another stronger example:
100% of life forms that we know of depend on liquid water to exist. Therefore, if you
discover a new life form, it will probably depend on liquid water to exist.
This argument could have been made every time a new life form was found, and would
have been correct every time. While it is possible that in the future a life form that does
not require water will be discovered, in the absence of other factors, the conclusion is
probably correct, as it has been in the past.
Inductive reasoning is used to determine properties or relationships based on previous
observations or experiences, and then to formulate general statements or laws based
on limited observations of recurring phenomenal patterns. The conclusion of an
inductive argument follows with some degree of probability.
Inductive reasoning involves association or analogical reasoning. In order to engage in
inductive reasoning, we must observe, see similarities, and make associations between
conceptual entities. The ability to structure our perceptions relies on the associative
network in our brain, which allows us see the likeness and form a concept, about the
similarities.

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning: There are key differences between deductive and inductive reasoning.

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Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning, also called deductive logic, is the process of reasoning

from one or more general statements, laws, or principles regarding what is known, in
order to reach a logically certain conclusion. Deductive reasoning involves using given,
true premises to reach a conclusion that is also true. If you accept or know the general
principle as true, then you can apply it to the specific case to conclude that it is also
true.
Consider the general principle of the law a gravity: what goes up must come
down. Now, when you throw the ball in the air, you conclude that it will fall down based
on your knowledge of the general law of gravity. Deductive reasoning contrasts with
inductive reasoning in that a specific conclusion is arrived at from the general principle
when reasoning deductively. If the rules and logic of deduction are followed, this
procedure ensures an accurate conclusion. Here is a classic example of a deductive
argument:
1. All men are mortal.
2. John is a man.
3. Therefore, John is mortal.
The first premise states that all objects classified as “men” have the attribute
“mortal. ” The second premise states that “John” is classified as a “man”—a member of
the class or group of “men. ” The conclusion then states that “John” must be “mortal”
because he inherits this attribute from his classification as a “man. ” If both premises are
true, the terms are clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the
conclusion of the argument follows by logical necessity

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION

Determine whether each conclusion is based on inductive or deductive reasoning

1. Students at Olivia’s high school must have a B average in order to participate in sports. Olivia has a B
average, so she concludes that she can participate in sports at school.

2. Holly notices that every Saturday, her neighbor mows his lawn. Today is Saturday. Holly concludes
her neighbor will mow his lawn. Determine whether the stated conclusion is valid based on the given
information. If not, write invalid. Explain your reasoning.

3. Given: If a number is divisible by 4, then the number is divisible by 2. 12 is divisible by four. Conclusion:
12 is divisible by 2.

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ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION

1. The conclusion is based on a fact. So, it is deductive reasoning.

2. Holly is basing her conclusion on a pattern of observations, so she is using inductive reasoning.

3. If p → q is a true statement and p is true, then q. Here, a number divisible 4 is divisible by 2 also
and 12 is divisible by 4. So, 12 is divisible by 2.

EXERCISE No. 1

Re Read the following arguments and determine whether they use

v inductive or deductive reasoning:

1. Since today is Friday, tomorrow will be Saturday. ____

2. Since it snowed every New Year's Day for the past four years it will snow
on New Year's Day this year. ____
3. A child examines ten tulips, all of which are red, and concludes that all
tulips must be red.
4. If an isosceles triangle has at least two sides congruent, then an
equilateral triangle is also isosceles. _____
5. Sandy earned A's on her first six geometry tests so she concludes that she
will always earn A's on geometry tests. _____
6. If 5x = 25, then x =5. _____

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Intuition, proof and Uncertainty

Mathematical intuition is coming across a problem, glancing at it, and
using your logical instinct to pull out an answer without asking further questions.
Thus intuition also plays a major role in the evolution of mathematical concepts.
The advance of mathematical knowledge periodically reveals flaws in
cultural intuition; these result in "crises," the solution of which result in a more
mature intuition. Intuition is the mechanism by which this implicit knowledge is
brought to the forefront of the decision-making process. Some definitions
of intuition in the context of decision-making point to the importance of
recognizing cues and patterns in one's environment and then using them to
improve one's problem solving.
A mathematical proof is an inferential argument for
a mathematical statement, showing that the stated assumptions logically
guarantee the conclusion. Presenting many cases in which the statement holds is
not enough for a proof, which must demonstrate that the statement is true in all
possible cases. All mathematicians in the study considered proofs valuable for
students because they offer students new methods, important concepts and
exercise in logical reasoning needed in problem solving. The study shows that
some mathematicians consider proving and problem solving almost as the same
kind of activities. A mathematical proof shows a statement to be true using definitions,
theorems, and postulates. In a direct proof, the statements are used to prove that the
conclusion is true. An indirect proof, on the other hand, is a proof by contradiction. It begins
by assuming the opposite of the statement that is to be proven. A mathematical proof
shows a statement to be true using definitions, theorems, and postulates. ... In a direct
proof, the statements are used to prove that the conclusion is true. An indirect proof, on
the other hand, is a proof by contradiction. It begins by assuming the opposite of the
statement that is to be proven.
Note: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KRLBya7x5ZQ, a link showing more
discussions about proofs.

Polyas 4 –Steps in Problem Solving

George Polya was a mathematician in the 1940s. He devised a systematic
process for solving problems that is now referred to by his name: the Polya 4-Step
Problem-Solving Process.
Polya created his famous four-step process for problem solving, which is used all
over to aid people in problem solving:

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Step 1: Understand the problem.

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).
Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).
Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

Example 1: Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than that

number. Find the number.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
Since we are looking for a number, we will let
x = a number

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

*Remove ( ) by using dist. prop.

*Get all the x terms on one side

*Inv. of sub. 2 is add 2

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

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If you take twice the difference of 6 and 1, that is the same as 4 more
than 6, so this does check.

FINAL ANSWER: The number is 6.

Example 2: One number is 3 less than another number. If the

sum of the two numbers is 177, find each number.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several

times.

We are looking for two numbers, and since we can write

the one number in terms of another number, we will let

x = another number

one number is 3 less than another number:

x - 3 = one number

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

*Combine like terms

*Inv. of sub 3 is add 3

*Inv. of mult. 2 is div. 2

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Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If we add 90 and 87 (a number 3 less than 90) we do

get 177.

FINAL ANSWER: One number is 90. Another number

is 87.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION

1. Find 45% of 125.

2. A math class has 30 students. Approximately 70% passed their last math
test. How many students passed the last math test?
3. I purchased a new tv at a local electronics store for $541.25, which included
tax. If the tax rate is 8.25%, find the price of the tv before they added the
tax.

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ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION

ENT QUESTION

For Problem #1 ENT QU

Step 1, let x = value that we are looking for

Step 2, a number that 45% of 125
X = .45(125)
Step 3, x = .45(125) Multiply
= 56.25
Step 4, 56.25 is 45% of 125
For Problem #2
Step 1: After reading the questions carefully, let x = no of students
Step 2: A number that is 70% of 30.
X = .7(30)
Step 3: x = .7(30) Multiply x = 21
Step 4: 21 is 70% of 30, Final answer, 21 students passed the last Math test.
For Problem#3
Step 1: After, reading the questions carefully, let x= ice of theTV before they added the tax.
Step 2: The original plus 8.25% taw will give you the purchasing cost of 541.25
x + 0.0825x = 541.25
Step 3: x + 0.0825x = 541.25
1.0825x = 541.25 Combining like terms
1.0825x = 541.25 inv of multp.1,0825 is div by 1.0825
1.0825 1.0825

X= 500
Step 4: If you add on 8.25% tax to 500, you would get 541.25. Final answer. The original
price is 500.

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EXERCISE No. 2

For 4

1. For 4 weeks, William volunteered as a helper for swimming classes. The

first week, he volunteered for 8 hours. He volunteered for 12 hours in the second
week, and another 12 hours in the third week. The fourth week, he volunteered for
9 hours. For how many hours did he volunteer per week, on average?
2. Shad has a lemonade stand and sold 20 cups of lemonade. Each cup was
500 milliliters. How many liters did Shad sell in total?
3. Stacy and Mila are comparing their heights. Stacy is 1.5 meters tall. Mila is
10 centimeters taller than Stacy. What is Mila’s height in centimeters?
4. Aaron’s candy container is 20 centimeters tall, 10 centimeters long and 10
centimeters wide. Bruce’s container is 25 centimeters tall, 9 centimeters
long and 9 centimeters wide. Find the volume of each container. Based on
volume, whose container can hold more candy?
5. Jacob wants to invite 20 friends to his birthday, which will cost his parents
$250. If he decides to invite 15 friends instead, how much money will it cost
his parents? Assume the relationship is directly proportional.

Problem Solving Strategies

1. Look for a pattern

Example: Find the sum of the first 100 even positive numbers.
Solution:
The sum of the first 1 even positive numbers is 2 or 1(1+1) = 1(2).
The sum of the first 2 even positive numbers is 2 + 4 = 6 or 2(2+1) = 2(3).
The sum of the first 3 even positive numbers is 2 + 4 + 6 = 12 or 3(3+1) = 3(4).

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The sum of the first 4 even positive numbers is 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 20 or 4(4+1)

= 4(5).

Look for a pattern:

The sum of the first 100 even positive numbers is 2 + 4 + 6 + ... = ?
or 100(100+1) = 100(101) or 10,100.

2. Make an organized list

Example: Find the median of the following test scores: 73, 65, 82,
78, and 93.
Solution: Make a list from smallest to largest:
65
73
78 Since 78 is the middle number, the median is 78.
82
93

3. Guess and check

Example: Which of the numbers 4, 5, or 6 is a solution to (n + 3)(n

- 2) = 36?
Solution: Substitute each number for “n” in the equation. Six is the
solution since (6 + 3)(6 - 2) = 36.

4. Make a table

Example: How many diagonals does a 13-gon have?

Solution: Make a table:
Number of sides Number of diagonals
3 0
4 2
5 5
6 9
7 14
8 20
Look for a pattern. Hint: If n is the number of sides, then
n(n-3)/2 is the number of diagonals. Explain in words
why this works. A 13-gon would have 13(13-3)/2 = 65
diagonals.

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5. Work backwards

Example: Fortune Problem: a man died and left the following

instructions for his fortune, half to his wife; 1/7 of what
was left went to his son; 2/3 of what was left went to his
butler; the man’s pet pig got the remaining $2000. How
much money did the man leave behind altogether?
Solution: The pig received $2000.
1/3 of ? = $2000
? = $6000
6/7 of ? = $6000
? = $7000
1/2 of ? = $7000
? = $14,000

6. Use logical reasoning

Example: At the Keep in Shape Club, 35 people swim, 24 play

tennis, and 27 jog. Of these people, 12 swim and play
tennis, 19 play tennis and jog, and 13 jog and swim.
Nine people do all three activities. How many members
are there altogether?
Solution: Hint: Draw a Venn Diagram with 3 intersecting circles.

7. Draw a diagram

Example: Fortune Problem: a man died and left the following

instructions for his fortune, half to his wife; 1/7 of what
was left went to his son; 2/3 of what was left went to his
butler; the man’s pet pig got the remaining $2000. How
much money did the man leave behind altogether?

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8. Solve a simpler problem

Example: In a delicatessen, it costs $2.49 for a half pound of

sliced roast beef. The person behind the counter slices
0.53 pound. What should it cost?
Solution: Try a simpler problem. How much would you pay if a
half pound of sliced roast beef costs $2 and the person
slices 3 pounds? If a half pound costs $2, then one
pound would cost 2 x $2 or $4. Multiply by the number
of pounds needed to get the total: 3 x $4 = 12.
Now try the original problem: If a half pound costs
$2.49, then one pound would cost 2 x $2.49 or $4.98.
Multiply by the number of pounds needed to get the
total: .53 x $4.98 = $2.6394 or $2.64.

9. Read the problem carefully

Know the meaning of all words and symbols in the problem.

Example: List the ten smallest positive composite numbers.

Solution: Since positive means greater than 0 and a composite
number is a number with more than two whole number
factors, the solution is 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18.
For example, 4 has three factors, 1, 2, and 4.

10. Sort out information that is not needed.

Example: Last year the Williams family joined a reading club. Mrs.
Williams read 20 books. Their son Jed read 12 books.
Their daughter Josie read 14 books and their daughter
Julie read 7 books. How many books did the children of
Mr. and Mrs. Williams read altogether?
Solution: You do not need to know how many books Mrs.
Williams has read since the question is focusing on the
children.

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11. Determine if there is enough information to solve the problem.

Example: How many children do the Williams have?

Solution: There is not enough information to solve the problem.
You do not know if Josie, Julie, and Jed are the only
children.

12. Create problem solving journals

Students record written responses to open-ended items such as those tested
on FCAT in mathematics. Student identifies problem solving strategies

Source: https://fcit.usf.edu/math/resource/fcat/strat.htm

Mathematical problems using patterns

A pattern is a series or sequence that repeats. Math patterns are

sequences that repeat based on a rule, and a rule is a set way to calculate or
solve a problem. Patterns provide a sense of order in what might otherwise
appear chaotic. Researchers have found that understanding and being able
to identify recurring patterns allow us to make educated guesses, assumptions,
and hypothesis; it helps us develop important skills of critical thinking and logic

Example 1

What will be the next figure in the sequence?

A B C D

v
v

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Answer

Notice that the first figure in the sequence is a single circle. The second
figure has two circles. The third figure has two circles. What must be the next?
The answer is D.
Notice that the second figure is just a double of the first figure, so it has two
circles. The third figure is the double of the second figure, thus it has four
circles. The fourth figure must be double of the third figure and so it should
have eight circles.

Example 2:

What is the next number in the sequence : 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, ___?

Answer

If you get the differences between two consecutive numbers, you will have
2, 4, 2, 4. These differences did not tell us any pattern at all. But notice that the
numbers are all consecutive primes. So, the next number must be 29.

.Example 3

Suppose you decided to sign up for a half marathon (13.1 miles) race. After a long
and grueling three months of training with a coach, race day is here! The gun goes off,
and you embark on attempting a really impressive feat. Your coach records your elapsed
time, in minutes, for the first five miles of the race, and the results are as follows:

Mile Elapsed Time

1 10

2 20

3 30

4 40

5 50

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Do you notice any patterns in this chart? A pattern can be defined as a repeated
occurrence, or as something that follows a specific rule. Hmm, well there are quite a few
in there! For example, here are a few that you may have observed.

1. Every time the miles go up by 1, the elapsed time goes up by 10.

2. The elapsed time can be found by multiplying the mile number by 10.
3. There is a difference of 1 between each mile in the chart, and there is a
difference of 10 between each elapsed time in the chart.

That's just to name a few. We can observe patterns visually, numerically, or

algebraically within this chart. Patterns, in general, show up all around us in the real
world, and as it turns out, they're quite useful!
There are a number of ways that your coach can use patterns to figure this out. He
could extend the pattern out until the end of the race and see if your time is under 150
minutes at that point. He could also use the second pattern we named; that the elapsed
time can be found by multiplying the mile number by 10 to set up the equation
T = 10m, where T is the elapsed time and m is the number of miles you've run.
Since he wants to know what your elapsed time would be at 13.1 miles, if you
continue at the pace you are at, he can simply plug m = 13.1 into the equation and solve
for T.

We see that if you continue at the pace you are at, then by extending the pattern,
we find that at 13.1 miles, you will be a little over 130 minutes. To be more exact, the
equation shows that you would finish in 131 minutes, or 2 hours and 11 minutes. Wow,
speedy! You're going to crush your goal! Way to go!

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This is a great example of using patterns to solve math problems. Just like we saw in
this example, there are a number of ways to use patterns to solve problems such as
extending the pattern or setting up an equation. Regardless of the exact method you
choose, solving math problems using patterns involves these two steps:

1. Identify patterns that your data seems to take on.

2. Extend these patterns visually, algebraically, numerically, etc. to solve your
problem.

SAQ # 1
In the chart shown, what pattern do the values in row 2 take on each time the values in
row 1 increase by 1?

a. They go up by 3
b. They go up by consecutive odd integers starting at 3
c. They go down by 3
d. They go up by 6

SAQ # 2
If we let row 1 be represented by the variable x, and row 2 be
represented by the variable y, what equation can we use to represent the
pattern between row 1 and row 2?

a. y = x/3

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b. y = 3x
c. y = x – 3
d. None of these are correct

ASAQ #1 a. They go up by 3
ASAQ @ 2 b. y = 3x

EXERCISE No. 3

1. If the word MODERN can be encrypted as OQFTGP, how can you code
the word WORLD?

A. YQSNF C. YQUNF
B. YQTNF D. YQPNF
2. Which figure can be used to continue the series?




A B C D
3. What is the next number in the pattern: 5, 7, 10, 15, 22, ____?
4. Find the next two numbers in the sequence: 5, 6, 10, 19, 35, _____, ______
5. Find the next two numbers in the sequence: 7, 20, 47, 94, 167, _____, _____

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Recreational Mathematics

The term recreational math can refer to any game, puzzle or activity that
teaches math skills to help participants “win.” This can range from playing
. Typically it involves games or puzzles that relate to mathematics, although the
term can cover other material. It involves general logical and lateral thinking
skills, as opposed to advance mathematical concepts, so the average person
is at least able to understand and appreciate a recreational problem and its
solution as well as increase people’s appreciation of mathematics as a whole.
(Source: https://mathlair.allfunandgames.ca/pegsolitaire.php)

Example 1: The Cherry Sequence

Consider the following sequence of integers.

4 16 37 58 89 145 42 . . .

How is each term in the sequence obtained from the term before?

Solution:

Hint: Think of squares.

42 = 16 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦 162  37. 𝐵𝑢𝑡 162  37!

How can squares give 58 from 37?

By investigation you will come up to the following:

42 = 16
12 + 62 = 37
32 + 72 = 58
52 + 82 = 99
82 + 92 = 145
12 + 42 + 52 = 42
42 + 22 = 20
22 + 02 = 4

What do you observe? Is it always the same?

This sequence 4, 16, 37, 58, 89, 145, 42, 20, 4 is said to be
generated by 4.

The resulting sequence is called a cherry sequence.

Investigate another cherry sequences.

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Example 2:

An integer is said to be happy if and only if the sum of the squares of the
digits eventually ends in 1.

Its cherry sequence has a cyclic period of 1.

Use the code 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 2, 𝐶 = 3, 𝐷 = 4, … , 𝑊 = 23, 𝑋 = 24, 𝑌 = 25, 𝑍 = 26 to find

if the word MAYDAY is a happy integer.

MAYDAY gives 13 + 1 + 25 + 4 + 1 + 25 = 69.

Cyclic period is 8.
8 numbers --- 16, 37, 58, 89, 145, 42, 20, 4 --- form a cycle that will repeat itself
continually.
 MAYDAY is not happy.

Example 3

In each of the following , place the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in the circles so

that all lines are add up to the same total. Each number can only be used once
in any given problem. How many solutions can you find?

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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION

1. Use the code 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 2, 𝐶 = 3, 𝐷 = 4, … , 𝑊 = 23, 𝑋 = 24, 𝑌 = 25, 𝑍 = 26 to

find out which is happy and which is not.
a) EASTER
b) CHRISTMS
c) SATURDAY
d) HAPPY
e) Your Name

2. Place the numbers 1 to 7 in the diagram so that each of the three rows has
the same sum.

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