Research

Methodology:
An Introduction for Undergraduates
SECOND EDITION, December 2022.

Readings selected and edited by:

Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF
[email protected]

2022 - 2023

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................................... i
Course Description ................................................................................................................................ iii

1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION I ................................................................... 1

1.1. Meaning of Research.................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Objectives of Research ................................................................................................................. 1
1.3. Motivation in Research................................................................................................................ 1
1.4. Types of Research......................................................................................................................... 2
1.5. Research Approaches ................................................................................................................... 3
1.5.1. The Quantitative approach..................................................................................................................3
1.5.2. The Qualitative approach ....................................................................................................................3

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION II ................................................................. 4

2.1. Significance of Research .............................................................................................................. 4
2.2. Research Methods vs. Research Methodology ............................................................................ 4
2.2.1. Research methods ...............................................................................................................................4
2.2.2. Research methodology ........................................................................................................................4
2.3. Research and Scientific Method .................................................................................................. 4
2.3.1. Inductive reasoning – the empiricist’s approach .................................................................................5
2.3.2. Deductive reasoning – the rationalist’s approach ...............................................................................5
2.3.3. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning (Scientific Method) ........................................................................6
2.4. Research Process .......................................................................................................................... 6
2.5. Criteria of Good Research ........................................................................................................... 7

3. STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS ............................................................................................ 8

3.1. The Research Problem ................................................................................................................. 8
3.1.1. Identifying the Research Problem........................................................................................................8
3.1.2. Selecting the Research Problem ..........................................................................................................9
3.1.3. Technique Involved in Defining a Research Problem ...........................................................................9
3.2. The Research Purpose Statement (+ Objectives) ...................................................................... 10
3.3. The Research Questions ............................................................................................................ 10
3.4. The Literature Review................................................................................................................ 10
3.4.1. How Does the Literature Review Differ for Quantitative and Qualitative Studies? ...........................11
3.4.2. Steps in conducting a Literature Review ............................................................................................11
3.5. The Research Hypotheses .......................................................................................................... 11
3.5.1. Propositions .......................................................................................................................................12
3.5.2. Types of Hypotheses ..........................................................................................................................12

4. RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................................................. 13

i Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]

University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

4.2. Important Concepts Relating to Research Design ................................................................... 14

4.2.1. Dependent and independent variables ..............................................................................................14
4.2.2. Extraneous variable ...........................................................................................................................14
4.2.3. Control ...............................................................................................................................................14
4.2.4. Confounded relationship ...................................................................................................................14
4.2.5. Research hypothesis ..........................................................................................................................15
4.2.6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research ....................................................15
4.2.7. Experimental and control groups ......................................................................................................15
4.2.8. Treatments ........................................................................................................................................15
4.2.9. Experiment ........................................................................................................................................15
4.3. Sampling..................................................................................................................................... 15
4.4. Levels of Measurement in Research .......................................................................................... 16
4.4.1. Nominal level .....................................................................................................................................16
4.4.2. Ordinal level.......................................................................................................................................17
4.4.3. Interval level ......................................................................................................................................17
4.4.4. Ratio level ..........................................................................................................................................17

5. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION .......................................................................................... 18

5.1. Collection of Primary Data ....................................................................................................... 18
5.1.1. Observation method ..........................................................................................................................18
5.1.2. Interview method .............................................................................................................................. 19
5.1.3. Questionnaires...................................................................................................................................19
5.1.4. Schedules ...........................................................................................................................................20
5.1.5. Some Other Methods of Data Collection ...........................................................................................20
5.2. Collection of Secondary Data .................................................................................................... 20

6. DOCUMENTING SOURCES IN APA STYLE (7TH EDITION) .......................................................... 21

6.1. Paper Formatting Guidelines .................................................................................................... 21
6.2. APA in-text citations ................................................................................................................. 21
6.2.1. A quotation ........................................................................................................................................22
6.2.2. Quoting 40 words or more (APA block quotes) ................................................................................. 22
6.2.3. A paraphrase / summary ................................................................................................................... 23
6.2.4. One work with multiple authors in APA in-text citations ..................................................................23
6.2.5. Missing information in APA in-text citations .....................................................................................24
6.2.6. Group author (Organizations) in APA in-text citations ......................................................................24
6.2.7. Multiple works in the same parentheses ........................................................................................... 25
6.3. APA List of References .............................................................................................................. 25
6.3.1. Citing a Book......................................................................................................................................25
6.3.2. Citing a Journal Article .......................................................................................................................25

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................... 26
Books ...................................................................................................................................................... 26
Articles.................................................................................................................................................... 26
Online resources .................................................................................................................................... 26

ii Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]

University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

Course Description
This is a basic introduction to the methodology of research, or specifically: an introduction to ‘how
to conduct your end-of-term monograph’. Obviously stated, this course is addressed to
undergraduate students of university, simply because this is the category of students who are
required to submit an end-of-term monograph!
Please understand, that, this is not an academic research paper, it is just a humble attempt to
simplify things to my colleagues – yes, I am just an undergraduate student same as you, for now –
far away from the very complicated academic norm that apparently some lecturers like to embrace.
The course is based on the syllabus and lectures of the professor Zakaria Jamaati
([email protected]), Department of English Language and Culture, Faculty of Languages, Arts
and Humanities, Ait Melloul, Morocco.

Different sources constitute this work, the following could be considered the main:
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research. Pearson Education, Inc.
Hacker, D., & Sommers, N. (2013). APA pocket style manual. Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age
International.

Youssef Idammi
Ait Melloul, Morocco
November 2022

iii Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]
University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

1. Research Methodology: An Introduction I

1.1. Meaning of Research
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines research as “a careful study of a subject, especially
in order to discover new facts or information about it.”
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. Hence,
the research activity comprises the following activities:
 Defining and redefining problems,
 Formulating hypotheses,
 Collecting, organizing and evaluating data,
 Making deductions,
 Attaining conclusions
 Testing the conclusions to determine if they fit the formulated hypotheses.
In its simplest form, research is defined as the pursuit of truth using study, observation,
comparison-making and reaching of conclusions (Eversheim, 2008).

1.2. Objectives of Research

The general purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of
research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory
research);
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, a group, or a situation
(descriptive research);
 To determine the frequency or occurrence associated with a phenomenon (diagnostic
research);
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between two or more variables (hypothesis-
testing research).

1.3. Motivation in Research

The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
 Desire to be of service to society;
 Desire to get respectability.

1 Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]

University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

However, many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity
about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and
the like may as well motivate people to perform research operations.

1.4. Types of Research

The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive research Analytical research
Descriptive research includes surveys and In analytical research, the researcher has to
fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The use facts or information already available,
major purpose of descriptive research is and analyze these to make a critical
description of the state of affairs as it exists at evaluation of the material.
present. The main characteristic of this
method is that the researcher has no control
over the variables; s/he can only report what
has happened or what is happening.

(ii) Applied research (action research) Fundamental research (basic/pure research)

Applied research refers to the scientific study Fundamental research is mainly concerned
that aims at solving pressing practical with improving and formulating scientific
problems facing a society or an organization theories for better understanding and
(e.g., cure to a disease, improve crop prediction of natural or other phenomena. It
production, improve the energy efficiency, is about gathering knowledge for the sake of
etc.) knowledge itself.

(iii) Quantitative research Qualitative research

Quantitative research is based on the Qualitative research, on the other hand, is
measurement of quantity or amount. It is concerned with phenomena relating to or
applicable to phenomena that can be involving quality or kind.
expressed in terms of quantity. i.e., numbers.

(iv) Conceptual research Empirical research (experimental research)

Conceptual research is that related to some Empirical research relies on drawing
abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used conclusions about a phenomenon by
by philosophers and thinkers to develop new verifying data using experience or
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. observation. (Variables are controlled. And
hypotheses are guessed before verification.)

2 Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]

University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on
either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in
which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.

1.5. Research Approaches

The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic
approaches to research: THE QUANTITATIVE APPROACH and THE QUALITATIVE APPROACH.
1.5.1. The Quantitative approach
It is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories and
assumptions. This approach can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic.
Common quantitative methods include experiments and observations recorded as
numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.
Example: You survey 300 students at your university and ask them questions such as: “On
a scale from 1 to 5, how satisfied are you with your professors?”
1.5.2. The Qualitative approach
It is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This
approach enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.
Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions,
ethnography, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts
and theories.
Example: You conduct in-depth interviews with 15 students and ask them open-ended
questions such as: “How satisfied are you with your studies?”, “What is the most
positive aspect of your study program?” and “What can be done to improve the
study program?”

3 Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]

University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

2. Research Methodology: An Introduction II

2.1. Significance of Research
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry,
and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of
research can well be understood.
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization.

2.2. Research Methods vs. Research Methodology

2.2.1. Research methods
Research methods are all those methods/techniques which are used by the researcher
during the course of studying their research problem. In other words, Research methods
are the practical techniques used to carry out research. They are the ‘tools of the trade’ that
make it possible to collect information and to analyze it.
 Methods concerned with the collection of data;
 Statistical techniques used for establishing relationships between the data and the
unknowns;
 Methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.
2.2.2. Research methodology
Research methodology is a way of explaining how a researcher intends to carry out their
research. It’s a logical, systematic plan to resolve a research problem. It may be understood
as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
A research methodology encompasses what data is going to be collected and where from,
as well as how it is going to be collected and analyzed (=research methods).
Research methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of
it. Though, the scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.
Thus, when we talk of research methodology, we not only talk of the research methods but
also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and
explain why we are using a particular method or technique not another.

2.3. Research and Scientific Method

Research is a careful, detailed and systematic study of a phenomenon to learn something new
about it or studying it from a new perspective. Scientific method is the way of conducting research.
But it is a vital cog in any research as anyone with reasonable intelligence can easily perform
research armed with scientific methods. In Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, scientific method is

4 Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]

University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

defined as “principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of knowledge involving the
recognition and formulation of a problem, the collection of data through observation and
experiment, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.”
Research is just another name for gathering data and information, analyzing it and then arriving
at results, which is primarily what scientists do. To many, scientists appear as outlandish as they
possess much deeper knowledge than common people. To an extent, this is true but they are
scientists not because of their knowledge but because of their scientific method which produces
results that are testable and tend to produce similar results when replicated. Any research that does
not follow scientific methods is doomed to fail as authenticity of the results does not stand chance
against scientific enquiry and analysis.
2.3.1. Inductive reasoning – the empiricist’s approach
Inductive reasoning involves developing generalizations based on observation of a limited
number of related events or experiences.
Inductive reasoning starts from specific observations or sensory experiences and then
develops a general conclusion from them. This simple example gives an indication of the
line of reasoning:
All the giraffes that I have seen have very (Repeated observations)
long necks.
Therefore, I conclude that all giraffes have (Conclusion)
long necks.

 Limitations of induction
 How many observations must be made before a reasonably reliable conclusion
could be drawn?
 Could conclusions based on induction be generalized?
 Under which conditions should observations be made so a valid conclusion can be
attained?

2.3.2. Deductive reasoning – the rationalist’s approach

Deductive reasoning involves essentially the reverse process. Arriving at a specific
conclusion based on general principles, observations, or experiences.
Deductive reasoning begins with general statements (premises) and, through logical
argument, comes to a specific conclusion. Again, a simple example will provide a guide to
how this works:
All living things will eventually die. (General statement – first premise)

This animal is a living thing. (Inference – second premise)

Therefore, this animal will eventually die. (Conclusion)

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

 Limitations of deduction
 In order for a theory to be tested, it must be expressed as a statement called a
hypothesis. The essential nature of a hypothesis is that it must be falsifiable. This
means that it must be logically possible to make true observational statements
which conflict with the hypothesis, and thus can falsify it. However, the process of
falsification leads to a devastating result of total rejection of a theory, requiring a
completely new start.
 Limited evidence in observations.
 The truth of the conclusions depends very much basically on the truth of the
premise.
2.3.3. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning (Scientific Method)
The hypothetico-deductive method combines inductive and deductive reasoning, resulting
in a to-and-from process; and it involves five major steps:
1 Observe the world and creatively decide on some problem that you’d like to solve.
2 Based on observations, form a hypothesis – try to state an explanation!
3 Deduce/derive predictions1 from the hypothesis – if you assume the hypothesis is
true, what consequences follow?
4 Practical or theoretical testing of the hypothesis – look for evidence (observations)
that conflict with these predictions in order to disprove the hypothesis.
5 If the observations match the prediction, the hypothesis is rendered more
probable. If they contradict the prediction, the hypothesis is disproved so you go
back to step 2 and find yourself a new hypothesis!

It is this combination of experience with deductive and inductive reasoning that is the
foundation of modern scientific research, commonly referred to as scientific method. It
was only by the beginning of the 1960s that Karl Popper formulated the idea of the
hypothetico-deductive method, even though it must have already been used in practice for
decades (Walliman, 2010: 20).

2.4. Research Process

Research process consists of a number of closely related activities. […] One should remember that
the various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are separate
and distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has
to be constantly anticipating at each step in the research process the requirements of the

1
Difference between a hypothesis and a prediction: A hypothesis is an idea about how something works that can be
tested using experiments. A prediction says what will happen in an experiment if the hypothesis is correct.

6 Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]

University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

subsequent steps. However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful
procedural guideline regarding the research process:
1. Formulating the research problem; 6. Collecting and processing data;
2. Extensive literature review; 7. Analysis of data;
3. Development of working hypotheses; 8. Hypothesis-testing;
4. Preparing the research design; 9. Generalizations and interpretation;
5. Determining sample design; 10. Preparation of the report or the thesis.
We will look more deeply at the steps involved in the process of research later in this course.

2.5. Criteria of Good Research

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria:
 Good research is systematic: it means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules.
 Good research is replicable: this characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
 Good research is logical: this implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research.
 Good research is empirical: it implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.

7 Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]

University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

3. Steps in the Research Process

3.1. The Research Problem
One of the most challenging aspects of conducting research is to clearly identify the “problem” that
leads to a need for your study. Individuals do not seem to give enough attention to why they are
conducting their studies.
A Research Problem (RP) is a statement that addresses a gap in knowledge, challenge or
contradiction in your field. A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a
researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same.
One might ask: what is the purpose of defining a research problem? The research problem will
generate the subject of your research, its aims and objectives, and will indicate what sort of data
need to be collected in order to investigate the issues raised and what kind of analysis is suitable to
enable you to come to conclusions that provide answers to the questions raised in the problem.
The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate
relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
3.1.1. Identifying the Research Problem
Usually, we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met
together; the components of a research problem:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or
problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one
cannot have a problem.
(iii) There must be at least two alternative means (or courses of action2) available
for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain. If a researcher has no choice
of means, he simply doesn’t have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question
concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

There are several factors which may result in making the problem complicated. For
instance:

2
course of action n. (pl. courses of action): a plan; a set of intended actions, through which one intends to achieve a
goal. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/course_of_action

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

• The environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of action or
the values of the outcomes;
• The number of alternative courses of action may be very large;
• Persons not involved in making the decision may be affected by it and react to it
favorably or unfavorably, and similar other factors.
Such elements (or at least the important ones) may be thought of in context of a research
problem.
3.1.2. Selecting the Research Problem
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult
one although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this
connection. However, the following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a
research problem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a
difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subjects should not become the choice of an average
researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the
related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.
(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a
researcher, the costs involved, and the time factor are few other criteria that
must also be considered in selecting a problem.
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study if the
field of inquiry is relatively new.
3.1.3. Technique Involved in Defining a Research Problem
The research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to
all relating points. The technique for this purpose involves the undertaking of the following
steps generally one after the other:
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way;
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem;
(iii) Surveying the available literature;
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions;
(v) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.

For an in-depth comprehension of each step above, see (Kothari, 2004: pp. 27-29).

9 Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]

University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

3.2. The Research Purpose Statement (+ Objectives)

The purpose statement states specifically the purpose or objective of the research project.
It is a statement that advances the overall direction or focus for the study. Researchers describe the
purpose of a study in one or more succinctly formed sentences. It is used both in quantitative and
qualitative research and is typically found in the “statement of the problem” section. It often
appears as the last sentence of an introduction. You can recognize it because researchers typically
state it beginning with the phrase “The purpose of this study is . . .” (Creswell, 2012: 110).

3.3. The Research Questions

A research question is “a central question that a research project seeks to answer”. Choosing a
research question is an essential element of both quantitative and qualitative research.
The research questions add another level of specificity to the development of the RP, they are the
operationalization of RP statements into specific measurable goals.
 Research questions are strictly related to the data collection method to be used to answer
each research question.
 They provide the researcher with an action plan for the development and identification of
research instruments.
 RP is an arching question that aims to solve a problem.
 It could be broken into multiple sub-questions.
 Sub-questions:
- Each sub-question relates to the arching question.
- Each sub-question focuses on one aspect of the RP (sub-problems).
- Sub-questions provide practical ways for answering the RP and build up an answer
to the arching question (Research methods).

3.4. The Literature Review

When planning to conduct a research project, you have to know that:
- You are contributing to the development of knowledge in the field you are studying.
- You are not the only one creating knowledge.
Therefore, you have to know the current state of knowledge – identify the research gap – in your
chosen topic, this is exactly why we do ‘The Literature Review’. A literature review is an overview
of the previously published works on a topic.
“A literature review is “the process of searching for, reading, summarizing, and synthesizing
existing work on a topic […]” (Adler & Clark, 2011, p. 89). It results in a “comprehensive overview
of the previous research” on a topic as related to your research question (Wilder, Bertrand Jones,
& Osborne-Lampkin, in press).” (as cited in Leavy, 2017, p. 56).

10 Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]

University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

3.4.1. How Does the Literature Review Differ for Quantitative and
Qualitative Studies?
In a quantitative study, researchers discuss the literature extensively at the beginning of
a study. This serves two major purposes: it justifies the importance of the research problem,
and it provides a rationale for (and foreshadows) the purpose of the study and research
questions or hypotheses. […] The authors may also include the literature into the end of
the study to confirm or disconfirm prior predictions made at the beginning of the study.
In a qualitative study, the literature serves slightly differently. Similar to quantitative
research, the authors mention the literature at the beginning of the study to document or
justify the importance of the research problem, but unlike quantitative studies, they do not
discuss it extensively […]. In many qualitative projects, researchers often cite the literature
at the end of the study as a contrast or comparison with the major findings in the study.
3.4.2. Steps in conducting a Literature Review
Although conducting a literature review follows no prescribed path, if you plan to design
and conduct a study, you will typically go through the following interrelated steps:
1 Identify key terms (keywords) to use in your search for literature.
2 Search for relevant literature to your topic by using your keywords. Some
useful databases to search for journals and articles include: (e.g., Google
Scholar, JSTOR, etc.)
3 Critically evaluate and select the literature for your review. Look for Quality,
Accuracy, Authority of reference, Non-Biasness, Specificity, etc.
4 Analyze and organize your sources using a literature matrix (e.g., Zotero.org).
5 Organize the literature you have selected by understanding the connections and
relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and
notes, you can look for Trends and patterns, Themes, Debates, conflicts and
contradictions, Gaps, etc.
6 Write your literature review (just like any other academic text: introduction,
main body, conclusion) and make sure to introduce key issues of your research
problem through the analyzing of your literature.
3.5. The Research Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a statement predicting how variables relate to each other and that can be tested
through research. Hypotheses are typically used in experimental designs and survey research
(Leavy, 2017: 69). Therefore, Qualitative research does NOT require hypotheses; it is also worth
mentioning that certain research projects require operationalizing Research Questions in form of
hypotheses.

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Two classifications (derivation) of hypotheses:

 Inductive: A generalization based on specific observations.
 Deductive: based on a theory and provides evidence which supports, develops or disputes
it.
After collecting and analyzing the data, the hypothesis is either supported or rejected. If it is
confirmed, it allows to predict what will happen in the future or to prevent something from
happening.
3.5.1. Propositions
As mentioned earlier, qualitative research does not require hypotheses. Thus, in qualitative
studies, researchers only suggest a set of propositions to understand the nature of their
participants and the contexts before proposing a focus for the study.
o Stating the particular situation.
o Indicating the factors or events related to that situation.
o Indicate a conclusion which could be drawn from these interrelationships.
o Proposition do not require the rigor of the hypothesis.
See (Walliman, 2010, pp. 35-36) for more.
3.5.2. Types of Hypotheses
In total, three primary kinds of hypotheses are distinguished
3.5.2.1. Null hypothesis
A null hypothesis predicts that there is no significant difference between two groups
with respect to the variable being tested. You write a null hypothesis as follows:
“There is no significant difference between group 1 and group 2 with respect to X.”
3.5.2.2. Directional hypothesis
A directional hypothesis predicts a specific difference between two groups with
respect to the variable being tested. You write a directional hypothesis as follows:
“Group 1 experiences higher rates of X than group 2.”
3.5.2.3. Nondirectional hypothesis
A nondirectional hypothesis predicts a difference between two groups with respect
to the variable being tested but does not predict what that specific difference will
be. You write a nondirectional hypothesis as follows:
“There is a difference between group 1 and group 2 with respect to X.”

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

4. Research Design
Research Design is a crucial task that follows right after defining the Research Problem, Purpose
statement, Questions, and Literature Review. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much,
by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study are what constitute a research design.
Research design (RD) is the structure of any scientific work. It is the advance planning of the
methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in the analysis,
keeping in view the objectives of the research, time, money, and such factors involved. It is the
process that the investigator will follow from the start-up to completion of the study. Research
design can be thought of as the “glue” that holds all of the elements in a research project together.
A research design is not just a work plan. A work plan details what has to be done to complete the
project, but a research design ensures that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial
research questions in an unambiguous and convincing way. Research design is necessary because
it makes the smooth and logical sailing through the various research procedures possible.
The design decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about? (vii) What will be the sample design?
(ii) Why is the study being made? (viii) What techniques of data collection
(iii) Where will the study be carried out? will be used?
(iv) What type of data is required? (ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(v) Where can the required data be found? (x) In what style will the report be
(vi) What periods of time will the study prepared?
include?
Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into
the following parts:
(a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study;
(b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
(d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
In brief, a good research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research
problem; (b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the population
to be studied; and (d) methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
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4.2. Important Concepts Relating to Research Design

4.2.1. Dependent and independent variables
What is a variable?
A variable is a characteristic or ‘attribute’ of an individual or an organization that (a) can
be measured or observed by the researcher and that (b) varies among individuals or
organizations studied (Creswell, 2012, p. 630). As such the concepts like weight, height,
income are all examples of variables (Kothari, 2004, p. 33).
A dependent variable is an attribute or characteristic that is affected or influenced by the
independent variable. Researchers observe dependent variables to determine the effect of
their intervention (=manipulation).
An independent variable is one that affects or influences an outcome or dependent
variable. Researchers manipulate independent variables.
4.2.2. Extraneous variable
Extraneous variables are factors that are not directly linked with the study but may affect
an experiment’s dependent variables, which – dependent variables – are the controlled
conditions. Since extraneous variables can change an experiment’s interpretation and
results, it’s important to learn how to control them.
Example: Robert conducted a study to examine how lack of sleep affects college students. In
this experiment, each student participant is a dependent variable, while the
independent variable is the amount of sleep that they get. In this study, an extraneous
variable could include other factors that affect college students, such as living in a loud
dormitory or having a smoke detector malfunction one night and wake up a participant.
To control these extraneous variables, Robert might ask students to sleep in a quiet
location for the duration of the experiment.3
4.2.3. Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the effect of
extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study
minimizing the effects of extraneous independent variables.
4.2.4. Confounded relationship
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by
an extraneous variable(s).

3
This example is retrieved from:
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/extraneous-variable

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
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4.2.5. Research hypothesis

When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is
termed as research hypothesis. A research hypothesis links/relates an independent variable
to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one
independent and one dependent variable.
4.2.6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research
When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-
testing research.
Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis-testing research’ and research in which an independent variable is not
manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’. See (Kothari, 2004,
pp. 34-35) for an example.
4.2.7. Experimental and control groups
In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions,
it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special
condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.
4.2.8. Treatments
The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually
referred to as ‘treatments’.
4.2.9. Experiment
The process involving checking the validity of a hypothesis statement of a research problem
is called an experiment.
Experiments in general are used by researchers to test activities, practices, or procedures to
determine whether they influence an outcome or dependent variable.

4.3. Sampling
When you conduct research about a group of people (e.g., a population), it’s rarely possible to
collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is the group
of individuals who will actually participate in the research.
To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you will select a
sample that is representative of the group as a whole.

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
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 Population vs. sample

The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. The sample is the
specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.
There are two types of sampling methods:
 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong
statistical inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or
other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

4.4. Levels of Measurement in Research

Data can be measured in different ways depending on their nature. These are commonly referred
to as levels of measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Levels of measurement tell you
how precisely variables are recorded.

4.4.1. Nominal level

Nominal measurement is very basic – the data can only be categorized based on their names
or other qualitative classifications they belong to; data are labelled into mutually exclusive
groups, but there is no order between the categories.
 Examples of nominal scales

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

4.4.2. Ordinal level

You can categorize and rank your data in an order, but you cannot say anything about the
relative degree of difference between the rankings; although you can rank the top 5 Olympic
medalists, this scale does not tell you how close or far apart they are in number of wins.
 Examples of ordinal scales

4.4.3. Interval level

Interval data are measured along a numerical scale that has equal intervals between
adjacent values.
Unlike the ratio scale (the fourth level of measurement), interval data has no true zero; in
other words, a value of zero on an interval scale does not mean the variable is absent.
 Examples of interval scales

4.4.4. Ratio level

Ratio data are measured along a numerical scale that has equal distances between adjacent
values, and a true zero, i.e., a zero point on a ratio scale means the complete absence of the
variable.
 Examples of ratio scales

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
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5. Methods of Data Collection

Right after defining the research problem, and setting the research design, the data collection
process begins.
For a linguistic analysis of language, for example, the linguist will need some linguistic data, i.e.,
examples or samples of written or spoken language.
The researcher should keep in mind two types of data: primary and secondary data. Primary data
are data originated for the first time by the researcher through direct efforts and experience,
specifically for the purpose of addressing his research problem; it is also known as first hand or
raw data. Secondary data, on the other hand, are data which have already been collected by other
researchers and which have already been passed through the statistical process.

Data are not stable, instead, data seem to be:

Elusive: what is true today, may not be true tomorrow.
Corruptible: as data is further reported, it may lose accuracy and
become inconsistent. Research methods may not allow a full
picture interpretation.

Depending on the theoretical framework and methodological approach of a particular study, data
can be collected by using different methods as we will see in the next sections.

5.1. Collection of Primary Data

In experimental research, primary data is collected during the course of doing experiments. In
descriptive research and surveys, however, primary data is collected through observation or direct
interaction with participants.
Important methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive researches
are as following:
5.1.1. Observation method
The observation method of data collection is a social research technique that involves the
direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting; it is commonly used in studies
relating to behavioral sciences. It focuses on ‘natural’ settings which allow the explanation
of social processes and phenomena.
5.1.1.1. Structured and unstructured observation
in Structured or ‘systematic’ observation, the observation is characterized by a
careful definition of the units to be observed; the observer observes events using a
guide that has been planned in advance; structured observation is considered
appropriate in descriptive studies.

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

Unstructured observation, however, is conducted in an open and free manner in a

holistic way without the use of a predetermined guide; unstructured observation is
considered appropriate in exploratory studies.
5.1.1.2. Participant and non-participant observation
We often talk about participant and non-participant types of observation in the
context of studies, particularly of social sciences.
Participant observation is when the observer fully engages himself and becomes an
active participant of the group that is being studied.
Non-participant observation is when the observer remains outside the group and
simply watches their behavior/experiences.
N.B. When the presence of the observer may be unknown to the people he
is observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation.
5.1.2. Interview method
Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences.
The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic.
Schostak (2006, p. 54) suggests that an interview is an extendable conversation between
partners that aims at having an ‘in-depth information’ about a certain topic or subject, and
through which a phenomenon could be interpreted in terms of the meanings interviewees
bring to it. Two types of interviews are usually used:
5.1.2.1. Structured interviews
Structured interviews consist of a series of predetermined questions that all the
interviewees answer in the same order.
Data analysis seems straightforward because the researcher can compare the
different answers to the same questions.
5.1.2.2. Unstructured interviews
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions in
data-gathering process. They are characterized by freedom and flexibility in
conversation: Open-ended questions are asked in any order; interviewees are free
to provide detailed answers.
5.1.3. Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a list of questions or ‘items’ used to gather data from respondents about
their attitudes, experiences, or opinions. Questionnaires can be used to collect quantitative
and/or qualitative information.
The ‘questions’ involved in a questionnaire are referred to as items because they do not
always take the form of questions; that is why they are called items.

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
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Brown (2001) defined a questionnaire as “any written instruments that present

respondents with a series of questions or statements to which they are to react either by
writing out their answers or selecting from among existing answers” (p. 6).
Your questionnaire can include either closed-ended or open-ended questions, or a
combination of both.
 Closed-ended questions include a predefined list of answer options.
 Open-ended questions ask the respondent to provide an answer in their own words.
5.1.4. Schedules
S K I P P E D, D Y O R!

5.1.5. Some Other Methods of Data Collection

You might consider some other methods of data collection, particularly used by big
business houses in modern times which include: (a) warranty cards; (b) distributor audits;
(c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e) using mechanical devices; (f) through projective
techniques; (g) depth interviews, and (h) content analysis.

5.2. Collection of Secondary Data

Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. By way of caution, the researcher, before
using secondary data, must see that they possess following characteristics:
5.2.1.1. Reliability of data
The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
(a) Who collected the data? (d) At what time were they collected?
(b) What were the sources of data? (e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(c) Were they collected by using proper (f) What level of accuracy was desired?
methods Was it achieved?

5.2.1.2. Suitability of data

The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable in another
enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used by
the researcher.
5.2.1.3. Adequacy of data
The accuracy of the original data should be related to the purpose of the present research.

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
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6. Documenting Sources in APA Style (7th edition)

In this section, our concern simply is: How to cite sources in your research project using APA
Style (7TH EDITION).
Multiple formatting and referencing style guidelines are used by researchers depending on who
requires which style. The most one used for research in social sciences is the American
Psychological Association (APA) formatting & referencing style guideline—known as: APA Style.

6.1. Paper Formatting Guidelines

1. Language used in papers should be:
 Clear: be specific in descriptions and explanations.
 Concise: condense information when you can.
 Plain: use simple, descriptive adjectives, minimize figurative language, and avoid
contractions and colloquialisms.
2. Numerals under 10 should be spelled out; 10 and above should be expressed as a number.
3. Past tense verbs should be used to refer to events that occurred at a specific point in the past.
4. Use the passive voice when stressing the recipient or object of the action.
 We found the tests inconclusive.
 The tests were inconclusive.
5. Do not use “he” or “she” as a generic pronoun; it is acceptable to use “they” or rephrase the
sentence.
6. Avoid biased (discriminatory) language that reveals sex, gender, race, disability, or socio-
economic status.

6.2. APA in-text citations

There are two types of in-text citations, parenthetical and narrative. Both supply the same basic
information, but are formatted differently. Parenthetical in-text citation is placed between
parentheses; Narrative in-text citation is naturally integrated into a sentence.
 EXAMPLE: PARENTHETICAL IN-TEXT CITATION
There is a correlation between social media usage and anxiety symptoms in teenagers
(Parker, 2019).

 EXAMPLE: NARRATIVE IN-TEXT CITATION

Parker (2019) found a correlation between social media usage and anxiety symptoms in
teenagers.

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
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6.2.1. A quotation
To cite a quote in APA, you always include the author’s last name, the year of publication,
and the page on which the quote can be found. The page number is preceded by “p.” (for a
single page) or “pp.” (for a page range).
 EXAMPLE: PARENTHETICAL IN-TEXT CITATION FOR QUOTATIONS
A recent study of student plagiarism found that “plagiarism is often a matter of
confusion rather than deception” (Horváth & Kovács, 2020, p. 4).

 EXAMPLE: NARRATIVE IN-TEXT CITATION FOR QUOTATIONS

Horváth and Kovács (2020) argue that “plagiarism is often a matter of confusion
rather than deception” (p. 4).

6.2.2. Quoting 40 words or more (APA block quotes)

If the quote contains 40 words or more, it must be formatted as a block quote. To format a
block quote in APA Style:
- Do not use quotation marks.
- Start the quote on a new line.
- Indent the entire quote 0.5 inches.
- Double-space the entire quote.
Like regular quotes, block quotes can be cited with a parenthetical or narrative citation.
However, if the block quote ends with a period, place the citation after the period.
 EXAMPLE: PARENTHETICAL IN-TEXT CITATION FOR BLOCK QUOTES
Sometimes it is necessary to quote a source at length:
Block quoting is particularly useful when you want to comment on an
author’s language or present an argument that you will then critique. By
setting the quote on a new line and indenting it, the passage is clearly
marked apart from your own words. Therefore, no quotation marks are
necessary. (O’Connor, 2019, p. 38)

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
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 EXAMPLE: NARRATIVE IN-TEXT CITATION FOR BLOCK QUOTES

O’Connor (2019) explains the purpose and format of block quotes:
Block quoting is particularly useful when you want to comment on an
author’s language or present an argument that you will then critique. By
setting the quote on a new line and indenting it, the passage is clearly
marked apart from your own words. Therefore, no quotation marks are
necessary. (p. 38)

6.2.3. A paraphrase / summary

In paraphrasing, we state another author’s ideas in our own words.
 EXAMPLE: PARENTHETICAL IN-TEXT CITATION FOR PARAPHRASING
Sibutramine suppresses appetite by blocking the reuptake of the
neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain (Yanovski &
Yanovski, 2002, p. 594).

 EXAMPLE: NARRATIVE IN-TEXT CITATION FOR PARAPHRASING

Yanovski and Yanovski (2002) explained that sibutramine suppresses appetite by
blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine in
the brain (p. 594).

6.2.4. One work with multiple authors in APA in-text citations

If a work has two authors, separate their names with “&” in a parenthetical citation or “and”
in a narrative citation. If there are three or more authors, only include the first author’s last
name followed by “et al.”, meaning “and others”.

Parenthetical Narrative
One author: (Harris, 2020) Harris (2020)
Two authors: (Harris & Cook, 2020) Harris and Cook (2020)
Three or more authors: (Harris et al., 2020) Harris et al. (2020)

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
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6.2.5. Missing information in APA in-text citations

6.2.5.1. Unknown Author
For works with an unknown author, include the title and year of publication in the
in-text citation (note that the title moves to the author position in the reference list
entry as well).
 EXAMPLE: PARENTHETICAL IN-TEXT CITATION FOR UNKNOWN AUTHORS
(“Interpersonal Skills”, 2019)

 EXAMPLE: NARRATIVE IN-TEXT CITATION FOR UNKNOWN AUTHORS

As demonstrated by “Interpersonal Skills” (2019) …

N.B. In the rare case when “Anonymous” is specified as the author, treat it as if it
were a real name: (Anonymous, 2009). In the list of references, also use the name
“Anonymous” as author.
6.2.5.2. Unknown Date
When the date is unknown, use the abbreviation “n.d.” (for “no date”).
 EXAMPLE: PARENTHETICAL IN-TEXT CITATION FOR UNKNOWN DATE
(Magnus, n.d.).

 EXAMPLE: NARRATIVE IN-TEXT CITATION FOR UNKNOWN DATE

Magnus (n.d.) argued that …

6.2.6. Group author (Organizations) in APA in-text citations

If the author is a government agency or another organization, name the organization in the
signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source. If the
organization has a familiar abbreviation, you may include it in brackets the first time you
cite the source and use the abbreviation alone in later citations.

Parenthetical Narrative
Group author with
abbreviation:
 First citation (National Institute of Mental National Institute of Mental
Health [NIMH], 2020) Health (NIMH, 2020)
 Subsequent (NIMH, 2020) NIMH (2020)
citations
Group author (Stanford University, 2020) Stanford University (2020)
without abbreviation

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
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 EXAMPLE: PARENTHETICAL IN-TEXT CITATION FOR AN ORGANIZATION AS AUTHOR

Obesity puts children at risk for a number of medical complications, including
Type 2 diabetes, hypertension, sleep apnea, and orthopedic problems (Henry J.
Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, p. 1).

6.2.7. Multiple works in the same parentheses

If a statement is supported by multiple sources, the in-text citations can be combined in
one parenthesis. Order the sources alphabetically, and separate them with a semicolon.
 EXAMPLES: PARENTHETICAL IN-TEXT CITATION FOR MULTIPLE WORKS
Researchers have indicated that studies of pharmacological treatments for
childhood obesity are inconclusive (Berkowitz et al., 2003; McDuffie et al., 2002).

Several studies have replicated these results (Brown, 2009; Porter, 2004; Smith,
2015).

6.3. APA List of References

6.3.1. Citing a Book
 REFERENCE ENTRY
Smith, T., Williams, B. M., & Streefkerk, R. (2020). The citation manual for students:
A quick guide (2nd ed.). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1000/182
 IN-TEXT CITATION
 Parenthetical: (Smith et al., 2020)
 Narrative: Smith et al. (2020)

6.3.2. Citing a Journal Article

 REFERENCE ENTRY
Andreff, W., & Staudohar, P. D. (2000). The evolving European model of professional
sports finance. Journal of Sports Economics, 1(3), 257–276.
https://doi.org/10.1177/152700250000100304
 IN-TEXT CITATION
 Parenthetical: (Andreff & Staudohar, 2000)
 Narrative: Andreff and Staudohar (2000)

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University of Ibn Zohr - Agadir, Morocco Department of English Studies - LINGUISTICS
Faculty of Languages, Arts and Humanities Course: RESEARCH PROJECT I - Semester 5

References
Books
American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association (7th ed.). American Psychological Association.
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative
and qualitative research. Pearson Education, Inc.
Hacker, D., & Sommers, N. (2013). APA pocket style manual. Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International.
Leavy, P. (2017). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, arts-based, and
community-based participatory research approaches. The Guilford Press.
Walliman, N. (2011). Research methods: the basics. Routledge.

Articles

Online resources
Difference Between Research and Scientific Method
https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-research-and-vs-scientific-method/
Scientific Method https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/scientific%20method
How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/literature-review/
Levels of Measurement | Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/levels-of-measurement
4 Levels of Measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval & Ratio
https://careerfoundry.com/en/blog/data-analytics/data-levels-of-measurement/
How to Cite in APA Format (7th edition) | Guide & Generator
https://www.scribbr.com/category/apa-style/
APA 7th Edition (2020) | The 17 Most Notable Changes https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/apa-
seventh-edition-changes/
How to Write a Problem Statement | Guide & Examples https://www.scribbr.com/research-
process/problem-statement/

26 Readings selected and edited by: Mr. IDAMMI YOUSSEF, [email protected]