Unit 4: Laboratory testing

1. Chassis dynamometer:
• A chassis dynamometer, sometimes referred to as a rolling road, measures
power delivered to the surface of the "drive roller" by the drive wheels. The
vehicle is often parked on the roller or rollers, which the car then turns, and
the output measured thereby.
• Modern roller-type chassis dyno systems use the "Salvisberg roller", which
improves traction and repeatability, as compared to the use of smooth or
knurled drive rollers.
• Chassis dynamometers can be fixed or portable, and can do much more than
display RPM, horsepower, and torque. With modern electronics and quick
reacting, low inertia dyno systems, it is now possible to tune to best power and
the smoothest runs in real time
• Motor vehicle emissions development and homologation dynamometer test
systems often integrate emissions sampling, measurement, engine speed and
load control, data acquisition, and safety monitoring into a complete test cell
system.
• These test systems usually include complex emissions sampling equipment
(such as constant volume samplers and raw exhaust gas sample preparation
systems) and analyzers.
• These analyzers are much more sensitive and much faster than a typical
portable exhaust gas analyzer.
• Response times of well under one second are common, and are required by
many transient test cycles. In retail settings it is also common to tune the air-
fuel ratio using a wideband oxygen sensor that is graphed along with the RPM.
 • Chassis dynamometer is used for the following tests. It accurately simulates
the vehicle in terms of inertia and road load force. With chassis
dynamometers, it is possible to programme road load equation in the form:

F = a + bv2 + m dv/dt

F = Tractive effort (N)

a= Rolling resistance coefficient (N)

b= Aerodynamic drag coefficient (N/(km/hr) 2

m= Vehicle inertia (kg)

v= Vehicle speed (km/hr)

The vehicles are driven according to the Indian driving cycle.

 • The exhaust from test vehicle flows to the mass analyser which consists of CVS
system, filters, cyclone separator, venturi, sample bags, sample analyser.
• The Exhaust flow varies according to the vehicle speed and hence to measure the
exhaust volume, proportional air is added to the exhaust flow. Total volume of
exhaust+ air is measured at the end of cycle which is required to calculate the mass of
the constituents. Proportional sample will be collected in sample bags for analysis.
• Analysis of various constituents like CO, HC, Nox, CO2 are done on volumetric
basis. CO & CO2 are measured with NDIR principle. Nox is measured with
Chemilumienscent principle. HC is measured with FID principle.
• PM (for diesel vehicles) is measured by weighing filter paper on which it is collected.

M i =Vmix x Q i x K H X Cconc X 10-3 / Ds

Where,
M i : Mass emission in g/km
Vmix : Vol. of diluted exhaust gas in m3
Q i : Density of Pollutant, kg/m3
K H : Humidity correction factor Cconc = Volumetric Concentration of the
Constituent [Cconc=Ce- Cd (1-1/DF)]
(Where, DF is dilution factor and Cd is diluted exhaust concentration)
• Types of chassis dynamometer:

There are many types of chassis dynamometer according to the target application –
 1. emissions measurement,
2. miles accumulation chassis dynamometer (MACD),
3. Noise-Vibration-Harshness (NVH or "Acoustic") Application,
4. Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) testing,
5. end of line (EOL) tests,
6. performance measurement and tuning.
• Operating cycles on chassis dynamometer:

Description of the cycle • The operating cycle on the chassis dynamometer shall be as
notified by the statutory authorities. The details of IDC are indicated in Tables 1 and 2 and
shown in Fig. 2. In case the testing is carried out for any other driving cycle the details shall
be given in the test report. Preliminary testing cycles should be carried out if necessary to
determine how best to actuate the accelerator and brake controls so as to achieve a cycle
approximately to the theoretical cycle within the specified limits

➢ Usage of the gear-box The usage of the gear-box shall be as specified by the
manufacturer. However, in the absence of any such instructions, the following points
shall be taken into account.
➢ Manual change gear-box • During each phase at constant speed, the rotating speed
of the engine shall be, if possible, between 50 and 90 percent of the speed
corresponding to the maximum power of the engine. When this speed can be reached
in two or more gears, the vehicle shall be tested with the higher gear engaged. During
acceleration, the vehicle shall be tested in whichever gear is appropriate to the
acceleration imposed by the cycle. A higher gear shall be engaged at the latest when
the rotating speed is equal to 110 percent of the speed corresponding to the maximum
power of the engine. During deceleration, a lower gear shall be engaged before the
engine starts to idle roughly, at the latest when the engine revolutions are equal to 30
percent of the speed corresponding to the maximum power of the engine. No change
down to first gear shall be effected during deceleration. Vehicles equipped with an
overdrive which the driver can actuate shall be tested with the overdrive disengaged.
➢ When it is not possible to adhere to the cycle, the operating cycle shall be modified
for gear change points, allowing two seconds time interval at constant speed for each
gear change keeping the total time constant. The operating cycle with recommended
gear positions is shown

➢ Automatic gear-box • Vehicles equipped with automatic shift gear-boxes shall be

tested with the highest gear (drive) engaged. The accelerator shall be used in such a
way as to obtain the steadiest acceleration possible, enabling the various gears to be
engaged in the normal order.

● Advantages and disadvantages of chassis dynamometer testing

Advantages : The chassis dynamometer provides a repeatable way for the emission testing,
and the test is relatively fast and cost saving compared with the on-road testing.

By testing the influence of changed driving behavior on a chassis dynamometer, engineers

can optimize the road design and traffic management for a fluent and environmentally
friendly driving style.

Also, the testing on chassis dynamometer is a standard process with a high accuracy which
can benefit the comparison of performance between different vehicles. Another advantage
lies in the experiment with chassis dynamometer can involve the factor of climate into the
experiment regardless of ambient temperature

Disadvantages: However, the chassis dynamometer testing also has drawbacks. The most
important disadvantage is that such testing cannot reflect the real- world driving conditions
and real-world vehicle emission.

The driving condition varies each time while driving on the road, and with the development
of the city and improvement of living standard, it is hard to guarantee such a circumstance
can relief the traffic congestion.

Also, the driving resistance exerted to a vehicle on the chassis dynamometer is derived from
the vehicle coast-down test under different conditions which cannot precisely reflect the
resistance on the real-world road.
 2. Testing on chassis dynamometer for emission & performance:
1. Vehicle Emission Tests 1. Type I Test (For Vehicles)- IS 14600 : 1999

•Test Setup for Type –I Mass Emission Test on Vehicles

•Driving Cycles for 2/3 Wheelers & 4-Wheelers

•Calculations for Mass Emission Test

•Emission Norms for Different Vehicle Categories 2. Type II Tests - IS 14600 : 1999

2. Type II Tests for Gasoline and Diesel Vehicles (Idling Test)

•Emission Norms

3.Type III Test (Crankcase Emissions)

4. Type IV Test : IS 14555 : 1998

•Evaporative Emission Test – Necessity

•Indian Test Procedure Evaporative Emission - 1996

•BS-III Evaporative Emission Test Procedure

5. Type V Test (Durability Test)

•Type V Test : Comparison in India & Europe

6. Type VI Test

• Cold CO & HC emission Test for Europe

Test Procedure:

1. The vehicle shall be placed on a dynamometer bench equipped with a means of load
and inertia simulation. A test lasting a total duration of 648 s and comprising six
cycles as stipulated in 2 shall be carried out, without interruption. During the test, the
exhaust gases shall be diluted with air and a proportional sample collected in one or
more bags. The contents of the bags shall be analysed at the end of the test. The total
volume of the diluted exhaust shall be measured.
2. The methods used to collect and analyse the gases shall be those specified. Other
analysis methods may be approved if it is found that they yield equivalent results. The
test shall be repeated three times. In case test is carried out for verification of
compliance to statutory limits the condition stipulated shall apply.
3. For each of the pollutants, not more than one of the three results obtained may exceed
by not more than 10 percent of the limit specified for that type of vehicle, provided
the arithmetical mean of the three results rounded off to the second decimal place is
not exceeding the specified limit. Where the specified limits are exceeded for more
 than one pollutant, it shall be immaterial whether this occurs in the same test or in
different tests.
4. If one of the three results obtained of each of the pollutants exceeds by more than 10
percent the limit prescribed for that type of vehicle specified, the test may be
continued as specified below. The number of tests specified in point 1 may be
increased to ten provided that the arithmetical mean (𝑥 ) of the three results falls
between 100 and 110 percent of the limit (L). In this case, the decision, after testing,
shall depend exclusively on the average results obtained from all 10 tests (rounded off
to the second decimal place), with respect to the limits.
5. The number of tests specified in point 1 shall be reduced in the conditions hereinafter
specified, where V1 is the result of the first test and V2 the result of the second test
for each of the pollutants. Only one test shall be carried out if V1 readings of any of
the pollutants is less than or equal to 0.70 L (V1≤0.70 L). Only two tests shall be
carried out if the levels of the pollutants are V1≤0.85 L, and if, at the same time, one
of these values is V1> 0.70 L. In addition, the Vz readings of the pollutants shall
satisfy the requirement that (V1 + V2 ) ≤ 1.70 L and V2 ≤ L.
3. Driving cyles – USA, Japan, Euro, and India
➢ Europe:
• Europe Emission-control legislation in the nations of the European
Union is based on ECE Directive R15 along with EEC Directive
70/220 as revised.
• Existing emission limits (Euro 2) have been in effect since 1997 for
production vehicles, and are expected to be lowered further in the year
2000 (Euro 3) and again in 2005 (Euro 4).
• The original driving cycle according to ECE R15 has been completely
replaced by the ECE R83 New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) with
its non-urban component and speeds of up to 120 km/h, which in turn
will be replaced beginning in the year 2000 (Euro 3) by the Modified
New European Driving Cycle (MNEDC), in which the exhaust gas is
collected immediately without a (40 s) delay.
• The entry of new nations into the European Union means that their
emissions regulations will have to be revised so that they agree with
EU regulations.

•
• The New European Driving Cycle (NEDC, 93/116/EEC) is a cycle run
on a dynamometer to ascertain fuel consumption.
• It consists of four similarly weighted urban cycles each lasting 195 s and an extra-urban
cycle lasting 400 s.

• The exhaust gas is collected in a sample bag and its components subsequently analyzed.
CO, HC and CO2 are factored into the calculations in accordance with the carbon analysis.

• The CO2 content of the exhaust gas is proportional to the fuel consumption.

• It can therefore be used as an indicator to gauge the vehicle's fuel consumption (diesel or
gasoline, as appropriate)

➢ Japan:
• A 10 · 15 driving cycle is used to determine the concentrations of
gaseous pollutants and particulates in diesel-engine exhaust gas. The
driving cycle for passenger cars has been extended to include a high-
speed section (similar to Europe).
➢ USA:
• The FTP (Federal Test Procedure) 75 driving cycle is required for
passenger cars and light commercial vehicles with a gross vehicle
weight of less than 8500 lbs.
• The speed curve corresponds to an urban operation cycle in the USA.
Testing is performed on a chassis dynamometer, and the results are
measured using the CVS method. Since it has now become enormously
complex, emission-control legislation in the USA can only be
described here in very abridged form.
• Additional test cycles have been integrated, including for instance
SFTP-US 06 (maximum speed); SFTP-SC 03 (air-conditioner
operation); HWFET (fuel economy) with averaging.
• A variety of service-life requirements, together with emission limit
crediting, staggered phase-in of emission limits, and local regulations
for vehicle-fleet operators in highly polluted regions of the country
(California), etc. have also been incorporated.
➢ India:
• Drive cycle measurement: The driving cycle is sequence of vehicle
operating condition i.e. idling, acceleration, cruise, creeping and
declaration with respect to time for a given city, region or a country.
Indian roads are categorized in four ways which are (i) express
highway (ii) national highway (iii) state highway (iv) urban roads/rural
road.
• So, the selection of population and road is very crucial while planning
drive cycle measurement program. All type of Roads should be
covered.
• Vehicle selection is also very crucial. Vehicle of similar rating should
be selected as rating of HEV to be designed.
• Vehicle which is most economic while running is selected to start drive
cycle measurement program.
• Table 1 shows parameters of vehicle to determine drive cycles.

• For the purpose of measurement of drive cycle medium sized car with
diesel engine is used. Medium size cars are economical choice in India.
Drive cycle measurement is carried out by android application which
uses global positioning system by traveling in car. Data of time to
speed were measured and plotted in android application and those were
loaded in Microsoft excel. To collect legit drive cycle data the vehicle
is driven in to natural environment.
4. Real Drive Emissions (RDE):

• The UNECE introduced a test in real driving conditions for NOx and
other particulate emissions, which are a major cause of air pollution.
This procedure is called Real Drive Emissions test (RDE) and verifies
that legislative caps for pollutants are not exceeded under real use.

• RDE does not substitute the laboratory test (the only one that holds a
legal value), but it complements it. During RDE the vehicle is tested
under various driving and external conditions that include different
heights, temperatures, extra payload, uphill and downhill driving, slow
roads, fast roads, etc.

• In addition, the freestream air that the vehicle receives is not

conditioned by the wind blower position, which could cause alterations
in the measured emissions of laboratory tests.

• To measure emissions during the on-road test, vehicles are equipped

with a portable emissions measurement system (PEMS) that monitors
pollutants and CO2 values in real time.

• The PEMS contains complex instrumentation that includes: advanced

gas analyzers, exhaust gas flowmeters, an integrated weather station,
a Global Positioning System (GPS), as well as a connection to
the network.

• The protocol does not indicate a single PEMS as reference, but

indicates the set of parameters that its equipment has to satisfy.

• The collected data is analyzed to verify that the external conditions

under which the measures are taken satisfy the tolerances and
guarantee a legal validity.

• The limits on the harmful emissions are the same as the WLTP,
multiplied by a conformity factor.

• The conformity factors consider the error of the instrumentation, that

can not guarantee the same level of accuracy and repeatability of the
laboratory test, as well as the influence of the PEMS itself on the
vehicle that is being tested. For example, during the validation of
 the NOx emissions, a conformity factor of 1.5 (50% over normal
tolerance) is used.

• How does RDE work in practice?

Under RDE, a car is driven on public roads and over a wide range of different conditions.
Specific equipment installed on the vehicle collects data to verify that legislative caps for
pollutants such as NOx are not exceeded.

Conditions include:

• Low and high altitudes

• Year-round temperatures
• Additional vehicle payload
• Up- and down-hill driving
• Urban roads (low speed)
• Rural roads (medium speed)
• Motorways (high speed)

• What equipment is needed for RDE?

• To measure pollutant emissions as the vehicle is being driven on the roads,

cars are fitted with Portable Emission Measuring Systems (PEMS) that
 provide a complete real-time monitoring of the key pollutants emitted by the
vehicle (ie NOx).

• The PEMS used for regulated emissions are complex pieces of equipment that
integrate advanced gas analysers, exhaust mass flow meters, weather station,
Global Positioning System (GPS) and a connection to the vehicle networks.

• All parties – including approval authorities – must learn the proper use of
PEMS systems. There is no ‘standard’ PEMS equipment and equipment
manufactured by different suppliers will always deliver slightly different
results. The collected data is analysed to check that the RDE trip boundary
conditions were achieved and that the emissions were within acceptable
levels.
 5. World Harmonized tests:

Transient Cycles:  World Harmonized Transient Cycle (WHTC)

• The WHTC test is a transient engine dynamometer schedule defined by the global technical
regulation (GTR) No. 4 developed by the UN ECE GRPE (The working party on pollution
and energy) group. The GTR is covering a world-wide harmonized heavy-duty certification
(WHDC) procedure for engine exhaust emissions. The regulation is based on the world-wide
pattern of real heavy commercial vehicle use.

• Two representative test cycles, a transient test cycle (WHTC) with both cold and hot start
requirements and a hot start steady-state test cycle (WHSC), have been created covering
typical driving conditions in the EU, USA, Japan and India. WHTC testing requirements
were adopted for the first time by the Euro VI emission regulation for heavy-duty engines.

• The WHTC is a transient test of 1800 s duration, with several motoring segments.
Normalized engine speed and torque values over the WHTC cycle are schematically shown
in Figure 1.
 The World Harmonized Vehicle Cycle (WHVC) is a chassis dynamometer
test developed based on the same set of data used for the development of the World
Harmonized Transient Cycle (WHTC). While the WHVC chassis dynamometer test is not
identical to the WHTC engine test, the WHVC results have been occasionally used to
compare the respective vehicle and engine emission levels for research purposes.

• The duration of the WHVC test is 1800 s. The test includes three segments, representing
urban, rural and motorway driving.

• The first 900 seconds represent urban driving with an average speed of 21.3 km/h and a
maximum speed of 66.2 km/h. This segment includes frequent starts, stops and idling.

• The following 481 seconds represent rural driving with an average speed of 43.6 km/h and a
maximum speed of 75.9 km/h.

• The last 419 seconds are defined as highway driving with average speed of 76.7 km/h and a
maximum speed of 87.8 km/h.

Three different WLTC test cycles are applied, depending on vehicle class defined
by power/weight ratio PWr in W/kg (rated engine power / kerb weight)

• Class 1 – low power vehicles with PWr <= 22;

• Class 2 – vehicles with 22 < PWr <= 34;
• Class 3 – high-power vehicles with PWr > 34;

• CLASS 3 CYCLE
With the highest power-to-mass ratio, Class 3 is representative of the types of vehicles driven
in Europe and Japan. Selected parameters of the WLTP Class 3 cycle are given in the
following table. The vehicle speed and acceleration for the Class 3a vehicles (v_max < 120
km/h) are shown in Figure 1a. The Class 3b cycle (for vehicles with v_max ≥ 120 km/h).
Shown below
 • CLASS 2 CYCLE
Class 2 is representative of the types of vehicles driven in India and of low-power vehicles
driven in Japan and Europe. Selected parameters of the Class 2 cycle (Version 1.4) are given
in the table below, and the vehicle speed and acceleration are shown in Figure 2.
 • CLASS 1 CYCLE
With the lowest power-to-mass ratio, Class 1 is representative of the types of vehicles driven
in India. Selected parameters of the Class 1 cycle (Version 1.4) are given in Table 2, and the
vehicle speed and acceleration are shown in Figure 3.
 6. NRTC:

Non- Road Transient Cycles (NRTC)

• The NRTC test is a transient driving cycle for mobile nonroad diesel engines developed by
the US EPA in cooperation with the authorities in the European Union (EU). The test is used
internationally for emission certification/type approval of nonroad engines. NRTC testing is
required by a number of emission standards for nonroad engines, including the EU Stage
III/IV regulation, the US EPA Tier 4 rule and Japanese 2011/13 regulations.

• The cycle is an engine dynamometer transient driving schedule of total duration of 1238
seconds. The normalized engine speed and torque during the NRTC test are shown in the
following chart

European Transient Cycle

• The ETC test cycle has been introduced, together with the ESC (European
Stationary Cycle), for emission certification of heavyduty diesel engines in Europe starting in
the year 2000 (Directive 1999/96/EC of December 13, 1999). The ESC and ETC cycles
replace the earlier R-49 test.

• The ETC cycle (once also referred to as FIGE transient cycle) has been developed
by the former FIGE Institute, Aachen, Germany, based on real road cycle measurements of
heavy duty vehicles (FIGE Report 104 05 316, January 1994). The final ETC cycle is a
shortened and slightly modified version of the original FIGE proposal

Different driving conditions are represented by three parts of the ETC cycle, including
urban, rural and motorway driving. The duration of the entire cycle is 1800s. The duration of
each part is 600s.

• Part one represents city driving with a maximum speed of 50 km/h, frequent starts,
stops, and idling.

• Part two is rural driving starting with a steep acceleration segment. The average
speed is about 72 km/h

• Part three is motorway driving with average speed of about 88 km/h.

• FIGE Institute developed the cycle in two variants: as a chassis and an engine
dynamometer test. Vehicle speed vs time over the duration of the cycle is shown in Figure 1.
For the purpose of engine certification/type approval, the ETC cycle is performed on an
engine dynamometer. The pertinent engine speed and torque curves are shown in Figure 2
and Figure 3
 7. Evaporative Emissions Testing: - Reference IS 14555 : 1998

 Approximately 20% of all Hydrocarbon emissions from the automobile originates from
evaporative sources.

 Legislation was passed, prohibiting venting of gas tank fumes into the atmosphere

 Sources of Evaporative Emission

1) Fuel Tank Vent

2) Carburetor Vent

3) Others
 Evaporative System:

• The evaporative system, sometimes abbreviated as EVAP, consists of

a. fuel cap
b. fuel tank
c. carbon canister
d. canister purge valve
e. interconnecting lines and hoses

TEST PROCEDURE  Test Preparation 1.1 Prior to test the following shall be ensured:

a) The exhaust system of the vehicle shall not exhibit any leaks.

b) The vehicle shall be steam cleaned.

c) The fuel tank (s) of the vehicle shall be equipped with a temperature sensor to enable the
temperature to be measured at the mid -point of the fuel in the fuel tank when filled to 40
percent of its capacity.

d) Additional fittings, adapters of devices shall be fitted to allow complete draining of the
fuel tank
The test (schematic) schedule

• The vehicle shall be taken into the test area where the ambient temperature is between
20 and 30°C.
• The canister of the vehicle shall be purged for 30 minutes by driving the vehicle at 60
km/h at the dynamometer setting as per total inertia of the rotating masses to be
obtained proportional to the reference weight. Alternatively, the canister may be
purged by passing air (at ambient temperature and humidity) through it at a flow rate
which shall be identical to the actual air flow through the canister when operating the
vehicle at 60 km/h. The canister shall be subsequently loaded with two diurnal
emission tests.
• The fuel tank(s) shall be emptied using the fuel tank drain(s) provided for this
purpose. This shall be done so as not to abnormally purge nor abnormally load the
evaporative control devices fitted to the vehicle. [Removal of the fuel cap(s) is
normally considered sufficient to achieve this purpose]
• The fuel tank(s) shall be filled with specified test fuel at a temperature between 10°C
and 14°C to 40 ±2 percent of its (their) normal fuel capacity. The vehicles fuel cap(s)
shall not be replaced at this point.
• In the case of vehicles fitted with more than one fuel tank, all the tanks shall be heated
in the same way, as described below. The temperatures of the tanks shall be identical
to within ± 1.5°C.
• The fuel may be initially heated to the starting temperature of 16 ± 1°C.
• As soon as the fuel reaches the temperature of 14°C, the fuel tanks(s) shall be sealed.
When the temperature of the fuel tank reaches 16 ± 1°C, a linear heat build of 14 ±
0.5°C over a period of 60 ± 2 minutes begins. The temperature of the fuel during the
heating shall conform to the function below to within ± l.5°C.
• After a period of not more than one hour, the operations of fuel draining and filling
shall begin according to 1.5 to 1.8
• Within two hours of the end of the first diurnal heating period the second diurnal
heating operation shall begin as specified in 1.9 and be completed with the recording
of the temperature rise and elapsed time of the heat build.
• Within one hour of the end of the second diurnal heat build the vehicle is placed on a
chassis dynamometer and driven six Indian Driving Cycle and a drive for a duration
of 10 minutes at a speed of 60 km/ h on a chassis dynamometer. Samples of the
exhaust emissions shall not be collected during this operation.
• Within five minutes of completing the preconditioning operation as specified, the
engine bonnet shall be completely closed and the vehicle shall be driven off the
chassis dynamometer and parked in the soak area. The vehicle shall be parked for a
min.10h and maximum of 36h.Theengine oil and coolant temperatures shall have
reached the temperature of the soak area to within ± 2°C at the end of this period
8. Accelerated testing:

• Accelerated life testing (ALT) is a method of test and analysis to determine how
failures would likely occur in the future. ALT is a popular method of testing because
of its ability to “speed up time”. ALT is often used when we can not afford to wait for
failures to occur at their normal rate but we need to know how failures are likely to
occur in the future.

• Purpose: ALT is primarily used to speed up tests. This is particularly useful in

several cases:

➢ Low failure - Testing even a very large sample at normal conditions would yield few
or no failures in a reasonable time.
➢ High longevity - The product must be reliable for a much longer time than can be
reasonably tested at normal conditions.
➢ High wear-out - The primary cause of failure occurs over an extended amount of time.
• Accelerated testing methods can be either qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative accelerated tests (such as HALT, HAST, “torture tests” or “shake and
bake” tests) are used primarily to reveal probable failure modes for the product so that
engineers can improve the product design.
• These tests are performed on small samples with the test units subjected to a single
severe level of stress (e.g., stress cycling, cold to hot, etc.).
• If the specimen survives, it passes the test. Otherwise, appropriate actions will be
taken to improve the product’s design in order to eliminate the cause(s) of failure that
were identified during the test.
• A good qualitative accelerated test quickly reveals the failure modes that will occur
under normal use conditions but does not introduce failure modes that will never be
encountered in real life situations.
• These tests can provide valuable information about the types of stresses and the stress
levels that should be applied in subsequent quantitative accelerated life testing.
However, in general, they do not provide information that can be used to quantify the
life characteristics of the product under normal use conditions.
• Quantitative Accelerated Life Tests
Quantitative accelerated life tests (QALT), on the other hand, are designed to
quantify the life of the product and to produce the data required for accelerated life
 data analysis. This type of test involves the controlled application of accelerated stress
conditions in order to stimulate product failure and provide life data more quickly.
The life data obtained from these tests can be used to estimate a probability density
function (pdf) for the product under normal use conditions and to calculate reliability,
probability of failure, mean life, failure rate, B(10) life and other important reliability
metrics for the product.
9. QALT tests can employ usage rate acceleration or overstress acceleration to speed
up the times-to-failure for the products under test. With usage rate acceleration, which
is appropriate for products that do not operate continuously under normal conditions,
the analyst operates the products under test at a greater rate than normal to simulate
longer periods of operation under normal conditions. For example, if an appliance
manufacturer assumes that the average washing machine will be used about six hours
per week, then the manufacturer can test a sample of products continuously to reduce
the test time by a factor of 28. With this testing approach, one week of continuous
testing can be used to simulate 28 weeks of operation under normal use conditions!
The data from this type of test can be analyzed with standard life data analysis
techniques.
10. ALT tests may either be single stress or dual stress. In dual stress models, there are
two stresses being tested, such as temerature and humidity. The testing process is
largely the same though users should note that with an additional variable in the
model it is highly desirable to have more failure data to fit the model accurately.
Additionally, it is important that both stresses are varied sufficiently (relative to the
design load) so that the life-stress curve (or life-stress surface in the case of dual stress
models) has enough data over enough range to be fitted accurately.
11. Types: There are two popular methods to perform an ALT test; using a constant stress
profile, and using a step stress profile.
Constant stress profile: In a constant stress profile, each item under test only ever
experiences a single stress level.
Constant stress profiles are mathematically easier to fit and understand and therefore
are more popular.
Step stress profile: In a step stress profile each item begins at the lowest stress which
is held for a period of time before being stepped up to higher and higher levels.
Step stress profiles are useful when you only have a limited number of items and you
do not know at what stress you should test them.
Selecting a stress that is too low may result in no failures so the opportunity to use
the same components (which have not yet failed) from the first test in subsequent tests
at higher levels is advantageous.
7. Virtual Testing:

• Virtual Testing is the simulation of a physical test, using finite element analysis tools,
multi-body dynamic analysis tools and RPC iteration techniques to derive accurate
loads, motion and damage information of a vehicle system very early in the
development process.
• The advantages of this approach are numerous. First, because it is easier to model the
constraints of a physical test system than proving ground surfaces or tires, virtual
testing establishes far more effective boundary conditions than the other
methods. Second, virtual testing leverages an arsenal of proven, well-established
physical testing tools and techniques, which have demonstrated utility in the analysis
realm. And third, the incorporation of a modeled physical test system greatly
streamlines the validation of results through subsequent physical testing and provides
opportunity to improve physical test setups and fixtures designs.
• Spanning the analytical and physical test disciplines, virtual testing requires advanced
knowledge of both CAE tools and physical testing, the development of a process to
link RPC Pro software and analysis models, and preferably some degree of virtual
testing exposure and experience.
8. Oil Consumption Test:

Oil consumption measurement is of increasing importance since it is an important component

of the total engine emissions but it is one of the most difficult measurements associated with
engine testing within the test cell. Oil consumption rate is very slow relative to the quantity in
circulation. In a typical vehicle engine of lubricant capacity of 6 litres, the oil consumption
rate will be in the region of zero to 25 cm3 /h or up to 0.5 per cent of the volume in
circulation. This means that test durations tend to be of long duration before meaningful
results are obtained. With the exception of total loss systems, such as are used for cylinder
lubrication of large marine diesel engines, no entirely satisfactory method exists. One method
is to adapt the engine for dry sump operation. The sump is arranged to drain to a separate
receiver, the contents of which are monitored, either by weighing or by depth measurement.
An alternative method is to draw off oil down to a datum sump level and weigh it before and
after the test period. Difficulties with all systems include:

o The quantity of oil adhering to the internal surfaces of the engine is very
sensitive to temperature, as is the volume in transit to the receiver. This can
give rise to large apparent variations in consumption rate
o Volumetric changes due to temperature soak of the engine and fluids.
o Apparent consumption is influenced by fuel dilution and by any loss of oil
vapour,
o The rate of oil consumption tends to be very sensitive to conditions of load,
speed and temperature. There is also a tendency to medium-term variations in
apparent rate, due to such factors as ‘ponding up’ of oil in return drains and
accumulation of air or vapour in the circuit.
• An important but rather specialized technique for measuring oil consumption is by
using specially blended oil containing either a sulphur compound or a radioactive
isotope. Continuous measurement of sulphur dioxide or sensing of the isotope in the
exhaust allows calculation of the oil consumption rate; special sampling procedures
can be used to differentiate burned and unburned fractions.

• The total actual oil consumption through burning per a cycle of its
operation (from replacement to replacement) can be calculated by the following
formula:
Qy = ∑q + (Qз-Qсл),

Where ∑q — the oil filled up during a cycle (between maintenance periods);

Qз — the oil filled when refueling;

Qсл – the oil drained during the replacement.

 9. Engine power test (petrol & diesel)

• Engine performance is often characterized by the engine operating behavior in the

speed–load domain, for example, the behavior of emissions, fuel consumption, noise,
mechanical and thermal loading.
• Why an engine needs test?
• To find out performance before mass production and fitting it into a vehicle.
• To improve the design and configuration, to integrate new materials and technology
• Historically, the test basically was to find out the power and fuel consumption, also to
test effectiveness of cooling, vibration and noise, lubrication, controllability, etc.
• Modern regulations force engines to reduce harmful emission and comply stringent
regulations, therefore, test is getting more and more sophisticated.

Basic instrumentation for engine testing:

Power/torque measurement - dynamometers

• Engine speed measurement

• Air flow rate measurement

• Fuel flow rate measurement

● Power is the rate of doing work. When applied to engines, power ratings may be
calculated either on the basis of indicated power (i.p.), that is the power actually de-
veloped in the cylinder, or on the basis of brake power (b.p.), which is the output
power measured at the crankshaft. The b.p. is always less than the i.p., due to
frictional and pumping losses in the cylinders and the reciprocating mechanism of the
engine.
● Since the rate of doing work increases with piston speed, the engine’s power will tend
to rise with crank- shaft speed of rotation, and only after about two-thirds of the
engine’s speed range will the rate of power rise drop off
 ● The slowing down and even decline in power at the upper speed range is mainly due
to the very short time available for exhausting and for inducing fresh charge into the
cylinders at very high speeds, with a resulting re- duction in the cylinders’ mean
effective pressure.
● The two methods of calculating power can be expressed as follows:
i:p: =pLANn 60 000

where

and

60 000

where b.p. =brake power (kW)

p =3.142

T =engine torque (N m)

and N =crankshaft speed (rev/min)

● The imperial power is quoted in horsepower (hp) and is defined in terms of foot
pounds per minute. In imperial units one horsepower is equivalent to 33 000 ft lb per
minute or 550 ft lb per second. A metric horsepower is defined in terms of Newton-
metres per second and is equal to 0.986 imperial horsepower. In Germany the ab-
breviation for horsepower is PS derived from the trans- lation of the words ’Pferd-
St ̈arke’ meaning horse strength.
● The international unit for power is the watt, W, or more usually the kilowatt, kW,
where 1 kW 1⁄4 1000 W.
● Conversion from watt to horsepower and vice versa is: 1 kW 1⁄4 1.35 hp and 1 hp 1⁄4
0.746 kW.

➢ Engine tests:

Engine test rigs are designed for study and evaluation of engine performance for various
parameters such as power, efficiency, fuel consumption, torque –speed characteristics etc.
The test rigs can provide information on Brake Horse Power, Frictional Horse Power,
Indicated Horse Power, Thermal Efficiency, Mechanical Efficiency, Air/Fuel Ratio etc
10. Indian Driving Cycle ( IDC)

● The vehicle certification procedures consist of testing engine performance and

emission compliance on the engine and/or chassis dynamometer in the laboratory. A
driving cycle is followed to achieve the rightful and acceptable test results, which
should nearly simulate the realistic driving intended for the vehicle type. A driving
cycle is a series of continuous data points comprising the speed of a vehicle and time.
● The IDC was the first driving cycle based upon extensive road tests. The IDC is a
short cycle comprising six driving cycles modes of 108 seconds . The IDC does not
cover the complex driving conditions observed on the Indian roads. The average
speed of IDC is 21.9 km/h (covering 3.94 km), which is high in congestion cities and
low for rural roads or highways, only gentle accelerations (<0.65 m/s2), and low
engine loads (Sharma et al., 2013) are included. IDC allows preconditioning idling
time (other than diesel vehicles) of 40 seconds before chassis dynamometer test is
performed (MoRTH, 2000), thus ignoring cold start. Because of the above limitations,
IDC does not represent real-world driving and is likely to underestimate the
emissions.

Modified Indian Drive Cycle (MIDC):

MIDC was adopted in the year 2000 and was later modified with a better cold start testing
procedure. This cycle is generally the same as the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC)
(Figure 2) (Sharma et al., 2013). MIDC accounts for wider speed profiles and hence it is a
better-suited cycle than the IDC. MIDC is also significantly close to the idling conditions
observed in real-world driving. The maximum speed in the MIDC cycle is set to 90 km/h.
Despite the improvements it was suggested that MIDC may not accurately assess vehicular
emissions during on-road conditions because of variations in traffic density, land-use
patterns, road infrastructure, and poor traffic management.

Further, the acceleration profiles in the cities vary significantly from the prescribed
acceleration in MIDC (Figure 3). The realistic speed-acceleration profiles are considerably
higher than that mandated in MIDC. In high power requirement zones, i.e., the accelerations
and decelerations are not well reflected in the MIDC. In such accelerations and decelerations,
vehicles emit high NOx and other pollutants