(F wo PUBLICATIONS PTE LTDKEY SERIES ABOUT KEY SYMBOLS OVERVIEW POINTS ABOUT SCIENCE (CHEMISTRY) KEY*POINTS ‘Aims 10 propare students for the GCE ‘O’ Level Examino- tions, This book covers the syllabus for Science (Chemisty) oe Each chapter of the book consists of the following: Learning Objectives Leoring objectives of cach chapter based on the syllebus fare given in this section. Students should make sure thot they are able ta meci all the basic requirements of the objectives before they sit for the examinations. Useful Websites Some useful websites are listed for students’ reference ond further research, Those websites con holp students understand the concepis of the chapters better Overview OF The Topic This toble gives students a concept map of the topic. It shows studenis the structural links between the sub-areas of each topic. Key Points This port features concise revision notes to help studenis con- cenirate on more importont areas, All essential key points are, presented to help students 10 consolidate their knowledge learnt in closs. Stop & Think (Sample Questions With Worked Solutions} For each topic, questions have been consolidated to check : and evaluate studenis’ understanding. This ensures that doubts are better clarified before they proceed to the next section. ExomTips ExomTips in this book summarise oll of students’ common mistokes, weaknesses and misconceptions shown in post ex: eminations. Some important romindors for students cre olso listed in this section. Lee Sook Cheng (MSe., PGDE, BSc.)CONTENTS No. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES pace 5 No, 2 THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER eae 24 No. 3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING rage 33 ne. 4 STOICHIOMETRY AND THE MOLE CONCEPT page 52 no. 5 CHEMICAL REACTIONS pace 77 No. 6 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS ee race 100 No. 7 THE PERIODIC TABLE No. 8 METALS: pace 133 No.9 AIR AND WATER | | pace 150 no. 10 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY rast 160y EXPERIMENTAL (| TOPIC 1 TECHNIQUES LEARNING OBJECTIVES Candidates should be able to: 1.1 Experimental Design name appropriate epparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume, including burettes, pipettes, measuring cylindors ond gas syringes suggest suitable apparatus, given relevant information, for o variety of simple experiments, including the collection of gases and the measurement of rates of reaction 1.2 Methods of Purification and Ancilysis & describe methods of purification by the use of a suitable solvent, filiraion, crystallisation and disillotion {including the description but not use of fractional distillation — refer to the fractional distillation of crude oil and fermented liquor) suggest suitable methods of purification, given information about the substances involved describe paper chromatography and interpret chromatograms deduce, from the given melting poinis ond boiling points, the identities of substonces ond their purty 1.3 Identification of lons and Gases describe the use of aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia to identify the following fequeous cations: aluminium, ammonium, calcium, copper, iron{l}, iron{ll), leed{l) and zinc (formulae of complex ions ore not required) 8 describe tests 10 identify the following onions: carbonate (by the addition of dilute acid and subsequent use of limewater), chloride (by reaction of on aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous silver nitrate), iodide (by reaction of an aqueous solution with nifric acid and ‘aqueous leadfil} nitrate}, nitrate (by reduction with aluminium and aqueous sodium hydroxide to ammonia and subsequent use of litmus paper) and sulphate (by reaction of on aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous barium nitrate) 1 describe tests to identify the following gases: amrnonia (using damp red litmus paper), carbon dioxide (Using limewoter), chlorine (using damp litmus paper), hydrogen (using o burning splini), ‘oxygen {using a glowing splint) and sulphur dioxide (using acidified potassium dichromate(\I}) USEFUL WEBSITES hita://www.learn.co.uk/default.asp¢WCl=Unit&WCU=3757 hitp://wew.yesmnag.be.ca/projects/poper_chroma. html http://www. chernistrycoach.com/tutorials-9,htm#Chemistry%20 Laboratory hitp://chemistry.about. com/library/weekly/aa020603a.htm hitp://wow-kids.net.au/encyclopedia/?p=ch/Chemisty_ basic topics oo0000Not Experimental Techniques OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES © key areas 1.1 [EXPERIMENTAL] @ Measurenener “Time ine DESIGN + Temperature: | | [= Mass @ Courenon oF Gs Displacement of cir= downward delivery | 12 [METHOD OF 7 @ Sereanon | * Filrfion PURIFICATION | Teanacurs = Cigiallisation AND ANALYSIS ss . istillation * Fractional distillation = | * Paper chromatography _ B Camas oF * Melting point determination = | Pury * Boiling point determination 13 [IDENTIFICATION | Q Tes Aluminium aul OFIONSAND | Canons + Ammonium GASES = SSS * Calcium * Copperill) | | + Troll) | | 0) |e , [@ terre | @ Tests ror . | Attons | + Tedide + Nitiole * Sulphate @Tessron | * Ammonia Gases Carbon dioxide + Chierine '* Hydrogen | * Oxygen | + Sulphur dioxideNo Experimental Techniques &-+ EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN é (e) Time, Temperature and Mass (Fig 1) A Fig 1 shows the apparatus used to mi sure time, temperature and moss in the laboratory. fompero Fig 1 Apparatus for measuring ime, temperature ond moss (b) Volumes of Liquids and Gases (Fig 2) 4 Apporctus for measuring the volumes of liquids vary in accuracy. becker meosuring cylinderNo.1 Experimental Techniques in KE ROWS 12 The becker is used only for estimating volumes of liquids. F very accurate volumes are required, the burette, which measures up to O.1 cm’, is used £1) The pipette measures accurately fixed volumes of liquids, e.g. 10.0 em’, 25.0 cm’. is eccurate fo 1 decimal place. (1 A graduated gas syringe is used to measure the volumes of gases. (Fig 3) eee 905 syringe Fig 3 A gradusted gas syringe Exam Tie > Always include the units when recording data or carrying cut calculations, Aissing units will result in the loss of marks P Courction oF Gees Tae 1) [1 Two factors determine the method used to collect a gas: the density of the gas end the solubility cof the gos in wester, Method of Coll Type of Gases to be Collected Displacement of woter For gases that are insoluble in water, e.g. a hydrogen, oxygen. dalvey a tuba, —~ \ Ga | Displacement of cir upward delivery For gases that are less dense thon air, €.. hydrogen, ammoric. delivery ube os ior For goses that are denser than air, e.g. hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide. Table 1 Collection of gosesNod Experimental Techniques Exan Te TS Garton dloxide gas ts sometines collected by displacement of water. Carbon diovide Js sparnghy sole in sater to form corbomc acl. Thus, the volume of gas collected vil be less than expected because some carbon dioxide will dissolve into the water. STOP AND THINK Which piece of opporotus is used to measure exactly 22.5 cm? of a liquid? A 8 c D beaker burette measuring cylinder pipette Exam Tre TS? ‘The pipette can also measure volumes of liquids accurately up to one decimal place, but only m fixed volumes, eg. 10.0 cm®, 250cm [Ans: B] The burette can measure accurately volumes of liquids up 0 OL emt ‘The apparatus shown in the diagram below con be used to collect some goses. Which one of the following gases is most suitably collected by this method? A ommonia | STOP AND THINK | B chlorine 908 jor C hydrogen chloride Dongen E sulphur dioxide | LJ {beehive shelf | Exam Tre ‘Anmonia will dissolve in water to form on clkaline solition, and should be collected by displacement of air using upward delivery since ammonia is less dense thari air. Chlorine, hydrogen chloride and sulphur cioxide will all dissolve in water to form acidic selutions and should be collected by displocement of ir using downward delivery since they ore. al denser than air Tans: 0] Oxygen is the only insoluble gas in the list that con be collected by the dis placement of water,C10 Nod Experimental Techniques | ~" sence nIKEYe POR &+ METHOD OF PURIFICATION AND ANALYSIS (@) Filtration (Fig 4) (2 Used to separote out on insoluble solid from a liquid, e.g. separating sond from o sond ‘and water mixture. [1 Very fine pores in the filter paper ollow the liquid particles to flow through, but retain the lorge solid portcles. i solid ond liquid fiter nme fiter pope (residue) large particles of solid are tapped by the Sitter paper fiker paper with seal holes smell poricles of liquid pore through the fer paper fiteote Fig 4 Filtration (b) Crystallisation (Fig 5) {2 Used to separate out « pure solid from an impure solution, e.g. teparating coppert} sulp «crystals from impure copper{l] sulphate solution. The impurities will remain dissolved in solu STEP Isic to STEP 2 = a ae i ae The impure solid is | E i te i st aa eee STEPS STEP 4 =< fiker pape = The hot solution is allowed to cool The solid oppeers os pure erytals The cold solution is poured off to obtain the enpstols. The crystals may be dried by pressing them behwoon sheets of fiter popes. Fig 5 CrystallisationNoi Experimental Techniques Exam Tie TS a Crystaliisation must be differentiated from evaporation to dryness, In crystallisation, the solvent is only partially evaporated, leaving a small omount of solution in which the crystals form. Impurities are left behind in the solution when the erystals are filtered off, In evaporation to dryness, all the solvent is removed. The crystals formed may be impure STOP AND THINK Which method is most suitable for obicining a pure, dry sample of sodium chloride from @ mixture of solid sodium chloride and sand? ‘A Heot the mixture gently ond collect the substance which bolls of B Hect the mixture gently and collect the substance thet melts. ©. Shoke the mixture with water and distil off the liquid. D Shoke the mixture with water, fiter ond eveporote the ‘irate Exam Tre I> Tf the mixture in the question is solid ammonium chloride and sodium chloride, the method given in answer D cannot be used as both compounds are soluole in water ‘This mixture can be separated by sublimation, Hect the mixture gently until the solid ammanium chloride storts to sublime, Le. tum into a gas, Allow the vapour to come into contact with-e cold surface s0 that solid ammonium chloride can reform, leaving solid sodium chloride behind os the residue [Ans: D] Shaking with water will dissolve all the sodium chloride, The insoluble sand will be filtered off, leaving sodium chloride solution as the filtrate, Pure, dry sodium chloride can be obtoined by evaporation, (©) Simple Distillation (Fig 6) [Used to separate « pure liquid from a solution containing dissolved solids, e.g. separating pure woler from seawoter. SL The pure liquid obtained is called the distillate ‘hormomelor fos - se ai , seo water Secon ght belli, ‘water in eee (distillate) Fig 6 Simple distillation of seowoter| Caz ee Nod Experimental Techniques | placed at the mouth of the condenser to measure the temperature of the vepour enlering it. This temperoture is the boiling point of the distillate. 1) The groph on the right shows the change in temperature osthe seowoteris being heated in the flask. The temperature Tamp/"C will cemain constant at 100°C throughout the whole time 4 interval when pure water is being collected. Bum Te > Tima/min Cold water enters the condenser from the bottom Ye ensure that region is the coldest so that all the vapour entering the condenser will turn into. a lguld (d) Fractional Distillation (Fig 7) 5 Used to separate o pure liquid from @ solution of two or more liquids, e.g, ethane from a mixture of ethanol and water. {4 Fractional distillation separates ‘according to boiling points, The liquid with the lowest boiling Point will be disilled firs, followed by the liquid with the next lowest boiling point. As rough guide, the boiling points of the liquids 10 be separated should be at least 20°C ‘por theememetor—|} water out frectionating column cold : rane (estore) that * d bolng stones ae forsmooth fond water ie Fig 7 Fractional distillation of @ mixture of ethanol and woler13 Not Eominena Teves [1S — (U The groph on the right shows the ch cs the mature of ethanol ond woter is being heated in the flask. The temperature will zemoin ot 78°C when the fist disillote (ethoncl) is being collected. When all the aa ethanol has disiled over the temperature will ise ogcin 78 eee until # reeches 100°C. At this temperature, water will be a collected as the second distillate, si [& Fractional distillation Inge in ternperoture also used to separote @ the components of crude oll @ fermented liquor te obtoin cleoholic drinks of ¢ higher concentration (see topic 10) STOP AND THINK Which one of the following substonces may be separoted using o woter condenser? melting point/°C boiling point/°C A ammonia 78 -33 B butone 135 0.5 C. sulphur dioxide -73 10 D_ hydrogen chloride 15 -85 E pentane 130 +36 Exan Tre 13> The condenser in both the simple and fractional distillation apparatus pure vapour into liquid form. To determine if a gas will condense int boiling point is considered. The melting points given in the question serve os ‘and is redundant information (Ans: E] The temperature of a water condenser is about 25°C. Only pentane has < boiling point above this temperature. Thus, when pentane vopour enters t will condense iquid pentane as the distillate. (e) Paper Chromatography (Fig 8) (2) Substances ino mixture ore separoted eccording to their solubility in the some solvent, The more soluble component in the misture will tend to remain in the solvent ond trovel further up the chromatogram, while the less soluble component will separate out onto the paper. \. Procedure Lp drops of ink on the pencil line Fig 8 Poper chromatography io seporote out the components of black inkNo.1 Experimental Techniques © Use @ pencil to draw the stort line. ® Use the black ink sample to make a small dot on the start line, together with some other coloured ink to use as reference. © Fold the caper into o cylinder and place it into © becker containing the solvent, ensuring that the start line is above the solvent level. Cover the beaker while the chromatogram develops. @® Remove the chromatogram from the beaker just before the solvent reaches the top of the poper Exam Tre I> Condidates may be asked to explain why paper chromatography, (the start line must be drawn in pencil, If it is drawn in ink, the components in the ink will olse separate out together with the sample dots when the chromatogram is run. (i) the start line must be cbove the solvent level. Tf it goes below the solvent level, the sample dots will dissolve into the solvent in the beaker instead of travelling up the cchromat ogram paper. (iii) the beaker must be covered when the chromatogram is run to reduce evaporation of the solvent from the becker ond to prevent the solvent from evaporating off the paper as it moves up. in steps of an experiment are necessary. In |) Interpretation of results . a Dots that has travelled the same distance from the stort line in the same solvent belong the same substance. Hence the black ink contains four colour components - red, blue, g} and an unknown colour Exan Tee 5 : Paper chromatography has several advantages 2) 1 uses only a ‘small amount of ‘sample. Gi), Tt con be used to separate heat sensitive substances (ii) Tt can be used to test for the purty of the substence, A pure substance will give only one spot when a chromatogram is run. If it gives two or more spots, then the substance is impureSee Sines iencel hein KEY=POINTS Not Experimental Techniques STOP AND THINK Itwos suspected that o substance X contained one of the three substances P Ror S. Two chramotagrams of the four substances were obicined using different solvents. The diograms show the results. What does X contain? [ Le A P only aes * BR only | © Sonly D either P of R = | + E either R or $ . } ine [eek [ek s)x Gopon t Joven Exan Tee I> ° oc é Tr ig possible for different substances to travel the same distance in the same solvent jn paper chromatography, ie. have the some solubility in the some. solvent. Te confirm the identity of a substance, onother round of chromatography is carried out using a different solvent, If the spots still travel the same distance, then the spots must contain the same substance. We con also conclude from the diagrams that substance X is e pure substance since it only gives one dot in the cheamategram. [Ans: B] Diagram 1 indicates that X contains either R or S. When the solvent is changed the chromatogram obtained as shown in diagram 2 indicater that X contains either Por R. Since the some substances will trevel the same distance during chromatography even if different solvents are used, X contains only & (1 A pure substance hos o fixed melting point and o fixed boiling point (@) Determi ing the Melting Point of a Solid (Fig 9) © Asmall sample of the solid is placed into the melting point tube ond tied 10 thermometer ster ® The setup is ploced into © boiling tube containing water and heated slowly, The water is stirred to ensure even heating of the sample. ® Record the temperature when the solid stars to melt making =T, point f wUbe ® Record the temperature when the solid has fully melted = 7, ~woter ® Foro pure substance, T, = T, © An impure substance will melt over a range of peer temperatures {T, to T). Fig 9 Apparatus for measuring the meling point of o solid Exam Tre I> Temperature control is very important when conducting this experiment. If the tempera ture is increased suddenly, the small sample will melt very fast and T. and T, connet be determined, Also, if the melting point of the solid is suspected to be above 100, a liquid with a boiling point higher than 100° will have to be used in place of water16 No.1 Experimental Techniques ich {b) Determining the Boiling Point of a Liquid (Fig 10) © The epporatus is set up oF shown. © Anti-bumping granules ore added to ensure smooth boiling thermometer © Ifthe liquid to be tested is flammable, o woter bath pou in should be used instead of direct heating with @ Bunsen burner. © Record the temperoture when the liquid storis to boil act hid under © Fore pure substance, 7, is a fixed temperature, An ee impure substonce will boil over a range of tempera- see tures. gronl best Fig 10 Apparotus for measuring the boiling point of a liquid Exam Te When a substonce is impure, its melting point is depressed, ie. lower than the melt point of the pure substance, Its boiling point will be elevated, i.e. higher than the bal point of the pure substance, For example, when salt is added to water, its boiling Increases to cheve 100°C. STOP AND THINK student was given an unknown solid X to identify. He found its melting point to be 133' He looked up @ chemistry data book and found thot o compound called uree hod a melil point of 133°C, To find whether X is really urec, he mixed some pure ureo and X togett The melting tempercture of this mixture wos found to be 129 - 132°C. Whet can be dedue cbout solid x? A X is urea, BX is impure ureo. CX is not ure, DX must not be a pure compound, - Exam Tre 55> Another way 1 ais to use paper chromatography. Samples of X ancl pure lurea can be dissolved in ¢ suitable solvent and dotted onto o piece of chromatogram paper. The twe dots should travel the same distance when @ chromatogram is run is X is urea ans: C}_If X is urea, then when X is mixed with pure urea and heated, the mixture should melt ct 133°C. However, the mixture melted over a range of temperatures, indicat ing that X is actuclly on impurity and caused the melting point of pure urea 10 become depressed, Since X has a fixed melting point, it must be a pure compound, so the only conclusion is that X is not ureaNot Experimental Techniques alegre | ‘++ IDENTIFICATION OF IONS AND GASES Pius {) Toble 2 summarises the fests for cotions. & AQUEOUS CANONS [21 When testing for a cation using either equeous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia, two observations will help identify the cotion present: © the colour of the precipitate formed on adding a few deops of chemicol reagent; ® the solubility of the precipitote in excess chemical reagent Effect of aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) | White precipitate formed. Precpitate is Effect of aqueous ammonia (NH) White precipitate formed Cation Aluminium (AP*) soluble in excess oqueous sodium hydroxide to form 6 colourless solution. Procipitaie is insoluble in excess aqueous ommona. ‘Ammonium (NH,7) | No precipitate formed on adding No chemicel reaction aqueous sodium hydroxide. Ammonio | gas produced on warming the mixture Calum (Ca) White precipitate fomed. Precpitate is insoluble in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide No predpitete formed Coppertll) (Cu) Light blue precipitate formed, Precipitate is insoluble in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide. light blue precpitete formed. Precipitote is soluble in excess aqueous ammonie to form @ dark blue solution, | Tron (Fe?) Green precipitate formed. Precipitate is insoluble in excess oqueaus sodium hydroxide. Green precipitote f Precipitate is in aqueous amm Reddish brown precipitate formed Precipitate is insoluble in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide Iron(l) (Fe) Reddish brown precipitate formed Precipitate is insoluble in excess ‘aqueous om ‘Leadfl) (Pb) White precipitate formed, Predpitote is soluble in excess oquecus sodium hydroxide to form a colourless solutfon Zine (Zn) While precipitate fomed. Precipitcte is soluble in excess oqueous sodium hydroxide to form © colourless solution. White precipitete formed Precipitate is insoluble in excess equesus emmoric.. White precpitote formed, Precipitate is soluble in excess aqueous ammonia to forma colouriess solution, Table 2 Tests for Cotions {21 The cations rece! with the hydroxide ions present in aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous Gmmonic to form insoluble hydroxides. These insoluble hydroxides oppecr os precipiioles. Eg. Fe (aq) + 20H-(oq) > Fe(OH), fs) from NoOH or NHloa) _geeenprecistte Some of these precipitotes dissolve in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide or cqueous emmonia to form soluble complex sols. These appear as colourless solutions, or in the case of copper) ions in excess aqueous ammonia, a dark blue solution.Cay see oe ‘ Bel Nod Experimental Techniques , event I) and iron(ll) ions ore easily identified by the characteristic colour of rom toble 2, + Coppertl), i their precipitates. + Aluminium, lead(l) and zinc ions oll give the same observations when aqueous sodium hydroxide is used. However, only zinc ions will give o white precipitate soluble in excess i aqueous ommonia; aluminium ond leod ions do not solution containing Al, Pb or Zn? edd o few drape of ogueous ‘ommenis ond shake White precipitote formed edd excess aqueous emmoniz ' | Precipitate is insoluble in excess Precipitce is soluble in excess oquecus | equeous ommenia ommoni to form 6 colourless solution (Al™ oF Pb pres (En** confirmed) + To distinguish between cluminium and lecdll) ions, dilute hydrochloric acid or cquegus potassium iodide can be used: AX (oq) + 3Cr(oq) > AICI, (oq) from kychochlorc 06d celouteat slson Po leq) + 2Cr(eq) = > PCI, fs) tom bydachlore ocd hie preciote Similor results will be obtained if aqueous potassium iodide is used. Aluminium ions give a colourless solution of cluminium iodide while lead|l) ions will give a yellow precipi of leod{l) iodide. Exam Te S$ is no visible reoction cn adding aqueous sadium hydroxide to an unkt solution, continue the cation test by warming the mixture gently and test for ammonia: ‘the cation present may be the ammonium ion[Cav 5 Not Experimental Techniques sence hein MEY POINT LQ Toble 3 summarises the tests for onions. LUD The tests for the ammonium ion and the nitrate ion produce ammonia gas. Check through the procedure carefully fo see if oluminium powder is used ~ the ammonium ion test requires only aqueous sodium hydroxide, but the nitrate test requires both aqueous sodium hydroxide ond cluminium powder: Anion Test Test result Corbonate (CO* Add dilute acid, Effervescence. A cx edourless gos the precipitate in limencter is produced Gas is carbon dioxide. Chlovide (CH) ‘Acidity with dilute nitric ocd, then | White precipitote of silver chlonde lin solution] edd oqueous silver ritrte formed. | lodide (H Acidity with dilute nitric ocid, Yellow precipitate of leadiilj iodide fin solution} then add oqueous lead{l) nitrate. | formed 7 Nitrote (NO, ‘Add aqueous sodium hydroxide | Colourless, pungent gos produced {in solution} then cluminium foil; warm fumed moist red litmus saper blue. carefully Gas is ammoria Sulphate SO,*) | Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then | White precipitote of berium sulphate {in solution] add aqueous barium nitrate. formed | Tobie 3 Tests for Anions Exam Te TS When recording the observations after conducting tests for the carbonate and the nitrate fon, remember to include the smell and colour of the gas, the chemical test result for the gas as well as the name of the gas. Simply copying from the date sheet provided os ‘carbon dioxide precuced’ or ‘ammonia produced’ is insufficient and will lead to a loss of marks, Pracmnce {0} Toble 4 summarises the tests for gases {21 Carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide ond chlorine ore all acidic goses and will tum moist blue litmus peper red. Hence, the biue litmus paper test is not a conclusive test; it only indicates ‘he presence of an acidic gos. Its necessary to conduct confirmatory tests in order to conclude the presence of © particular gos. ©) Ammonia, chlorine and sulphur dioxide have characteristic smells and are thus. eosily identified, “1 When recording observations for goses, it is importont to record presence of effervescence, if ony colour ond smell of the gas chemicel test for the gos and test result e000 name of the gosr Colour and : aie Gas Simell at Gas: Test and Test Results ‘Ammonia (NH,) Colouress, Tums damp red litmus paper blue. pungent gos _ | ! Carbon dioxide (CO,) | Colourless, Turns moist blue litmus paper red. Forms white : escurless gos | precpitote in imewoter, | Chlorine (Cl,) | Yellowish green, | Bleaches meist red litmus popes Turns mols pungent gas blue litmus red, then bleached, Hydrogen (H,) Colourless, Edinguishes a lighted splint with @ pop sound. odourless gas Onger ©,) Colouress, Relights © glowing splint. odourless gas Sulphurdioxide 60,) | Golouress, Turns moist blue liimus paper red, Tums orange pungent gus acidified potassium dichromate(Vl) green, Toble 4 Tesis for Gases Exam Tre T-3> When testing for hydrogen gas, hold the lighted splint at the mouth of the teat tub When testing far oxygen gas, insert the glowing splint into the test tube, When cecor the colour change of ecidified potassiom dichremate(VE), always record us changing Fr ‘orehge To green, and not just acidified potassium dichromate(V) tumed sree STOP AND THINK Dilute hydrochloric acid was added to substance X. A gos wos produced thet turned lmewo ter milky. After the reaction stopped, an excess of aqueous sodium hydroxide wns odded te in solution and a blue precipitote formed. What was X? A cuco, B CuSO, | ¢ Reco, D Feso, Exan Te 52 een precipitate will be obtained with excess aqueous sodium ded to test for it. No ‘cating the presence of the CO,” ion Gre pie preciprtate abtained on adding excess aqueous sodium hydronic s « tes) tor the Cu lon. The blue: precipitate is copper(Tl) hydroxide.ae ae No.1 Experimental Techniques | "owns om ys STOP AND THINK ‘An aqueous solution containing the compound X wos added io ¢ series of solutions and the changes that took place noted. solution 5 obsewation iron) sulphate | brown preciitole ironfl) sulphote | greenprecpitote ae | sine sulghote white precipitate soluble in on excess of the solution of X magnesium sulphate | white precipitate copperiil) sulphate _| blue precipitate insoluble in an excess of the solution X What is the compound x? A aluminium hydroxide ammenio calcium hydroxide B C_borium hydroxide D E sodium hydroxide Ban Te IS ‘Aluminium hydroxide end barium hydroxide are ingoluble in water while calcium hydroxide iS only sparingly soluble in water, They wil not be able Yo provide the hydromide ions needed 10 precipitate out the insoluble hydroxides of the cations present’ in the test solution. {ansi E} Notice that all the solutions used to test X are sulphate compounds, Hence the tbservations obtained must be due to the cations present in the solutions. tions are usually aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueaus anmeria, However, X cannot be ammonia because copper(II) ions will give blue precipitate that ‘is soluble in excess aqueous ainmonia to form a dark blue solution, STOP AND THINK Which one of the following ions will give only © clear solution when heated with on excess of aqueous emmonia? A Al (ag) B Zn?* (aa) © Fe* (ag) D Fe?* (ag) E Pb (oq) Exam Tor T3> Al end PO" will form @ white precipitate thal i insoluble im excess aqueous ammonia, while Fe and Fe will form a green and a reddish brown precipitate, respectively that is insoluble in excess aqueous ammonia [Ans: 8] Only Zn’ will form a white precipitate that is soluble in excess aqueous ammonia to form a colourless solution= Ht Nod Experimental Techniques SAMPLE QUESTIONS Nome o process used {9 separate 0 mixture of {a} thie water-soluble dyes {b) water and an insoluble solid fc} two liquids with boiling points 78°C ond 100°C [d) water and a dissolved solt 25.0.em* sodium corbonate solution containing 5.3 g/dm’ was placed in a flask, A few drops of indicator vere added. A burette was filled with 0.1 mol/dm* hydrochloric acid, The ocid was titrated ‘egeinst the sodium corbonate solution in the flask. 25.0.cm? of acid were needed to react with the sodium carbonate. The resulting solution was evaporated vail a saturated solution was formed and then allowed to cool. The crystels formed were filtered off, washed and dried. (c). Give the name of the piece of apparatus used to measure 25.0. cm? of sodium carbonate solution, (b} Suggest how you can tell if © soturoted solution was formed. Describe how you would wosh and dry the crystals {d) Give details of a test you could use to show that the crystals contoined chloride ions. The following figure shows some of the properties of o blue, crystalline solid, hue, 3 ‘awhite crystalline ee ea ‘solid dissolve in water and |_Precipitate, M ‘add dilute nitric acid ‘and barium riteate solution dissolve in water and warm with sodium hydroxide solution 2 (928 N, that tums, ablue rod litmus blue precipitate, © nix with excess lute sulphuric acid blue aqueous | blue > solution [_"|_erystals, P evaporate slowly Identify the following fo) substonce M (b} substonce N [e) Substance (@)_ substance P(bh ¢ (d) b) ) (d) (b) fo {d) ee ec ted Se ee | No.1 Experimental Techniques | ~~ a SOLUTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS Poper chromatography Filtration Fractional disiilation Coystolisotion Exan Tr > ‘Answers should be as precise os possible, For i(c), the better answer is ‘fractional dis: tillation.. We con be referring to either simple distillation or fractional distillation when we just give the answer as ‘distillation’, Simple distillation is usect to separate out the liquid Yrom a solution containing dissolved solids (eg, woter from salt water), while fractioncl distillation is used 40 seperate out a liquid from a mixture of miscible liquids (e:g. ethane! from a ethano-water mixture) Pipette A soturated solution is obtained when o thin layer of erystals form os @ crust on the surface of the solution, The crystals can be washed with ¢ litle cold weter and then dried between layers of filter paper The crystals are first dissolved in disilled water to moke @ solution. Dilute nitric ecid followed by aqueous silver nitrate ore then added. If chloride ions are present, a white precipitate of silver chloride will be observed. Barium sulphate. Borium nitrate solution is used to test for sulphote ions. The white precipitote formed is barium sulphate. Ammonia. Ammonia is on alkaline gos that will tuen moist red litmus poper blue. Copper(l| hydroxide. Sodium hydroxide solution is used to test for cations. The blue precipitate formed is copper(ll) hydroxide Copper) sulphate. Copper|t) hydroxide or substance O is a base. It will react with dilute sulphuric acid in @ nevtralisation reaction to form o salt and water. The salt is copper) sulphate, which is objained by crystolisation.24 THE PARTICULATE TOPIC 2 NATURE OF MATTER ) LEARNING OBJECTIVES | Candidetes should be oble to: [4 describe the solid, liquid and terms of the kinelic particle iseous states of matter and explain their inter-conversion ry and the energy changes involved USEFUL WEBSITES 1D hip:/Awn.chamdkids.com/files/matter_intro.htm! 11 hilpi/feen.chemistrycoach.com/tutorials-9.him# Chemistry"%20Laboratory 1 htip://ww.emsb.qc.ca/lourenhill/science/kinetic.him! OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC | rue pavicuuaTe waruRe OF MArTER °F jo, cs of Matter [2.1 | THE THREE STATES OF MATTER | - Charecterscs of the Three § | + The Kinetic Theory 2.2 | CHANGES IN STATE "| = Melting and Freezing | + Beilin nd Condensation oration + SublimationNo.2 The Particulate Noture Of Metter &— THE THREE STATES OF MATTER s, Liguios ano Gases (a) Characteristics of the Three States of Matter £2 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass G2) All substonces can be classified into 3 states of matter: solid, liquid and gas, Table 1 below shows the characteristics of these 3 states of moter. Solids Liquids Gases Shape Fixed shape | No fixed shape. Takes the | No fixed shape. Takes the j | shape of the container shape of the container Volume Fixed volume | Fixed volume No fixed volume. Takes the volume of the container Compressibility | Incompressible | Very slightly compressible, | Very compressible negligible Table 1 Chorocteristics of the 3 states of matter (b) The Kinetic Theory [2 The Kinetic Theory wos proposed to explain the characteristics of the three stales of moter It states thal all matter is made up of extremely small particles thal ore in constant motion These particles can be atoms, ions or molecules Solid | Liquid Gas Diegrommeat representation Packing between | Particles are very dose Particles ore close | Paricles axe for apart in pavicles packed in an orderly pockedin a disorderly | ci disorderly orrangement f cxrangement arrangement i Forces of Very slrong for Strong forces of Weak forces of attraction ortraction cttraction between attraction besween | between particles between particles | particles parlicles ‘Movement of Particles con only vibrate | Particles can move and | Particles are in random patties nd rotate abou! fixed positions exchenge pariners throughout the liquid motion Table 2 Differences between the 3 states of matter in terms of the Kinetic Theory '41 Solids ond liquids ore incompressible because their particles are all close logether. However gases are compressible because the gus particles ore far eport from one cnother and can be forced to move closer by exerting pressure (Fig 1)Fig 1 Compressing « gas fagrams ta represent the porticles ina liquid, ofways draw them close ‘disorderly manner. Many students tend to draw the particles too fer ig 2 correct Fig 3. wrong Remember that liquids cre incompressible. The porticles in Fig 3 can be further cof pressed, hence it is more appropriate to use the diagram to represent a ges instead STOP AND THINK Which diagram shows the arrangement of particles inside o balloon filed wih a mixture ol | helium ond argon? is denser thon helium, B is wrong as the p of both gases are’ tn Continuous motion and will mix to eventually give a homogeneous mixture as shown in A. [Ans: A] Helium and argon are both monoatamic noble geses whose particles are spaced far ndomly im a container STOP AND THINK An inflated balloon will shrink if it is ploced in a refrigerator. What does the lower temperoture cause the gas particles in the belloon to do? A Move faster ond become closer together B Move foster ond become further opert | C Move slower and become closer together D_ Move slower and become further oport a ee27) No2 The Particulate Nature OF Matter | 77 Exam Tre I> OF the three states of matter, particles in gases have the highest amount of kinetic energy, followed by those in liquids and then solids [Ans: C] The gas particles inside the balloon will lose energy to the surroundings on cooling ‘ond become less energetic. Hence they will move slower and closer together. + CHANGES IN STATE [1 Changes in state are physical changes that occur when the particles of « substance absorb or lose energy. [52 As a substance is heated, it absorbs energy ond changes from a solid to a liquid ond finally toa gos. The kinetic energy possessed by is particles increases and they move more vigorously. [22 Fig 4 shows the changes in state thet can toke place. sublimation boiling or meting evoporation feeaing sider Energy possessed by the particles Fig 4 Chonges in state (@) Melting and Freezing {2 Melting takes place when the particles of o solid absorb enough energy fo overcome the forces holding them in fixed positions and move. They rearrange themselves to form ¢ liquid. temperature [C) 5 Rosas ae tat BO naling poi fe ae CAOPOO) —ofrvbrence fnabing is competed OCO e st point C t solid liquid 4 time: rom stort (min) Fig 5 Changes in temperature during metting “1 Section AB: The substance remains in solid state. The heat energy provided is absorbed by the solid particles and they vibrate harder about their fixed positions. ‘1 Section BC: A mixture of solid ond liquid will be observed ot this temperature which is called the melting point of the substance. At point C, the solid has turn completely into a liquid. '1 Section CD: The liquid porticles continue to absorb heat energy and their kinetic energy increases, causing the temperature of the liquid to rise.No2 The Particulate Nature Of Matter (Di In freezing, the reverse process takes place. At the freezing point, the liquid particles wil lose energy when they rearrange to form back the solid structure, This energy loss is equa! to the heat removed by cooling, hence the temperature will remcin constant. temperatyre (C) feeding is completed cot point ¥ austere |X i nelig srs at point . fine from stor min] Fig & Changes in temperature during freezing. 13 Section WX: The substance remains « liquid. As cooling takes place, the paricles loses kinet energy ond moves more slowly LLB Section XY: A mixture of liquid ond solid is observed os the liquid particles rearrange themgclve to form a solid structure, [22 Section YZ: The temperature of the solid drops os cooling continues. (2 The freezing point is olso the melting point for pure substance. (b) Boiling and Condensation [2 Boiling occurs when the perficles in « liquid absorb enough energy to overcome the fBrce holding them together and begin to move opart to form @ gos. temperature °C) boing stars ot point A boiling point of substonce| m E liquid i boling between liquid ne Fig 7 Changes in temperature during boiling Section OA: The substance remains in liquid state. The heat energy provided is absorbe by the liquid paricles and they move more energetically throughout the liquid Section AB: A mixture of liquid and gos will be observed ot this temperature which is calla the bailing point of the substance. At point B, the liquid hos tum completely into a gat Section BC: The gos particles will absorb energy and move further apart os they becom more energetic. The temperature of the gas, will rise. “1 Condensction is the reverse of boiling. The gos particles will lose energy when cooled on rearrange themselves back into o liquid structure.29 )oa@ OA Nod The Particulate Noture OF Matter | ~“" 7 sconceichenismkfy ROMS (©) Evaporation |B Boiling and evoporstion are both physical processes that change a liquid into « gas. The liquid absorbs heat energy during these changes in state. [1 Toble 3 shows the differences between these 2 processes. B. Evaporation ‘Occurs at boiling point Occurs ot any temperature below boiling point Occurs throughout the liquid | Occurs only ot the surdace of the liquid | Bubbles observed No bubbles observed | Occurs rapidly Occurs slowly Table 3 Differences between boiling and evaporation (d) Sublimation (2) Sublimation tokes place when a solid changes into o gos directly, without going through the liquid stote, (4 Examples of substances that undergo sublimotion include solid carbon dioxide (dry ice}, iodine erystols ond mothballs. STOP AND THINK A mixture of water and crushed ice wos heoted gradually, with constant flome and efficient stirring, Until the mixture boiled for o short time. if the temperature of the mixture was plotied against time (i), which graph would be obtoined? aes a wee ik 10 @ oe arn eS i's lence ies er > ‘to e o4 ° Ly. news tines Bean Te 5° Remember that the temperature is constant during eny change in state fer a pure ab stone, Answer A will be correct if the experiment started off with water of O°C TAns: ¢] The experiment started with a mixture of water and crushed ice, Since both solid and liquid states are present, melting must finish before any temperature rise will be observed, Hence, the temperuture at the start remains at zero for al the ice to meltNo.2 The Particulate Nature Of Metter nik -POMNT STOP AND THINK Which change, A, B, C or D, can involve both condensation ond freezing? ‘steam water ice. [Ans: C] Steam must first be condensed to form water, which then freezes to give ice, STOP AND THINK Three substances hove the following properties: substance 1 is brit substance 2 melts at 5°C and boils ot 150° substance 3 has @ high melting point of 800°C. Whet is the state of each substance ot room temperature and pressure? substance 1 substance 2 substance 3 A gos liquid solid 8 s gos solid € solid liquid solid D solid gos ges Exam Tre T= Number lines can be used to help determine the state of a substance at a given temp | ture, Using substonce 2 as an example, mark out the melting point and boiling point on) number line and divide it into 3 regions. At temperatures below the melting point, stance 2 is a solid; at temperatures between the melting point and the boiling point, | 4 liquid, ond at temperatures above the boiling poirt, it is gos. To determine the phy State of substance 2 at a given temperature (say, 25°C), locate this temperature’ on the number fine and see which region st falls into [Ans: C] Substance 1 must be @ solid, since the term ‘brittle’ means ‘easily broken int pieces’ and can only be used to describe a solid, At room temperature and pressure (taken 5 25°C and 1 atmospheric pressure), substance 2 is a liquid while substance 3 is a solic =e 25°C (room temperature) 5 160 {metting pointy (oling point) From the number line, substance 2 is 4 liquid at 25°C, = = =e =e ES31) eto Na2 The Fartcte Nenre OF Mare | STOP AND THINK The diagrams show the errangement of molecules in a substance ot @ pressure of 1 atm ond at two different temperatures. at -150°C at 100°C © 5 OG © Ono Which substence could the diagroms represent? Substance Melting Point/*C Boiling Point/*C A -183 -89 8 ~182 162 c -169 104 3 114 85 BanTrr > From first impression, it seems that number tines must be drawn 40 salve the question This process can be tedious. Always exomine the question carefully to. see if inary cnet tfermation provided to solve the problem quickly. MCQs are allocated only 15 minutes each and should not require long working steps 10 solve ldns: C) At -180°C, the substance is a liquid, At -100°C. the substance is a gas, This means that the boiling paint of er ‘the substence is between -150°C and 100% ‘ iNo2 The Particulate Nature OF Matter SAMPLE QUESTIONS The drawing in the first ox represents the porticles in a substance of o temperature below its melting point. Complete the other two boxes. substance below substance just ‘substance above melting point dove metting point boiling point 2. The following diegram represents chonges that can take place fo © sample of wate Each change is given a letter, me |, a [wer] og | sat Table 1 is often tested during examinations. When stating the relative change on the prafen or the electron, it is important te write +1 or -1, and not just + on ~ STOP AND THINK Which one of the following otoms has © nucleus which does not contain any neutrons? A oluminium D nitrogen 8 hydrogen E ongen C lead Exan Tie E> Notice from the above example that the number of neutrons is obtained from the Periodic Table using the top number minus the bottom number. However, this is not true for all cases. For example, chlorine in the Periodic Tabl is represented as “43¢I. This does not mean that the chlorine atom contains 355-17 = 18.5 neutrons! Chlorine contains 2 isotopes (see later in the chapter), and to account For these 2 isotopes, its mass number is a calculated average value of 355,[Ans: B] The number of neutrons in en atom can be easily calculated using the lami Fyeoeer| Toad iragen| oper Tnfomnation Fen) Ale FPeriodic Table | 84! INS P| mrassrumeer | 27 im |e protonnumber | 18 7/6 ruber of | 27-13 a7 [io neutrons al4 = G tesosscae : Electrons are crranged in electronic shells (or energy levels) around the sucleus. For the first 20 elements in the Pe the protons ond neutrons uste: together in the contre, forming the ruclaus; this is the heawy port of the com Maxi electrons that can | occupy the shell ‘ Sh 1 (nearest to Ld t the nucleus) 2 | ] | Stwsiosancertevey a mi ‘ fast around the nucleus, 2 8 oe at different levels from it When drawing electronic structures of otoms, use the symbol of the element to represent the nucleus. The electrons star filling up the shells from the first shell onwards before going on to the next shell Example 1: lithium, 3ui The lithium atom contains 3 electrons arranged in 2 shells. @) Example 2: Potassium, 2K The potossium atom contoins 19 electrons orranged in 4 shells, ©KEYS PONS No.3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding (2) Another way to show the structure of an atom is to write down the number of electrons in each shell. This is known as the electronic configuration of the atom. Atom Electronic Configuration Lithium 24 Potassium 2.88.1 {2 Electrons found in the outer shell of an atom ore also called valence electrons. These ore the electrons that participate in chemical bonding. STOP AND THINK The bar chart shows the period of elements from lithium to neon, Which property of these elemenis is shown on the chori? property al 24 7 = > Fa Ge 8 CN O F Ne element A. the number of electrons used in bonding B_ the number of orbits holding electrons C the nucleon (mass) number D_ the proton (atomic) number Exau Tie TS In the Penlodic Table, elements are arranged according to proton number. The horizontal rows are called periods, while the vertical columns are celled groups. A new period begins when the maximum number of electrons thet can go into an electronic shell is reached. Notice that the period number = number of shells in the element, i. for lithium, it is in period 2 and it contains 2 shells, while potassium hes 3 shells and is thus located in period 3, One can deduce that for an element lacated in period 5. for example, iodine, must have 5 shells, Note also that for groups of elements, the group number corresponds to the umber of electrons in the outer shell, Hence calcium, found in Group II, has 2 electrons in its outer shell Ans: D] Elements re arranged according to the number of protons in their atomsed [Cass No: Atomic: Structure ‘And! Chemica! Bonding | = mm each other. They have the same (£2 Mony elements contcin toms that are slightly different ft proton number but different mass numbers (i.e, same number of protons but dilferent number fof neutrons). These ctoms are known os isotopes of the element {42 Table 2 below shows the isctapes of some elements Element | Name of Isotope | Number of | Number of | Number of | Protons | Nevtrons Electrons | Hydragen | Protium, 1H 1 0 | 1 Devterivm, 3H 1 em 1 Tritium, 4H 1 2 1 Carbon12,%C 6 al Suu Corbon-13,8C é 7 6 Corbonet 4, 4C 6 8 6 Chlotine-35, | 7 | 18 7 Chlorine-37, 7 20 | Toble 2: Isotopes of some elements CHEMICAL BONDING @ hve ‘ {1 When ctoms combine together in a chemical reaction, we say that a bond is formed between the atoms during the reaction. A reactive atom will combine or form bonds with other atorns easily, while an unreactive atom will not. The reactivity of on atom depends on its electronic steucture, [2 Group 0 elements in the Periodie Table ote also known as inet gases. They are very stable ‘ond hardly form bonds with other elements. The full electronic structure of the first 3 noble gases is shown below: a @ Helium, He Neon, 22Ne Argon, {gAr [.) Notice that all the outer electronic shells (or valence shells) are completely filled. This type ‘of arrangement is very stable and makes the atoms inert. Atoms of other elements try to become stable like the noble goses. They share, gain or lose electrons in their valence shells so thot they can achiove stable electronic siructures, [2 There ere 2 types of chemical bonds that can be formed between 2 ofoms © lonic bonds — valence electrons are transferred from one atom to nother @ Covalent bonds — valence electrons are sharedC39) No3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding {@) Formation of Ions [2 Atoms can obtain « full outer shell and become stable wher they lose or gai Charged particles called ions are formed. * Formation of Positive fons Example 1: Lithium, 3 (( = ie anh in valence electrons. { Lithium fon, Ut 4 a pcie 3 electrons 3—1= 2 electrons Je 8 aces Notes Overall zero charge, i-e. neutral Overall 14 charge 2 The lithium ion now carries a 1+ charge because it has on extra proton. This is represented by enclosing the ion in brackets and writing its charge on the top right hand comer. Note that 1+ is written simply as +. The 1 is not written. We do not draw emply shells either. Example 2: Aluminium, eS ae lose 3 volence. 7 i : o fae eign ®) 4 Ne ( * Ee { Aluminium atom, Al Alum 13 protons. 13 protons \ 13 electrons 13-3=10 electrons 27-13=14 nevitons Overall zero charge, i.e. neutral “In general, when on atom loses n valence electrons to form o stable will cony n+ charge. Formation of Negative lons Example 3: Fluorine, 3F gain 1 valence electron { 3 © 9 protons 9 electrons 19-9=10 neutrons Overall zero charge, i.e. neutral (©) 14 neutrons Overall 3+ charge jon, the ion formed : rests FE 9 protons 9+1=10 electrons 10 neutrons Overall 1- chargeNo3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding | yver-roes | LL The fluoride ion now carries o 1~ chorge becouse it has | extra electron. Note thot the nomes of the non-metallic ctoms change to end with ‘ide’ after they become ions. Thus, + Fluorine ofom becomes fluoride ion Phosphorus fom becomes phosphide ion ‘Onygen atom becomes oxide ion Example 4: Sulphur otom, 3S : (i f ‘©; eae | Sulphur atom, $ Sulphur ion, S? 18 protons 16 protons 16 electrons 164218 electrons 32-16 =16 neutrons 16 neutrons Overall zero charge, i.e. neutral Overall 2~ charge 3 In general, when an atom gains m electrons to form a stable ion, the ion will cosry m charge STOP AND THINK Which one of the following ions has the same number of electrons. as 0 neon atom? Atomic Number lon A 1 hydrogen B W sodium te 7 chlorine D 19 potassium E 20 calcium: Exan Tre IS? inti ions aha a same number of valence electrons, For example, all the elements in Group 1 [|e have 1 valence electron each, This implies that eleméits in Group T will form [NA ens with 1+ charge since they need to lose only 1 valence electron each ta [K_| 2.8.81 | form stable structures, In. general ' Greup I elements form 1» ions Group IT elements form 2+ ions ‘Group TIE elements form 3+ ions This pattern applies also to negotively charged ions. Hence Group V elements form 3- ions Group VI elements form 2- ions + Group VEE elements form 1 ions ly form ions but reacts threugh covalent bonding [Ans: B] For atoms, the atomic number (proton number) is the same as the number of electrons. Sodium has the electronic configuration (2.8.1), and so will form Ne’ by losing 1 valence electron and have only 10 electrons, just like a neon atom whose configuration is (28)A ; Ned Aton Stricture And chenicelBecng 47 Sanerwonis (b) Formation of Ionic Bonds {2 Ionic bending occurs between metallic and non-metallic atoms. Valence electrons are transferred from the metellic atom to the non-metallic atom so that both atoms achieve a full outer shell and become stable, [2 Oppositely charged ions ore formed, The metol ion carries positive charge, whife the non- metallic ion carries negotive charge. These ions ottract each ether with strong electrostatic forces to form an ionic bond. Example 1: Sodium Chloride + The sodium atom transfers 1 volence electron to the chlorine alom so that both coms ‘achieve full outer shell was bey (© sodium election X chlorine electron Na: 2.8.1 ne ch 287 ® © Na" fon: 2.8 CTion: 28.8 * The formula of the compound formed is written as NaCl. lonic compounds are electrically eviral, ie. once the positive and negative ions combine, these charges ‘cancel’ each other out to give @ neutral compound. Exam Tre TS When drawing electrons from different atoms, use different symbols such as * or * and include a key to describe these symbols. These diagrams are sometimes colled ‘cross and lot’ diagrams. Tt is also important that the nucleus 1s clearly labeled with the symbol of the element, Example 2: Mognesium oxide The magnesium atom (2.8.2) transfers 2 valence electrons to the oxygen ator (2.4), eras @) } (®) oa SY, x magnesivm ion, Mg” ‘oxide ion, O” The formula of the compound formed is MgO.[42 } No Atamie Structure And Chemical Bonding |_— Example 3: Magnesium chloride The magnesium otom, (2.8.2) tonsfers one valence electron each to 2 chlorine cloms 2.8.7). (fy - . ; | {© ©))| Ke) =) | mognesivn ion, Ma chloride ion, Cl * miedo + The compound formed is made vp of one Mg” fon by and 2 Cl ions. Hence the formula is written as MgCl, ‘@ mognesivm eleciron - % chiorineeleeron Exan Tie 5 Tr i not necessary to draw ond show the moverne to another unless the question requires it, Most exam structure of the compound only. ence electrons from one atom stions will ask for the final $TOP AND THINK The elements X and Y form the compound X,Y. What is the correct electronic conliguration ofthe ators X and 2 tans: €] The campeind contains 2 4 electronic configuration of ‘one and 1 ¥? ion. This is worked ou atom of X ‘atom of ¥ from the formula, since 2 ions of Xt | needed to "cancel out” the charge. on ie a oa on of ¥. Since group I elements for Lee 22. 27 fons with +1 charge ond group VI"ele | ments forth ont with 2- charge, X mi L A rs be from group T with 1 valence eleq D 2D 26 tron, while ¥ must be from group | with 6 velence electrons. | sTOP AND THINK | What is the formula of the compound formed when element X of atomic number 12 combines | wth element ¥ of etomic number 17% A XY, D XY, B XY E XY foe | Exam Tie BS | “nolher Way To Work cut the charges on the ions 18 fo check the groups that % and Y | feng Toe Since Xi in group £E, Fr will form XS, while ¥, Being: in group VAT, will form Tans: AY. Element X (2.82) will frm X%* while element ¥ (28.7) will frm, ¥" Ths, Sot lated willcontein 1X ion and. 2 ¥° ion to be electrically neutral, so the formula 's ,No3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding (©) Structure of tonic Compounds [21 A solid ionic compound has giant fatiice structure. In this structure, positively and negatively charged ions are held in fixed positions by strong electrostatic forces of attraction Fig 1: Arrangement of ions in an ionic lattice (d) Physical Properties of lonic Compounds {2 High melting ond boiling points A lot of energy is required to overcome the sirong electrostatic forces of attraction holding the ions in the lattice. Meny ionic compounds exist os solids at room temperature. [A Conduct electricity when molten or when dissolved in woter lonic compounds, when molten or dissolved in woter, form mobile ions. These mobile ions ore able to move ond conduct electricity. [2 Soluble in water insoluble in organic solvents STOP AND THINK Substance X hos the following properties. What is X? 1. It conducts electricity when molten. 2. It has a high melting point. 3. It dissolves in on aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid A. copper 8 ethono! ©. iodine D sodium chloride Exam Te KS? ‘Many ionic compounds exist es solids at room temperature because they have very high melting and boiling points due to the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between ‘ons of oppesite charge, When heated, the ions in an ionic compound will absorb heat energy, vibrate harder ond overcome the forces helding them in fixed positions, In the liquid or molten state, the ions become mobile and con conduct electricity {Ansi D] Ethanol is liquid non-condactor while iodine sublimes, ie. there is no liquid of molten state for iodine. Copper does not react or dissolve in aqueous hydrochloric acid, burt sodium chloride con dissolve. in the water found in aqueous hydrochloric acid{a) Formation of Covalent Bonds [2 Covalent bonding usually takes place between non-metallic otoms. Valence electrons are shored between these atoms. Example 1: Hydrogen molecule, H, * Electronic configuration of H is 1 + The hydrogen atom needs 1 more electron in its outermost shell to become stable. This electron con be obtained by sharing 1 electron with another hydrogen atom so that both ‘aloms have complete outer shells. (6 >) (@) NG ) @-@ — @@) + This covalent bond con be represented by a dash, so the bonding between the 2H atoms con be written as H-H. Note that 1 covelent bond contains 2 valence electrons, ‘one from each atom. Example 2: Hydrogen chloride molecule, HC! + Volence electrons can olso be shored between different atoms. + Electronic configuration of H is 1 + Electronic configurotion of Cl is 2.8.7. @: © — &© “ogc ce hom, H chlorine atom, CI hydrogen chloride molecule, HCI + The covalent bond formed con be represented as H-CI. When drowing electronic structures of different atoms, it is a good idea to represent the electrons from different atoms with different symbols [x or *) A key will be needed to interpret these symbols. + Sometimes, instead of drawing full electronic structures, only outer electronic structures ore drawn: chlotine atom, Cl hydrogen chloride molecule, HCI Example 3: Oxygen molecule, O, + Electronic configuration of O is 2.6. * The oxygen atom needs 2 more electrons in its outermost shell fo become stable. These 2 electrons con be obtained by sharing 2 electrons with another oxygen ctom:C45) & No3 Atonle Strictre And Chemical Bending | 457 ©-@©- oxygen stom, enygan atom, O ‘oxygen molecule, O; * The 2 covalent bonds (or the double covalent bond) formed in the oxygen molecule can be written as O = O, Example 4; Water molecule, H,0 + Electronic configuration of H is 1 + Electronic configuration of O is 2.6 + The oxygen atom will form 2 covalent bonds, one with each hydrogen atom, to obtain a stoble structure. ©) ‘ ‘enygenotom,O stom, H——otom, H ) water molecule, HO kev * hydrogen elector % onygen electron Example 5: Vethone, CH, + Electronic configuration of Cis 2.4 + Electronic configuration of H is 1 The carbon otom will form 4 covalent bends, one with each hydrogen atom, to obtain 4 stoble structure. carbon atom, stom, H methane, CH, Example 6: Carbon dioxide, CO, * Electronic configuration of C is 2.4. * Electronic configuration of © is 2.6. * The corbon atom will form 2 double covalent bonds (i.e. 4 covalent bonds in tolal), fone with each oxygen atom, to obtain a stable structure. mt ©} (e}(e) a ‘oxygen ciom, © carbon otom, C oxygen atom, O carbon dioxide molecule, CO, sleckon gO) The carbon dioxide molecule can be writen os O = C = O,| 46 No3 Atomic Structure And Chemica! Bonding : Exan Tre I> ; a Examine the ebove examples carefully, ond you will notice a pattern - the numb ‘valent bonds formed by an atom is the rumber of electrons it needs to obtain o complete outer shell. For example, in its compounds. hydrogen ond chlorine will form 1 bond, oxygen will form 2 bends and carban will form 4 bonds. This pattern is useful fo helping predict the structure of a covalent compound. When drowing covalent structures, always dea the atom that needs to form the most number of bonds in the centre, then add on the rest of the atoms (see Examples 5 and (b) Structure of Simple Covalent Compounds Covalent compounds exist as simple moleculr structures. The molecules of the compound ore held together by weak intermolecular forces that are easily broken by heating. ® ge oe Fig 2: Arrangement of molecules in a simple moleculor structure (c) Physical Properties of Covalent Compounds Low melting and boiling points The intermoleculor bonds holding the molecules together ore weok ond easily overcome, Many covalent compounds exist as liquids or gases at room iemperoture. Do not conduct electricity in ony state Covelent substances are made up of neutral molecules that are unable to conduct electricity. | Soluble in orgenic solvents, insoluble in water E.g. of organic solvents: trichlormethane (CHCI, Exan Tre T> ethonol,, petrol wmpourd, only the weak intermolecular Forces ore When meiting or boiling a covalent broken, not the covalent bonds inside the molecules. Covalent bonds are strong bonds and will require a lot of energy to break. If the covalent bonds im the molecules are bro then decomposition has taken place and not melting, STOP AND THINK The diogram below represents the structure of ¢ molecule. Whi pounds could have the structure shown? A ommonie ich one of the following com- B colcium chloride C copper oxide D lead) chloride E water4 No.3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Gonding 9 | Eu Tir ISS Tonic compounds do not exist as mofecul is wrong to describe sodium chloride as being de up of molecules of NaCl, NaCl is referred 40 as the unit of sodium chloride, and it shows the ratio of sodium ions to chloride ions. Hence, « unit of calcium chloride is CoC | ind the ratio of calcium ions to chloride ions is 1:2 fans: E] Since the question states that the structure shown is a molecule, the compound must be covalent, i.e. non-metal atoms combine with non-metal atoms. Ammonia has the formula NH,, while 8, C and D are all ionic compounds (metal atoms combine. with non- metallic atoms). Hence the enswer is water, whose formula is H,¢ | STOP AND THINK | The table shows the proton (stomic) number of three elements. Which statement cbout X,Y ond Z is correct? element Proton (atomic) number x 3 | vi 9 Zz 10 X and Y con combine together to form an ionic compound XY, X ond Z can combine together to form an ionic compound XZ, Y and Z con combine together to form @ covalent compound YZ. Y is an clkali metel, Z is a hologen Pero To determine the type of bonding present in a compound, use the general rule ~ tonic | compounds are formed when metallic and non-metallic atoms combine, while covalent com mone | pounds are formed when non-metallic atoms combine. Ans: A] The electronic configurations of the 3 elements are: X (2:1), ¥ (2:7) and Z (2.8) Z is @ noble gas and will not form compounds, X is @ Group T metal and will combine with ¥..a Group VET non-metal to form an ionic compound &+ STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Pec 1 Elements ere made up of only one kind of atoms. The diagrams in Fig 3 show examples of elements existing os ctoms as well as molecules, oO] [ee ° QP OG e {o} ® @ Fig 3: Diagrams showing {s) 2 monoatomic gaseous element made up of atoms, e.g. helium; {b) on geseous element made up of diatomic molecules, e.g. hydrogen gas; ond (€) a solid element, e.g. ironCas) Geo es No3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Sonding | ~~~ = [A compound is made up of twa or more types of atoms chemicelly combined together. The diagrams in Fig 4 show examples of some compounds. oe @) © Fig 4: Diograms showing molecules of o compound made of 2 types of elements, e.g, (o} hydrogen chloride, HCI, and (b) water, 1,0 [21 A mixture is made up of two or more elements or compounds physically combined together. ) The components con be separated easily from one onother using methods such os filtration, © magnet, etc. wa : ) Table 3 summorises the differences between © mixture and @ compound, Mixture Compound ‘Composition | No fixed composition. | Fixed composition. The percentage of | ecch element ino compound is always same Properties | A mixture does net have is own ‘A compound hes its own set of properties but retcin those properties | croperies, different from the properties ofthe substances it is made up of. | of the elements it is made up of | E.g. Saltwater is mixture of salt E.g. Water is a liquid at room cond water. It is liquid, like water; temperature, but the elements hydrogen | ond is salty like pure salt and ongen are gases. ‘Melting ond | Melis and boils over a range of Fixed melting and boiling point. Boiling Points. | temperotures Preparation | No chemical reaciion tokes place | A chemical reaction takes place when o when @ mixture is formed. ‘compound is formed, sometimes with the emission of heat and/or light. Soparotion | Easily sepercied using physical Connot be separated using physical meons. Chemical means such os electrolysis ore needed, means such as distillation. BunTer TH Elements and compounds are pure substances and will have fixed melting and boiling points. (On the other hend, mixtures will melt or boil over a range of temperatures STOP AND THINK | Which ofthe following las tre elements? | A. argon, magnesium, phosphorus DD mognesium, bronze, hydrogen B_ brass, phosphorus, potassium E petrol, alcohol, woter C chlorine, oir, nitrogen Exan Tie TS> Bross and bronze ore alioys. An allay is a mixture containing @ metal and another element. Ans: A] Brass and bronze are mixttures of elements, cir is a mixture of elements and compounds, ond petrol is a mixture of compounds. Alcohol and water ere pure compounds,4 A No3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding | SAMPLE QUESTIONS nswer this question. jse the dota sheet to help you a : acai vi ae caleiym ion hes on eledcel chorge. Explain how, 7 © Ooo it i formed from on atom. this fon becomes charges @ calcium ion fi) Give, using dlagrem, the electronic structure of @ colcium atom and ‘ | pos {b} An isotope of calcium hos mass number of 40. Another isotope of calcium has o mass Au! Gf 44. Whot does the nucleus of each isotope contain? noms of benlium and magnesium ore represented, respectively, by the symbols: we Ne {a} What do the following numbers tell you about these atoms? (i) 4 (inthe symbol for berylium} fi) 24 (in the symbol for magnesium} (6) (i) What is the electronic structure of an otom of magnesium? {ii) In which group of the Periodic Table is magnesium placed? (c)_ How do the electronic structures of beryllium and magnesium indicate that they are both in the some Group of the Periodic Table? The drowings represent the pariicles in six different substances of room temperature and pressure, ic E FE Ce PS o ood ° Complete the fable to show which one of the drawings A te F best represents each of the following substances. You may use each letter once, more than once or not at all. substance | eve. hems IKEY201NTS Nes Atomic Siichine And Ghenial Boing SOLUTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS {i} When the calcium ctom undergoes reaction, i loses 2 valence electrons fo form the cal- cium ion. This ion will cary a 2+ charge since the number of protons remain the same; ‘only the number of electrons are affected. ~ rr | Atom jon of protons 20 No. of neutrons 20 | No. of electrons 18 ti) 2+ calcium atom calcium ion For the isotope with moss number 40: No. of protons = 20 No. of neutrons = 40 — 20 = 20 For the isotope with mass number 44: No. of protons = 20 No. of neutrons 44 — 20 = 24 fi) It is the proton or atomic number of the element. Beryllium has 4 protons. {i It is the mass or nucleon number of the element. Magnesium has 24 protons and neutrons. a Ps Sg ((\\ NC fi) Group Il The siructure of beryllium is 2.2, while the structure of magnesium is 2.8.2. Both elements have 2 velence electrons, which indicate thet they will be located in Group ll of the Periodic Table.(Gry ome Ne3 Atomic Structure And Chemical Bonding | ~~“ Scenics subsionce | copper gos aemiture | hydrogen water (Gogrom A-F A E F E Cc Exam Tx TS” Tt is important to be able to identify the substances represented in diagrams such as those given in the question. A is a solid element because the particles are clase packed, arid there are only one type of ctom, Bis also an element, but in liquid formt, ¢ and D ‘ore pure compounds containing two types of atoms, E is a pure gaseous element that exists as diatomic molecules, Finally, F is a mixture of two elements. {o} The formula is SiC, ©) QO ~~ @) . © Clelectrons X Sielectrons (b). Sodium chloride is an ionic compound with high boiling point, It is on electrical conductor when molten or when cissolvel! in water Silicon tetrachloride is a covalent compound with low boiling point. It does not conduct electricity in all states Exam Tre [> The silicon atom needs another 4 valence electrons ta become steble while the chlorine atoms need 1 valence electron each. Hence the silicon atom will form 4 covalent bonds, while the chlorine atoms will form 1 covalent bond each, When drawing this structure place the silicon atom in the centre since it forms the most number of bonds, and then ‘add in the chlorine atoms,STOICHIOMETRY AND TOPIC 4 THE MOLE CONCEPT LEARNING OBJECTIVES Condidotes should be cble to: 4.1 Formulae and Equations WZ stote the symbols of the elements and formulee of the compounds mentioned in the syllabus @_ deduce the formulae of simple compounds from the relative numbers of atoms present and vice versa deduce the formulae of ionic compounds from the charges on the fons present ond vice verso interpret chemical equotions with state symbols @ construct chemical equotions, with state symbols, incl 4.2 Stoichiometric Calculations define relative atomic mass, A define relative molecular mass, M, © colculate stoichiometric reacting mosses ond volumes of gases {one mole of gos occupies 24 dm? at room temperature and pressure}; colculations involving the ideo of limiting reactants may be set (questions on gos lows and the calculations of gaseous volumes af diferent femperotures ond pressures will not be set) © cpply the concept of solution concentration (in mol/dm? or g/dm?) fo process the results of volumetric experiments and to solve simple groblems (simple guidance will be provided where unfamilior reactions are involved) USEFUL WEBSITES http://Avww.creative-chemistry.org.uk/acse/documents/Module8/N-m08-11 .odtf http://wew.marsdenshs.qld.edu.au/subjects/science/junior_science/chem/elemenis.him| hitp://www-krysstal.com/reactions. htm! hitp://www.corlton.paschools.pa.sk.ca/chemical/molemass/defoult.htm htto://www-bbe.co.uk/scotland/education/bitesize/standard/chemistry/celculations/indlex.shirn hitp:/Awwwtowson.edu/~ladon/empiric.himl hito:/fwww.creative-chemistry.org.uk/gese/documents/Module7/N-m07-10.pdf hitp://ww.cchs.co.uk/subjects/science/chemistry/‘gcse/resources/ionic/ionic.him hip://ww.angelo.edu/facully/kboudrea/general/fermules_nomencloture/ Formulas_Nomenclature.htm hitp://chemed, chem.purdue.edu/gencher/probsolu/stoichiometry/index.htm! 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