ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.

Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

Module Title THEORY CONSTRUCTION

Module Code Ed.303

Modality: Modular Distance Learning

Module Prof. DR. BEN T. BELLO

Description

The focus of this class is on causal process theory, the theory type that predominates in the social
sciences. You will develop a theoretical model that advances existing theory. This will be one that can be
represented in visual form as a “box and arrow” process or causal model, or as a flow chart that similarly lends
itself to empirical test; this will be developed incrementally, with several rounds of feedback from me and the
class. This will be written up with developing the theoretical justification and rationale for your novel claims, and
providing a brief outline of several studies which together will make significant progress in testing your model.
You are encouraged to include studies which you have already completed or have under way as part of this
description of programmatic plans, but you are also expected to outline at least two additional studies to
assess other aspects of your theoretical model.
The purpose is to help you conceptualize your work programmatically, as a series of related studies
building on one another. You will in all likelihood use your work in this class to help structure and organize your
nd
2 year talk and to begin the kind of thinking that will help you structure a job talk, and hopefully you will in time
conduct a version of at least some of the studies you outline and propose. Therefore, you should be talking
about your ideas and directions with your advisor. However, please do not ask your advisor to review your
written assignments for this class until after you’ve handed them in and gotten my comments.
Learning Outcomes:

1. To review foundational readings on theory construction in social science in general and communication
research in particular.
2. To be able to identify various approaches through which one can make an original contribution to
communication theory.
3. To be better able to assess the theoretical contribution of research articles in the literature, and to
critique and improve research ideas of others and one’s own.

LESSON 1: Concept Explication and Literature Review

Concept Explication and Literature Review

What is explication?
 It is the process by which abstract concepts are systematically linked to observed variations in those
concepts in the “real” world with appropriate methods.
This is accomplished by developing two definitions
 Conceptual definitions: Specify the meaning of the concepts to be studied; verbal descriptions of the
essential properties the researcher intends to be included within the concept’s meaning
 Operational definitions: Procedures by which the concept is to be observed, measured or manipulated
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

 Many of each of these types of definitions are possible for a given concept

Process of explication involves two sets of procedures:

1. Meaning analysis: Use logical procedures to define concepts with clearly connected conceptual and
operational definitions
 This takes place when designing research
2. Empirical analysis: The reverse process whereby you evaluate the concept based on empirical evidence
 Takes place after (at least some) research has been carried out

What is a research concept?

 Abstractions communicated by words or signs that refer to common properties among phenomena
 Each concept has a real world referent
e.g., “journalist” - an object
e.g., “aggressive behavior” - a type of behavior
e.g., “positively related” - a relationship
 Research concepts are terms we use to break down research questions and what we need to measure
and analyse

Types of Concepts
 Singular: A unique object – e.g., “George W. Bush”
 Class: A collection of singular concepts – e.g., “U.S. presidents”
 Relational: A concept that shows connections – e.g., “greater than”
 Constant: A concept that only takes on one value – e.g., “female”
 Variable: A concept that can have different levels – e.g., “biological sex”

Research Concepts vs. Everyday Concepts:

 Abstractness – more than just a description, research concepts allow for comparison, differences
 Clarity of meaning – rough meaning is fine for every day, but research concepts must be better
understood – e.g., “pornography,” “TV violence”
 Precision – is it able to be communicated to others clearly for replication?
o Operationalizability – research concepts can be measured or observed.
There’s a tension between abstractness and operationalizabilty

Example: “Television is harmful to the political process.”

 What are the concepts?
 “TV” – a variable; abstract, but no clarity of meaning
 “Effectiveness of political process” – a variable, but what is the unit of analysis and class? Citizens,
politicians, lobbyists, laws? What country?
 “Harm” – a relational concept denoting a negative association

Steps of Meaning Analysis

 Preliminary identification of concept
 What is it, what is unit of analysis, what kind of variable?
 Literature search
 How have others used this concept, conceptually, operationally?
 Other terms for this concept? (e.g., “need for cognition”: “curiosity,” “thoughtfulness”)

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

Example of meaning analysis

Conceptualization: Identify the precise and specific meanings of the concept (at the abstract level)
Operationalization: Turn the concept into variables and attributes (at the concrete level)
 How much variation is there in the concept?
 How fine of distinctions between values?
 Attributes must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive
 Can have single or multiple indicators (multiple usually better)
Which operationalization (procedure to concretely measure the abstract concept) to use?
 Depends on your question, type of research
 See what other researchers have done and whether it fits the concept
 See what has worked in previous research

Example of meaning analysis:

 Develop a conceptual definition for your research project
 Start at the most abstract level, and then define what lower order dimensions this general concept
subsumes
 “TV viewing” = this is at a high level, more abstract, less precise
 “news,” “entertainment,” etc., are (possible) dimensions of this concept
 Now define the concept operationally
 What indicators to look for? How do you know one when you encounter one?
 Each dimension could have more than one indicator (e.g., TV news: morning, noon, local, national,
etc.)
 Each dimension of a concept should be observable
 What are the results of past operations: Range of values, what affects it, or does it affect?
 For what units of analysis?

Explication – Steven Chaffee’s steps:

1. Preliminary identification of concept. What is it, unit of analysis, what kind of variable?
2. Literature search: How have others used this concept, both conceptually and operationally? What other
terms have been used for this concept? (e.g., “need for cognition,” “curious,” “thoughtful”)
3. Empirical description: What are the results of past operations (measurements): Range of values, what
affects it, or does it affect? For what units of analysis?
4. Develop a conceptual definition for your research: First work at the most abstract level, and then ask
what lower order dimensions the general concept subsumes? (e.g., TV viewing = highly abstract, with
news, entertainment, etc, dimensions of this). All indicators within a dimension will most likely be
internally consistent (i.e., reliable).
5. Define operationally: Identify what indicators to look for. Each dimension of a concept should be
observable. Each dimension could have more than one indicator (e.g., TV news: morning, noon, local,
national, etc.). Not always easy to find indicators for concepts
6. Data gathering: Observe your concepts; refine definitions based on results.

Things to remember:
o All these steps are necessary
 A concept without an operation is not observable,
 An operation without a concept is not very informative.
 Common mistake: confusing the operation (measure) for the concept itself
 IQ is what the IQ test measures, rather than the IQ test is one way of operationalizing the concept of
intelligence.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

 Don’t rely on dictionary definitions as conceptual definitions

 The explication process is iterative

Explication and theory

 All this explication stuff is essential to theory development
 Theory is a collection of statements asserting a relationship between two or more concepts as they vary
among a class of objects
 So, you must explicate each of the concepts in your theoretical statement

Theoretical Statement Example

 “Exposure to violent TV content makes more likely the expression of antisocial aggressive behavior
among adolescent children.”
 Key variables to explicate:
 Violent TV content (cause - independent variable)
 Antisocial aggressive behaviour (effect - dependent variable)
 Adolescent children are the units of analysis, class of objects

What is a hypothesis?
 A statement asserting relationship(s) between two or more operationalizations of concepts
 “The more A-Team watched, the more name calling.”
 “The more WWF watched, the more name calling.”

THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Conducting the Search
 Identify all possible search terms
e.g., children, kids, teens, youth, adolescents
e.g., media, television, TV, newspapers, radio, magazines, film, movies, internet, ipod, mp3, etc.
 Find all appropriate databases
 Use Boolean operators (OR, AND, NOT, etc.) to broaden/narrow search
 Keep notes on search terms
 Do same search in multiple databases
 Use bibliographies from articles/books to enhance search
 Use card file or software like Endnote to organize articles/books found so you don’t keep “re-
discovering” the same piece
Some Key Databases
 Lexis/Nexis  Eric
 Social Science Citation Index (SSCI)  ComAbstracts
 PsycInfo  ComIndex
 Sociological Abstracts  MLA
 America: History and Life  PAIS
 ACM  Art Index
 Ethnic & Gender Newswatch  Academic Search Premier
 Arts and Humanities Index  ABI/Inform (part of ProQuest)
What to look for?
 How concepts have been defined?  Methods used?
 Does it fit your research?  Units of analysis?
 How measured?  When, where, who were studied
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

REPORTING AND READING RESEARCH

Parts of a Research Paper
 Introduction
 What is the research question?
 Why?
 Layout direction for paper
 Literature review
 Organize around key concepts/variables
 Synthesize what has been found
 Move from abstract to concrete
 Ends with clear statement of hypotheses
 Methods
 Overview
 Design
o Overall structure to the study
 Participants/sampling
o Who/what was studied, how selected
 Measurements
o Operationalization, linked to concepts
 Procedures
o What happened to participants, what was done
 Results
 Organized around hypotheses
 Where stats are reported
1. Discussion
 What’s it all mean
 Limitations
 Future directions for research

LESSON 2: Types Of Theory And The Importance Of Causal Process Models In Communication
Research

Theory of Causation
Causation and inductive inference have been linked in the philosophical literature since David Hume.
The Department’s contribution to the foundations of causation and causal discovery over the past two decades
has transformed the subject and is having influence not only within philosophy, computer science, and
statistics, but also in the social sciences, biology, and even planetary science. The basic idea is that, although
correlation or statistical dependence cannot determine the causal relationship between two variables, it can,
under plausible assumptions, determine some causal relationships when three or more variables are
considered. That allows for algorithms that can sometimes recover features of the causal structure of an
unknown system from patterns of correlation alone. The following is a brief list of our work in this area since
2008.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

Confidence bounds for causal inference.

Spirtes, Glymour and Scheines showed that causal discovery converges to the truth under plausible
conditions (i.e., is point-wise consistent). That does not entailthat one can say a priori how probable it is that
one is close to the truth at a given sample size. Spirtes and former student J. Zhang have investigated
strengthened versions of the Faithfulness assumption and revised algorithms under which uniform consistency
obtains.

Fundamental Assumptions.
Several fundamental assumptions link probability distributions to causal relations and serve as the
basis of the theory of causal inference. The Causal Markov assumption states that each variable is
independent of its non-effects conditional on its direct causes. The Causal Faithfulness assumption states that
the only conditional independencies that hold in a population are those entailed by the causal Markov
assumption. The validity of these assumptions has come under intense philosophical scrutiny. Spirtes has
explored to what extent the Causal Markov Assumption is invariant under transformation of variables. Spirtes
and former student Zhang have explored several variants of the Causal Faithfulness assumption that both
weaken it in some respects and strengthen it in other respects. This work has yielded practical implications for
improving causal inference algorithms. Spirtes and Zhang have also investigated what inferences can be made
when the Causal Faithfulness Assumption is replaced with the much weaker Causal Minimality Assumption
(i.e. the population distribution does not fit a sub-graph of the true causal graph.)

Inference of causal theories with unmeasured variables.

Unmeasured (latent) common causes are one of the main obstacles to reliable causal inference.
Spirtes, in collaboration with Claassen is exploring significantly speeding up the existing FCI algorithm. Spirtes,
in collaboration with G. Cooper is developing combined constraint-based/Bayesian algorithms that searches for
causal models that is correct even with unmeasured variables. Glymour has worked with an undergraduate,
Alexander Murray-Watters, now a Master’s student, and Richard Scheines on developing procedures for
identifying unobserved causes that operate on causal pathways between observed variables. This work is
about to be applied to empirical data on cell signalling mechanisms.

Ockham’s Razor in Causal Discovery.

In order to illustrate the relevance of retraction minimization to practical inquiry, Kelly and former Ph.D.
student C. Mayo-Wilson have shown that any particular causal arrow inferred by a point-wise consistent causal
method can be forced by nature to flip in orientation any number of times prior to convergence to the true
orientation. Still, the basic strategy of basing causal conclusions on the outcomes of statistical tests is optimally
retraction-efficient.

Pooling distinct data sets.

Spirtes and Tillman have explored the question of overlapping sets of variables. That is, if one has
multiple datasets that measure overlapping sets of variables, what (if anything) can be learned about the
causal structure underlying all of the measured variables? The standard answers in statistics all require strong
assumptions.

Causal factor analysis.

Da Silva, Scheines, Glymour, and Spirtes, previously developed an algorithm, Build Pure Clusters, that
can provably reliably learn a “measurement model,” i.e., the set of latent variables that underlie a given set of
measured variables as long as each cluster is caused by at most one latent variable.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

Time Series.
Danks, in collaboration with Sergey Plis (Mind Research Network, University of New Mexico) has
focused on learning from time series data that is undersampled relative to the true causal timescale. For
example, communication between neurons happens relatively rapidly (on the order of 100 ms), but fMRI
measurements are typically much slower (on the order of two seconds). Danks & Plis first showed that this
undersampling --- measuring the system more slowly than the underlying processes --- can significantly impair
causal structure learning, including causal connections being missed, spurious connections being added, and
the proper causal direction being reversed. They then proved a set of theorems about how causal systems
(appear to) change under different types of undersampling. They are currently using those theorems to
develop causal structure learning algorithms that extract the structure at the causal timescale.

Efficient experimental design.

Scheines and former PhD student Frederick Ebherhardt, together with Patrik Hoyer have examined the
problem of causal inference from sequences of experiments. They considered learning linear cyclic causal
models, and established worst-case bounds on successful causal inference that make causal discovery on
large scale systems such as genetic regulatory networks experimentally possible.

Changing Causal Structure.

Danks, in collaboration with Erich Kummerfeld (current Ph.D. student) has focused on situations in
which the causal structure can potentially change without warning or signal. For example, the brake line in
one's car might break, so that the Pedal --> Brakes causal connection is suddenly absent. Alternately, the
changes can be slower, as when one's laptop battery gradually loses the ability to hold a charge. Kummerfeld
& Danks developed a novel algorithm (LoSST) for causal structure learning in these types of situations. The
LoSST algorithm performs similarly to standard causal structure learning algorithms when the causal structure
is actually stable. But if the causal structure does change, the LoSST algorithm quickly identifies that a change
has occurred (using only the observed data) and rapidly learns the new causal structure. In the course of this
research, Kummerfeld & Danks also identified a novel methodological challenge. One natural (though
previously undiscussed) methodological virtue is vigilance: if the world changes, then the method has a non-
zero probability of recognizing that change within a known time period. A well-known methodological virtue is
consistency: if the world does not change, then the method converges to it in the infinite limit. Kummerfeld &
Danks showed that no statistical estimator can be both consistent and diligent; learning methods can provably
learn the structure of a stable world or provably protect themselves against a changing world, but not both.

Applications. Several faculty members (Glymour, Ramsey, Spirtes, Danks) have been engaged for the past
several years in investigations into the causal analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), along
with collaborators Russell Poldrack at the University of Texas at Austin, Steve Hanson at Rutgers University,
and Sergey Plis at the University of New Mexico. The goal of the research is to determine networks of causal
relations in the brain from fMRI data. To thisend, Glymour, Ramsey, and Spirtes have scaled up, modified, or
developed a number of algorithms.
To search for undirected causal connections, Glymour and Ramsey have devised a multi-subject
version of a Bayesian search algorithm originally developed by a CMU Philosophy graduate student, Chris
Meek, and showed its accuracy for inferring brain mechanisms from brain scans, producing the algorithm
IMaGES, to allow for search from data for multiple subjects simultaneously. The procedure has found several
empirical applications and a textbook endorsement, Ramsey, Spirtes, and Glymour have also modified the PC
algorithm for the same purpose. They have also developed a number of algorithms to use non-Gaussianity to
orient causal orientation for fMRI data, given causal connections from another algorithm. They are presently
refining and extending these algorithms and working to apply Bayes net methods to further theoretical
problems arising from the analysis of fMRI data. Results by Danks and Plis suggest that there are limits to be
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

placed on the learning of graphs from undersampled data, a theoretical constraint that needs to be born in
mind for FMRI, since the rate of measurement of samples (1 - 3 seconds) is far slower than the rate at which
causal processes happen (100 ms). In collaboration with behavioral economists Cynthia Cryder and Geoge
Loewenstein, Scheines has applied causal discovery techniques to models of charitable giving, finding that the
perceived impact of one’s donation screens off the sympathy felt for those in need. Scheines and educational
researcher Martina Rau have applied causal discovery methods to log files of student behavior on a fractions
tutor, finding evidence to support the ideathat teaching elementary students to conceptually understand
fractions prior to becoming fluent in fraction arithmetic is more effective at producing learning than vice versa.

Evidential Coherence and Causation.

In collaboration with Greg Wheeler, Scheines investigated the ways in which the causal relations
among a hypothesis and evidence that might bear on it mediates the relationship between "evidential
coherence" and "confirmation" - both of which can be modeled using probabilistic relations. Under the
assumption that these relations are reasonable models of these philosophical notions (which is not necessarily
our view), it turns out that for certain classes of models the causal structure tells the entire story, and for others
the causal story along with bounds allow one to say quite a lot about how "coherence" and "confirmation"
relate.

Mis-specification.
In collaboration with psychometricians at UCLA, Scheines researched the interaction between
measurement model mis-specification and bias in estimating causal relationships between latent variables.
Surprisingly, using measurement models mis-specified as unidimensional often involves very low bias when
estimating causal parameters. Under reasonable assumptions, statistics can be derived to indicate when a
researcher is likely to be in such a situation. This research was also extended to investigate whether multi-
dimensional measurement models could be built reliably using existing clustering algorithms.

Variable Construction.
Scheines, Danks and PhD student Steve Fancsali investigated the relationship between the goals of
scientific investigation(predictive or causal) and the sorts of variables one should construct or define from raw
data logs that are not yet even random variables. If one's goal is prediction, the task is simple, but if one's goal
is causal, there is a decision theoretic tension between finding variables that are a) strong predictors of a target
but not knowable causes, or b) weaker predictors, but more knowable causes.

Testing.
Spirtes has served on the board of Chalearn an organization devoted to setting up open competitions
for analyzing data in order to make causal inferences. Several such competitions have been successfully run in
the last year.

Policy.
Scheines has served on several National Academy of Science committees that apply causal inference
methodology to problems of national concern. In 2005, the Institute of Medicine systematically studied the
effect of food marketing on the diets of children. Scheines constructed coding standards for causal inference
and, along with committee members applied it to over a hundred published studies. In 2007, the IOM’s
Committee on the Evaluation of the VA’s Presumptive Disability Decision-Making Process was asked to
construct a modern framework for reviewing the scientific evidence for whether wartime exposure caused
veteran disease. In 2012-14, the National Research Council was asked to review the EPA’s IRIS Process – a
system that the EPA uses to identify hazard and assess risk in non-pesticide chemicals. In both of these

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

committees, Scheines led the effort to construct a framework for using diverse bases of evidence
(experimental, observational, animal studies) for and against causation.

ASSESSMENT:

A. Short paper 3, in lieu of questions on readings:

1. Identify one to three concepts that appear at present most central to your evolving research
direction or program.
2. Provide a brief concept explication of one concept that you regard as the most important or
central to your work, with citations. This can be an update of work you have done previously in
other classes or research projects, but should reflect your best current thinking. Where your
concept explication is still a work in progress and needs development, that’s fine, you can say
so. If you can at this point, highlight conceptual problems or issues in the existing literature that
you hope to address in your research, and
3. How you hope to address it (through new measures or manipulations, redefining or
reconceptualising the concept, etc).
B. Briefly describe in 5-10 sentences your key concepts, and how they relate to your evolving research
program (you may work with interest-based small groups).
C.
1. Are you curious about how specific elements of these ideas arose and were developed? Why or
why not?
2. What is the importance of causal process models in communication research?
3. In 5 to 10 sentences, elaborate and discuss the Theory of Causation.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

Module Title COMPARATIVE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Module Code Ed.304

Modality Modular Distance Learning

Module Prof. DR. BEN T. BELLO

Course Description:

It deals with the comparative analysis of the different philosophies of education focused on
those underlying Philippine education. It includes the study of the relationship, functions and application
of the major philosophies of education to educational practice, policy formulation and national
development direction in education.

Cognitive Aims

1.1.1. Familiarized themselves with the views of men and his nature;
1.1.2. Develop critical thinking skills;
1.1.3. Identify and compare critically the major components proponents, concepts, theories, aims
and principles of such philosophies of education;

1. Comparison of the View of Men and His Nature in Terms of:

1.1 Eastern/Asian Philosophies

1.1.1 Eastern philosophy or Asian philosophy
Includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South Asia, including Chinese
philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, and Vietnamese philosophy; all of these
are dominant in East Asia and Vietnam, and Indian philosophy (including Hindu philosophy, Jain
philosophy, Buddhist philosophy), which are dominant in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Tibet,
and Mongolia
East Asian philosophical thought began in Ancient China, and Chinese philosophy begins
during the Western Zhou Dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the "Hundred
Schools of Thought" flourished (6th century to 221 BCE). This period was characterized by
significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the major Chinese
philosophical schools (Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism) as well as numerous less influential
schools (Mohism, School of Names, School of Yin Yang). These philosophical traditions
developed metaphysical, political, and ethical theories which, along with Chinese Buddhism, had a
direct influence on the rest of the East Asian cultural sphere. Buddhism began arriving in China
during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), through a gradual Silk road transmission and
gradually developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/Zen).

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

1.1.2. Modern East Asian philosophy

Chinese
Modern Chinese thought is generally seen as being rooted in Classical Confucianism
(Jingxue), Neo-Confucianism (Lixue), Buddhism, Daoism, and Xixue (“Western Learning”
which arose during the late Ming Dynasty).
Japanese
Modern Japanese thought is strongly influenced by Western science and philosophy.
Japan's rapid modernization was partly aided by the early study of western science (known
as Rangaku) during the Edo Period (1603–1868). Another intellectual movement during the
Edo period was Kokugaku (national study), which sought to focus on the study of ancient
Japanese thought, classic texts, and culture over and against foreign Chinese and Buddhist
cultures. A key figure of this movement is Motoori Norinaga (1730–1801), who argued that
the essence of classic Japanese literature and culture was a sense called mono no
aware ("sorrow at evanescence").

1.2 Western Philosophies

Western philosophy is a philosophy evolved from western civilization and its historical
development. With changing socio- economic and political conditions, western philosophy too
changed over a period of time. But it had maintained its continuity from Greek philosophy to the
contemporary times. The approaches and styles of doing philosophy may vary, but we can identify
certain features on which western philosophy got constructed. In the light of contemporary
struggles, the very assumptions and foundations of philosophy are under scrutiny. It does not
mean that it dismissing the philosophical thought of western society, but arguing for new methods
of inquirers in understanding the western reality against the dominant view of western philosophy.
Western philosophy has enriched by many philosophers of western countries. In ancient
times, Greco-Romans are the leading philosophers. In medieval times, the Greek philosophy has
influenced the religion and comes with philosophy of religion. The modern philosophy developed
with industrial revolution of the west. Though British, German and French and American and other
European nations have different social and political contexts, there are efforts to construct
philosophical thought of these as western. Within west, we may find different philosophical
traditions with different styles of doing philosophy and at the same time we may find some kind of
convergence of philosophical thought commonly identified as western philosophy.
For our understanding we may divide history of western philosophy into ancient, medieval
and modern, and contemporary.
a. Ancient philosophy- (Greek, Hellenistic and Roman Philosophy) Greek philosophy from
Thales to Aristotle, Greco-Roman Philosophy, Neo Platonism of the Alexandrain School.
b. Medieval philosophy or scholasticism from fifth to fifteenth century. (Patristic and
Scholastic Philosophy)
c. Modern philosophy- the renaissance from the 15th to the 17th century, the period of
enlightenment from Locke to Kant, German philosophy from Kant to Hegel d. Contemporary
philosophy from 1860 to the present. (20th century - Postmodernism)

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
______________________________________________________________________________

2. Comparison of the different Philosophies of Education:

By looking on Eastern and Western countries, both countries have distinct differences in their ways
of developing and shaping an individual, in terms of skills and attitudes. Thus, different cultures will have
different philosophies, which results in different ways of doing things, especially in educating the next
generation.
To begin with, Western education philosophy emphasizes on active learning that involves students’
active participation in class and group discussions. Such education builds up students’ confidence to
speak in front of the class, which results in creating outspoken and confident individuals who do not fear
to voice their thoughts. Besides, it also train students to tolerate and accept other’s opinions, as well as
developing their interpersonal skills as they exchange ideas with each other. In this way, students listen
to other’s ideas, and at the same time learn from their peers. However, active learning is a time-
consuming process and may cause inability to complete teaching the syllabus but it can be encouraged
by giving different kinds of exercise to the children (Mackenzie, 2007).
As for the Eastern education, the teachers are fully responsible in performing the effective lessons,
and this makes this philosophy implements passive learning in the class. The teachers do not encourage
the students to voice out in giving their opinion while the teaching and learning process happen. Thus,
students become demotivated and lose interest to the lesson. Since students have limited opportunity to
voice their thoughts, it is no wonder that self-conscious and fear often get in their way when they speak
in public. Some even prefer to keep their silence and refuse to speak. Thus, a good education philosophy
should be an active process, but always accompanied with a good time management.

2.1 Major Eastern Educational Philosophies

Eastern philosophy is derived from Islam, Confucianism, Taoism and Mahayana Buddhism.
The Student Involvement within Classroom Activity
Easterners prefer passive learning.
Eastern normally obtained the knowledge directly from their teachings of religion, such as Islam,
Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism and Taoism (Chia Mun Onn, 2009). This is more of a one-way
transmission of knowledge, wherever the belief prepared them with rules and regulations within their
life.
On the other hand, the teaching and learning process through Eastern education philosophy
stresses on the major outcomes from the teachers. It means that, teachers are fully responsible on
the class effectiveness, by preparing and planning all the activities for their students. For instance,
the students are not trained or required to do anything, but every materials are given by the
teachers. Usually, they are not required to carry out any research on the topics that are going to be
discussed in the next lesson, but only responsible to receive input from their teachers. Besides,
students are not trained or encouraged to voice out their own views and perspectives. In certain
cases, students are not allowed to even respond to the questions posed by the teacher as the
questions are in a way meant only for teachers to answer rhetorical questions (Joyce Lin, 2008).
According to Rohaty (1999), one of the reasons why the teachers are hardly implementing various
innovative teaching strategies is due to the excessive attention on theory rather than in practical
sense (Rohaty, 1999).
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DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
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GRADUATE SCHOOL
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The Ways of Teaching Process

Eastern education philosophy holds on to the concept of teaching. Students receive fully
knowledge from the teachers inside the classroom. Students in a way receive knowledge in a rigid
way as they only seem to learn and study straightly from the teachers. Thus, it is no doubt that a
good teacher need to be very hardworking in delivering ideas, teaching and maintaining good
relationship with their children (Gurney 2007).
The Expression of Learning Process
In Eastern education the students practice the concept of memorizing, as this philosophy
focuses mainly on book learning and memorization within the teaching and learning process (Joyce
Lin, 2008). The system of education is exam oriented, and teachers have to rush through the
textbooks to prepare students to sit for the tests. As a result, students tend to memorize the facts in
the textbooks rather than understanding it due to time constraint. In addition, the Eastern community
has the concept that scores and certificates represent the ability (Joyce Lin, 2008). Thus, it will
creates a healthy competition among of the students and great effort that have been made by them
as they are struggle to understand and gain the knowledge in order to obtain the good score in their
examination.
Capability of Students
Eastern education philosophy emphasizes on conformity and originality. Students have tons of
school rules to follow and such rules main aim is to produce perfect students. Eastern education still
prefer the absorption of good manners and moral support to the children in order to make the
children to get use to any rules especially in schools, and it is a teachers’ responsibility to show their
example on this (Dahlin & Regmi, 2000):
Encouragement for Students
Eastern education philosophy is stricter, as students will be criticized whenever they fail to
achieve the expected results in their examination. Criticizing is given to the students because the
Eastern education believes that criticizing serves as a motivator to the students to work hard and
avoid students from being arrogant and lazy. According to Abdullah Sani (2001), criticizing can lower
down students’ motivation, unless they turn the criticism into the information for self-improvement,
and also becoming more vital and brave to face even to various types of negative admonitions.
Relationship between Teachers and Students
In Eastern culture, the teacher-student relationship is a position of trust in which the teacher is in
a position of authority and the student is in the position of being obligated to comply with the legal
directives of the adult (Chory & McCroskey, 1999). Teachers are meant to be respected and
sometimes students even have to bear with teachers’ bad temper. In fact, teachers do act as a big
boss who does not talk with the workers (students) directly most of the time. This is contrast with
several research and attitude that should be demonstrated by teacher as some researchers such
Chory & McCroskey suggest that teachers need to have more initiative to communicate with
children, to increase the delegation of decisions to children and to be in the class more frequent.

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DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
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2.2 Major Western Educational Philosophies

Western philosophy of education comprises two schools, which are traditional and modern. It
has its roots in Athens, Rome and Judeo-Christianity
The Student Involvement within Classroom Activity
Westerners stress on active learning on their learners, since the ancient Greek, Western
philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato and Socrates encouraged rational thinking.
Students of the Western education philosophy appear as active learners in the classroom, as
the teaching and learning process not focusing on teacher-centered, but more on are active learners
in the classroom. It encourages the students to be active in giving and sharing the ideas, which is
maximizing their role as a students than the teacher in creating the effective learning and teaching
activity (Joyce Lin, 2008). For instance, they are very much encouraged to think and voice their
views whenever they are involved in group discussion or carried out the given assignment. The
students are then required to present it to the entire class. This enables them to participate not only
during class time, but also to help them to be actively involved in the learning process even out of
the classroom.
Apart from that, the students are also has been given an opportunity to express their ability
and talent by analyzing and solving problems on their own. This is through the effort by the teachers
in assigning them beforehand, to do research on their own, regarding certain topics that will be
discussed in the following lesson. By doing this, every student is given a chance to learn to search
for relevant information. In fact, according to Thornton (1995), the problem solving process becomes
one of the basis on children for their critical mental development. Thus, it can be said that education
development in the West including thinking skill, problem solving and communication skill which has
been integrated well in the western philosophy itself.
The Ways of Teaching Process
From the view of Western education philosophy, the roles of students are recognized, by giving
them the rights and respects within the teaching and learning process itself. They have the freedom
and rights to take charge of their own learning, as they are given the opportunity and freedom to
manage their own learning process. Therefore, the teachers play their role as a facilitator than the
knowledge producer to their students. Teachers are responsible to help and guide the students in
their learning process rather than teaching them what to do. In this way, students are given the
opportunity to take control of their own learning process. Furthermore, schools of the Western
education also support and encourage students in self-management and in controlling their own
learning process. This is where teachers come in to lead and guide the students by giving them
guidelines in managing their learning process. In the classroom, children share more responsibility in
their leaning process and evaluation and assessment is conducted to see their capability and also
how they will apply into it (Teel et al., 2001). Teachers of the Western education do play a role in
guiding students to discover and develop their abilities and potentials.
The Expression of Learning Process
People in the West believe that the best education is mean to form the society to become a
cultural nation in regard of their education and education aim, where the children will be open
minded and tend to give ideas (Kruger, et. al, 1990). They will critically evaluate rather than just
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DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
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memorizing. Thus, in the Western education philosophy, students learn by understanding. They do
not memorize what they have learnt but rather understand what they are learning. This gives the
students opportunities to understand the topic that they are learning in a deeper way. In addition,
they also have more time to have group discussions with their fellow classmates and also to do
some research on the topic assigned. The lifeless textbook is replaced whenever they are trained to
take notes directly when the teachers are teaching. Thus, students could pay attention to the
teachers and eventually lead them to understand what has been taught.
Capability of Students
Western education encourages individualism and creativity towards the practitioner. Since
students are given freedom to express their creativity, they are not afraid to be different or make
mistakes, as the Western education looks at students mistakes positively and the way to learn.
Encouragement for Students
Western education philosophy believes that providing compliments to students is important in
encouraging them to excel in education. For instance, compliments are especially given when
students score well in their examinations. However, even when the students did not do so well in
their studies, compliments will also be given to them as an encouragement for them to work even
harder in future. The Western education believes that by providing such encouragement to the
students, they will not give up easily and will continue to put extra effort in their education.
Relationship between Teachers and Students
A research conducted in Tajistan shows that Muslim children prefer teachers from the West
compared to local teachers as they are friendlier, caring, and more knowledgeable and always
assisting children to success Niyozov and Pluim (2009). Niyozov and Pluim added that they are all
even willing to share the Muslim children’s problem. It is because the Western education philosophy
believes that student-teacher relationship is more open and the students are more willing to talk to
their teachers. It is known that a teacher in a Western school does a good job of assessing their
effectiveness in teaching (Garcia, 2000).
2.3 Educational Philosophies of Philippine Eminent , Illustration Educators,
Educators and Authorities in Education

The Educational Philosophies of Filipino Educators

2.3.1 Dr. Jose P. Rizal

“Rizal’s concept of the importance of education is enunciated in his work entitled Instruction
wherein he sought improvements in the schools and in the methods of teaching.”
 For Rizal, the mission of education is to elevate the country to the highest seat of
glory and to develop the people’s mentality.
 Since Education is the foundation of society and a prerequisite for social progress,
Rizal claimed that only through education could the country be saved from
domination.
 Rizal’s philosophy of education, therefore, centers on the provision of proper
motivation in order to bolster the great social forces that make education a success,
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DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
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GRADUATE SCHOOL
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to create in the youth an innate desire to cultivate his intelligence and give him life
eternal.
 He believed in the importance of the school as a social organization.
 According to him, the school must train the citizens in the three phases of life:
1. Moral
2. Intellectual
3. Physical
 The school should prepare the individual to live efficiently both as individual
and as a member of the community to which he belongs.
“The school is the book in which is written the future of the nations. Shows us the schools of
a people and we will tell you what those people are.”

2.3.2. Dr. Camilo Osias

“School has an important role in the development of dynamic nationalism and internationalism
in relation to democracy in the education of the youth.”
“High educational institutions should do more to turn out graduates who can think logically,
scientifically and creatively.”
“Our education should instill love for work, spirit of tolerance, respect for law, love for peace
and practice of thrift.”
 Dr. Osias believed that education should secure for every person the fullest measure
of freedom, efficiency, and happiness. Efficiency, he demands that one must be able
to cooperate with the other members of the society to promote common good.
 He also advocated that the educational system must contribute towards the
achievement of the goals of education by inculcating their minds and hearts of the
youth the value of preserving the patrimony of the country promoting the general
welfare of the people.
Dr. Osias’ suggestions to Philippine schools:
1. Preserve the solidarity of Filipino;
2. Maintain the unity of the Philippines;
3. Work out a proper equilibrium in economic order;
4. Develop social justice;
5. Observe the merit system in government service;
6. Promote peace and national defense;
7. Uphold the inalienable rights of life, property, liberty, and happiness;
8. Keep in their prestige majesty the fundamental freedom, especially freedom of
speech, freedom of press, freedom of peace and assembly, and freedom of
worship;
9. Conserve the principle of equality;
10. Hold high the ideals of religion;
11. Keep over aloft the torch of education, and
12. Make democracy a living and functional reality.

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DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
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2.3.3. Rafael Palma

Palma advocated “academic freedom”.
“The teacher is not supposed to dramatize. He has no right to impose on his students his
theories or personal belief. He is expected to stimulate free discussion; leaving to his
students the choice of the system of thought which best satisfies their reason.”
“The primary purpose of education, according to Palma, is to develop the individual to his
highest efficiency so that he can be of use to himself and to the community. Such a concept
is based on the philosophy of altruism and is closely allied to citizenship.”
“Education must produce individuals who are both useful to themselves and to society.”

 He prepared himself well for any task that awaited him. Into any undertaking, he always
put the best of his energies and, to use his own expression, "made the failure of any work
which I undertake my own failure, its success my own success."
 He stressed that Filipino culture and tradition should be the bases of education in the
Philippines.
o According to him, the educational concept is closely related to nationalism and
love of country.
 He also stressed that education in this country should prepare the child for the democratic
way of life.
“To my humble way of thinking education (college) has for its supreme and
overshadowing aim the formulation of a sound and noble outlook of life.”
“Thou shalt cultivate the special gifts which had been granted thee, working and
studying according to thy ability, never leaving the path of righteousness and justice in order
to attain thine own perfection.”
“Our education should instil love for work, spirit of tolerance, respect for law, love for
peace and practice of thrift.”

The qualities that should distinguish the educated Filipinos of today are
1) power to do
2) knowledge of the past and current events and
3) possession of the elements of conduct that are the accomplishment of culture and
morality.

“Show me people composed of vigorous, sturdy individuals, of men and women healthy
in mind and body, courteous, industrious, self-reliant , purposeful in thought as well in action,
imbued with sound patriotism and profound sense of righteousness, with high social ideals
and strong moral fibre and I will show you a great nation, a nation that will not submerged, a
nation that will emerge victorious from the trials and bitter strife of a distracted world, a nation
that will live forever, sharing the common task of advancing the welfare and promoting the
happiness of mankind”
 A philosophy of education for Filipinos must also consider the Filipino Value System and the
Filipino behavioural context. Our negative traits must be and taken in tow, and efforts must be

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DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023
 ENTHUSIASTIC COLLEGE, INC.
Upper Dinganen, BuldonMaguindanao

GRADUATE SCHOOL
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expended to transform the Filipino from selfish, indolent, grasping, uncaring man into the
independent, hard-working concerned man..

The Filipino value system fourfold sense.

1. First, although mankind shares universal human values, it is obvious that certain values take on
for us a distinctively Filipino flavor.
2. Secondly, when we speak of Filipino values, we do not mean that elements of these Filipino
values are absent in the value systems of other peoples and cultures.
3. Thirdly, universal human values in a Filipino context (historical, cultural, socio- economic,
political, moral and religious) take on a distinctive set of Filipino meanings and motivations.
4. Fourthly, we can speak of Filipino values in the sense that the historical consciousness of values
has evolved among our people.

ASSESSMENT:
1. How would you describe the differences and similarities of Eastern thought and Western philosophy?
2. What are the three main philosophical thoughts in Asian culture?
3. How are Western and Eastern philosophies related to our current educational practice?
4. What do you think are the main differences between Eastern and Western education systems?
5. What philosophies influence Western education?
6. Discuss the influence and relationships of the major philosophies of education to the relevant current
Philippine issues and problems.
7. What philosophy of education has influenced our present educational system?
8. Which philosophy of education claims that education should recognize the uniqueness and freedom of
individuals?
9. What philosophies of education had the greatest impact on Philippine education?
10. Which philosophy of education encourages a problem solving approach to education?
11. Compare Major Eastern Educational Philosophies and Major Western Educational Philosophies in
terms of:
a. The Ways of Teaching Process
b. Capability of Students
c. Encouragement for Students
d. Relationship between Teachers and Students

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DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) 1ST Semester, SY: 2022-2023