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Summary Sheet – Helpful for Retention

For

Motivation – Part 2

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Important Points

1. This Summary Sheet shall only be used for Quick Revision after you have read the Complete Notes.
2. Some points in the summary sheet are not from the notes but are new points. This is to do a value add while you are reading a summary sheet.
We will mention in red font (Not in Notes) wherever content in summary sheet is not from notes
3. For Building Concepts along with examples/concept checks you should rely only on Complete Notes
4. It would be useful to go through this Summary sheet just before the exam or before any Mock Test
5. Questions in the exam are concept based and reading only summary sheets shall not be sufficient to answer all the questions

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1 Summary Points

➢ Process Based Theories view motivation as a rational process. Individuals analyze their environment, develop thoughts and feelings, and react in certain
ways. Process theories attempt to explain the thought process of individuals who demonstrate motivated behavior. The various process-based
motivation theories are:

➢ Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

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It’s a cognitive based theory which states that the motivation to perform a task is dependent on the assessment of the likelihood that the effort will
lead to expected performance, the belief that the performance will be followed by a definite outcome and on the appeal of the outcome to the
individual. According to this theory, individuals ask themselves three questions

1. Expectancy (Cognition based attitude): It is the faith that better efforts will result in better performance. It is influenced by factors such as possession
of appropriate skills for performing the job, availability of right resources, availability of crucial information and getting the required support for
completing the job. The factors affecting expectancy level of an employee are:
✓ Self-Efficacy: It is a belief which a person has that he has got required skills to achieve the goals. Can increase expectancy
✓ Goal-Difficulty: This affects when individual thinks that the goals set are too high to achieve and are difficult to attain as per his capacity. Can lower
expectancy
✓ Perceived Control: It is necessary for an individual to feel a sense of control over the expected outcome so that he can influence them. Can lower
expectancy

2. Instrumentality (Cognition based attitude): It is the faith that if you perform well, then a valid outcome will be there. Instrumentality is affected by
factors such as believe in the people who decide who receives what outcome, the simplicity of the process deciding who gets what outcome, and
clarity of relationship between performance and outcomes.

3. Valence (Individual’s value-based attitude): It is the significance associated by an individual about the expected outcome. It is an expected and not
the actual satisfaction that an employee expects to receive after achieving the goals.
✓ The valence refers to the value the individual personally places on the rewards.

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✓ -1= avoiding the outcome; 0 = indifferent to the outcome; +1 = welcomes the outcome

Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

Thus, the expectancy theory concentrates on the following three relationships:

1. Effort-performance relationship: The likelihood that the individual’s effort will be recognized in his performance appraisal.
2. Performance-reward relationship: It talks about the extent to which the employee believes that getting a superior performance appraisal leads to
organizational rewards.
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship: It is all about the attractiveness or appeal of the potential reward to the individual.

➢ Edwin Locke’s Goal Setting Theory

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It shows that there is a relationship between difficult and specific goals and people's performance of a task. Telling someone to "Try hard" or "Do your best"
is less effective than "Try to get more than 80% correct". Likewise, hard goals are more motivating than easy goals, because it's much more of an
accomplishment to achieve something that you must work for. Five Principles of Goal Setting Theory according to Locke: (Not covered in Notes)

1. Clarity: Clear goals are measurable and unambiguous. When a goal is clear and specific, with a definite time set for completion, there is less
misunderstanding about what behaviors will be rewarded. You know what's expected, and you can use the specific result as a source of motivation.
2. Challenge: People are often motivated by achievement, and they'll judge a goal based on the significance of the anticipated accomplishment. When you
know that what you do will be well received, there's a natural motivation to do an excellent job.
3. Commitment: Goals must be understood and agreed upon if they are to be effective. Employees are more likely to "buy into" a goal if they feel they
were part of creating that goal.
4. Feedback: Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty, and gain recognition. It's important to provide benchmark
opportunities or targets, so individuals can determine for themselves how they're doing.
5. Task Complexity: People who work in complicated and demanding roles probably have a prominent level of motivation already. However, they can often
push themselves too hard if measures aren't built into the goal expectations to account for the complexity of the task. It's therefore important to do the
following:

✓ Give the person sufficient time to meet the goal or improve performance.
✓ Provide enough time for the person to practice or learn what is expected and required for success.

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Setting the right goals: (Not in the notes)

1. Using SMART Technique

The SMART method for goal setting effectively summarizes the necessary steps to take when setting objectives:

✓ Specific: Establishing the appropriate scope of goals is difficult, and it is important to be as specific as possible to ensure successful implementation.
✓ Measurable: The ability to measure and assess progress quantitatively is useful in goal setting, as it provides motivational checkpoints and ensures
progress stays on track.
✓ Achievable: Ensuring goals are achievable is important in successfully pursuing goals. People have a natural tendency to challenge themselves, but
it is important to stay within the confines of ability.
✓ Realistic: Similar to achievable, realistic goal setting requires a grounded approach of identifying tangible, results-oriented objectives.
✓ Time-targeted: Establishing deadlines is essential for goals, particularly from a motivational perspective. Knowing the time frame necessary in which
to complete the goal is important in ensuring the product will be useful and relevant to the business.

2. Deriving Goal setting through Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT)

Steel and Konig use Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) to account for goal-setting's effects and suggest new hypotheses regarding two
moderators: goal difficulty and proximity.
✓ Larger objectives vs. Series of Smaller Objectives
Structuring a project based on a series of smaller goals with closer deadlines rather than on one faraway end goal is likely to be more
motivating. This is also supported by the idea of diminishing returns, which posits that for each unit of investment (be it a minute of time or
a dollar) into a given process, less output will be produced. Therefore, combining a series of small objectives (processes) will be more
motivating, causing less output to be lost to diminishing returns over time. It is related to the expression "the sum of the parts can be greater
than the whole."
✓ Motivation over Time
The idea of time perspective is simpler than it sounds. Take an example of a university student who has 30 days to study for a final exam. On
day 1, when the exam is still a month away, the student does not feel the time motivation very strongly. They are much more likely to choose
an activity that is more enjoyable than studying. However, as the test approaches, the student will increasingly tend to choose studying due
to the time perspective.

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Three personal factors affecting goal performance Relationship are:

1. Goal commitment or Goal Acceptance: Goal setting theory assumes that the individual is committed to the goal and will not leave the goal.
2. Self-efficacy: Self- Efficacy is the belief or self-confidence, that he/she can perform the task.
3. National Culture: Goal setting theory is culture bound. It can apply in countries where the employees are reasonably independent, where
both managers and employees seek challenging goals and where performance is considered important by both. It will not lead to desired
performance in countries where opposite conditions exist.

Implementing Goal Setting Theory in Management by Objectives (MBO)

✓ MBO emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable.
✓ The organization’s overall objectives are translated into specific cascading objectives for each level (divisional, departmental, and individual).
✓ MBO works from the bottom up as well as from the top down
✓ The result is a hierarchy that links objectives at one level to those at the next.
✓ For the individual employee, MBO provides specific personal performance objectives.

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➢ Adam’s Equity Theory

1. It is a cognitive based theory
2. As per theory, an individual’s motivation level is correlated to his perception of equity, fairness and justice practiced by the management.
3. Higher is individual’s perception of fairness, greater is the motivation level and vice versa
4. While evaluating fairness, employee compares the job input (in terms of contribution) to outcome (in terms of compensation)
5. Inputs: Encompasses the quality and quantity of the employee’s contributions to his or her work
6. Output: The positive and negative consequences that an individual perceives a participant has incurred because of his/her relationship with another

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7. Fairness is based on perceived market norms

8. Negative Tension state (Not in the notes): Equity is perceived when output-input ratio is equal. While if this ratio is unequal, it leads to “equity
tension”. J. Stacy Adams called this a negative tension state which motivates an individual to do something right to relieve this tension.

9. Referents: The four comparisons an employee can make are termed as “referents”. These are:
✓ Self-inside: An employee’s experience in a different position inside his present organization.
✓ Self-outside: An employee’s experience in a situation outside the present organization.
✓ Other-inside: Another employee or group of employees inside the employee’s present organization.
✓ Other-outside: Another employee or employees outside the employee’s present organization
10. The employees who perceive inequity and are under negative tension can make following six choices:
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✓ Change in input
✓ Change their outcome
✓ Choose a different referent
✓ Quit the job
✓ Change self perception
✓ Change perception of others
11. Assumptions in Equity Theory:
✓ Equity Norm: Employees expect a fair return for what they contribute to their jobs
✓ Social Comparison: Employees determine what their equitable return should be after comparing their inputs and outcomes with those of their
co-workers
✓ Cognitive Distortion: Employees who perceive themselves as being in an inequitable situation will seek to reduce the inequity either by distorting
inputs and/or outcomes in their own minds
✓ Employees who perceive inequitable situation might also respond by directly altering inputs and/or outputs, or by leaving the organization

➢ Self-Determination Theory (by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan)

1. A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation
2. A cognitive based theory and macro theory of human motivation and personality
3. Focuses on people’s inherent growth tendencies and innate psychological needs
4. Primarily focuses on internal sources of motivation
5. Assumes that people’s activities are directed towards their growth
6. Concerns with motivation behind choices people make without external influence and interference
7. Analyses the degree of individual’s self-motivated and self-determined behavior
8. Proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation
than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation

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Three Needs required to be fulfilled in SDT which motivates person intrinsically:

1. Competence: The desire to control and master the environment and outcome.
2. Relatedness: The desire to interact with, be connected to, and experience caring for other people.
3. Autonomy: It is the universal urge to be causal agents of one's own life and act in harmony with one's integrated self.

Factors responsible for fulfilling needs:

✓ Social Support
✓ Positive encouragement
✓ Feedback on performance

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Factor hindering the needs:

✓ Focus on providing external rewards/incentives rather than internal incentives which can reduce intrinsic motivation present in an individual and
undermine autonomy

SDT makes distinctions between diverse types of motivation and the consequences of them: (Not in notes)

1. Intrinsic Motivation: It is the natural, inherent drive to seek out challenges and new possibilities that SDT associates with cognitive and social
development.
2. Extrinsic Motivation: It comes from external sources. Deci and Ryan developed Organismic Integration Theory (OIT), as a sub-theory of SDT, to explain
the diverse ways extrinsically motivated behavior is regulated. OIT details the different forms of extrinsic motivation and the contexts in which they
come about. It is the context of such motivation that concerns the SDT theory as these contexts affect whether the motivations are internalized and
so integrated into the sense of self.

OIT describes four diverse types of extrinsic motivations that often vary in terms of their relative autonomy:

✓ Externally Regulated Behavior: Is the least autonomous, it is performed because of external demand or possible reward. Such actions can be
seen to have an externally perceived locus of causality (done because they are compelled or required to do
so, either by external pressure from others or because of self-imposed pressures).
✓ Introjected Regulation of Behavior: Describes taking on regulations to behaviour but not fully accepting said regulations as your own. Such
behaviour normally represents regulation by contingent self-esteem, citing ego involvement as a classic form of introjections. This is the kind of
behaviour where people feel motivated to demonstrate ability to maintain self-worth. While this is internally driven, introjected behavior has an
external perceived locus of causality or not coming from one's self. Since the causality of the behavior is perceived as external, the behavior is
considered non-self-determined.

✓ Regulation through identification: Is a more autonomously driven form of extrinsic motivation. It involves consciously valuing a goal or
regulation, so that said action is accepted as personally important.
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✓ Integrated Regulation: Is the most autonomous kind of extrinsic motivation. Occurring when regulations are fully assimilated with self, so they
are included in a person's self evaluations and beliefs on personal needs. Because of this, integrated motivations share qualities with intrinsic
motivation but are still classified as extrinsic because the goals that are trying to be achieved are for reasons extrinsic to the self, rather than the
inherent enjoyment or interest in the task.

➢ Cognitive Evaluation Theory (by Edward Deci)

1. A cognitive based theory and is a sub-theory of Self-Determination Theory
2. Emphasizes that motivation needs to be intrinsic rather than extrinsic
3. Competence and Autonomy play role either in facilitating or undermining intrinsic motivation
4. Proposes that presence of powerful extrinsic motivators can reduce a person’s intrinsic motivation, particularly when external motivators are
perceived by the person to be controlled by people
5. Examples of Intrinsic Motivators: Achievement, responsibility and competence — motivators that come from the actual performance of the task
or job — the intrinsic interest of the work.
6. Examples of Extrinsic Motivators: Pay, promotion, feedback, working conditions — things that come from a person’s environment, controlled by
others.
7. Explains effects of external consequences on internal motivation

CET uses three propositions to explain how consequences affect internal motivation: (Not in notes)

✓ External events set will impact intrinsic motivation for optimally challenging activities to the extent that they influence perceived competence,
within the context of Self-Determination Theory. Events that promote greater perceived competence will enhance intrinsic motivation, whereas
those that diminish perceived competence will decrease intrinsic motivation

✓ Events relevant to the initiation and regulation of behavior have three potential aspects, each with a significant function.
o The informational aspect facilitates an internal perceived locus of causality and perceived competence, thus positively influencing intrinsic
motivation.
o The controlling aspect facilitates an external perceived locus of causality (a person’s perception of the cause of success or failure), thus
negatively influencing intrinsic motivation and increasing extrinsic compliance or defiance.
o The amotivating aspect facilitates perceived incompetence, and undermining intrinsic motivation while promoting disinterest in the task
✓ Personal events differ in their qualitative aspects and, like external events, can have differing functional significances. Events deemed internally
informational facilitate self-determined functioning and maintain or enhance intrinsic motivation. Events deemed internally controlling events
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are experienced as pressure toward specific outcomes and undermine intrinsic motivation. Internally amotivating events make incompetence
salient and undermine intrinsic motivation

➢ Reinforcement Theory (E.L. Thorndike)

1. Behavioristic based theory and states that Reinforcement conditions behavior
2. Ignores internal state of an individual and focuses on what happens when he or she takes some action
3. It is not exactly a theory of motivation but explains what controls behavior of an individual
4. In this, a combination of rewards and/or punishments is used to reinforce desired behavior or extinguish unwanted behavior
5. Any behavior that elicits a consequence is called operant behavior, because the individual operates on his or her environment
6. It concentrates on the relationship between the operant behavior and the associated consequences and is therefore called operant conditioning
7. Reinforcement Theory supports Law of Effect. The law of effect states that all other things being equal, responses to stimuli that are followed by
satisfaction will be strengthened, but responses that are followed by discomfort will be weakened.

8. The managers use the following reinforcement methods for controlling the behavior of the employees:
✓ Positive Reinforcement: This occurs when a behavior (response) is rewarding or the behavior is followed by another stimulus that is rewarding,
increasing the frequency of that behavior.
✓ Negative Reinforcement: This means rewarding an employee by removing negative / undesirable consequences. This can be of two types:
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o Escape where people engage into behavior to remove the bad outcome
o Active Avoidance where in people engage into a behavior to avoid bad outcome
✓ Punishment: It attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors being exhibited. This can be of two types:
o Positive Punishment occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as pain from a spanking, which results in
a decrease in that behavior
o Negative Punishment Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy
following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior
✓ Extinction: It implies absence of reinforcements or when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. For
example, a rat is first given food many times for lever presses. Then, in "extinction", no food is given. Typically, the rat continues to press more
and more slowly and eventually stops, at which time lever pressing is said to be "extinguished."

➢ Clark Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory (by Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence)
1. Based on behavioristic approach and concept of Homeostasis
2. Homeostasis means the ability of a system or living organism to adjust its internal environment to maintain a stable equilibrium, such as the
ability of warm-blooded animals to maintain a constant temperature.
3. Proposes that the purpose of biological drives is to correct disturbances of homeostasis

4. According to Hull, physiological needs result in psychological drive that directs behavior to meet the needs and, ultimately, bring the system back
to homeostasis.
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5. Primary drives are innate biological needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, and desire for sex), whereas secondary drives are associated with—and indirectly
satisfy—primary drives (e.g., the desire for money, which helps pay for food and shelter)
6. The reduction of the drive acts as a reinforcement for that behavior

➢ Self-Efficacy Theory (By Albert Bandura)

1. It is also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory
2. It refers to an individual’s belief that he or she can perform a task
3. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed. So, in tricky situations, people with low self-efficacy are
more likely to lessen their effort or give up altogether, while those with high self-efficacy will try harder to master the challenge
4. Self-efficacy can create a positive spiral in which those with high efficacy become more engaged in their tasks and that, in turn, increase
performance, which increases efficacy further
5. Feedback influences self-efficacy. Individuals high in self-efficacy respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, while those
low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort after negative feedback
6. Goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory don’t compete rather complement each other. Setting difficult goals for people communicates your
confidence in them

Increasing Self-Efficacy in you:

1. Enactive Mastery: It means gaining relevant experience with the task or job. If you’ve been able to do the job successfully in the past, you’re
more confident you can do it in the future
2. Vicarious Modeling: It means becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task. It is most effective when you see yourself
as like the person you are observing
3. Verbal Persuasion: We become more confident when someone convinces us we have the skills necessary to be successful. Motivational speakers
use this tactic.
4. Physiological factors: In stressful situations, people commonly exhibit signs of distress: shakes, aches and pains, fatigue, fear, nausea, etc.
Perceptions of these responses in one can markedly alter their self-efficacy.
5. Arousal (Not in notes): Arousal leads to an energized state, so we get “psyched up,” feel up to the task, and perform better. But if the task
requires a steady, lower-key perspective (say, carefully editing a manuscript), arousal may in fact hurt performance even as it increases self-
efficacy because we might hurry through the task.

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Increasing Self-Efficacy in others:

Through Pygmalion Effect managers can increase self-efficacy in their subordinates. The Pygmalion effect is a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which,
believing something can make it true. Here, it is often used to describe “that what one person expects of another can come to serve a self-fulfilling
prophecy.
➢ Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristics Model

1. It is a theory of work design.

2. Job characteristics theory proposes a model of five “core” job characteristics (i.e. skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy,
and feedback) that affect five work-related outcomes (i.e. motivation, satisfaction, performance, and absenteeism and turnover) through three
psychological states (i.e. experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility, and knowledge of results)
3. According to the theory, five core job characteristics should prompt three critical psychological states, which lead to many favorable personal
and work outcomes.
4. The moderators Growth Need Strength, Knowledge and Skill, and Context Satisfaction should moderate the links between the job characteristics
and the psychological states, and the psychological states and the outcomes.

Core Job Characteristics:

1. Skill Variety: The degree to which a job requires various activities, requiring the worker to develop a variety of skills and talents.
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2. Task Identity: The degree to which the job requires the jobholders to identify and complete a work piece with a visible outcome.
3. Task Significance: The degree to which the job affects other people’s lives. The influence can be either in the immediate organization or in the
external environment.
4. Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides the employee with significant freedom, independence, and discretion to plan out the work and
determine the procedures in the job.
5. Feedback: The degree to which the worker has knowledge of results. This is clear, specific, detailed, actionable information about the
effectiveness of his or her job performance.

Critical Psychological States:

1. Experienced Meaningfulness of the Work: The degree to which the jobholder experiences the work as intrinsically meaningful and can present
his or her value to other people and/or the external environment.
2. Experienced Responsibility for Outcome of the Work: The degree to which the worker feels he or she is accountable and responsible for the
results of the work.
3. Knowledge of Results of the Work Activities: The degree to which the jobholder knows how well he or she is performing.
Moderators:
1. Growth Need Strength (GNS): GNS refers to an individual’s desire to be challenged and to grow on the job or one's need for
personal accomplishment, learning, and development.
2. Knowledge and Skill: The level of knowledge and skill the worker possesses can moderate the relationship between the mediators and the job
characteristics and outcomes.
3. Context Satisfaction: The context of the job also affects employees’ experience. Thus, when workers are satisfied with things like their managers,
pay, co-workers, and job security they respond more positively to highly motivating jobs and less positively when they are not satisfied.

Motivating Potential Score (Not in the notes)

1. MPS is an index of the degree to which a job has an overall high standing on the person's degree of motivation and, therefore, is likely to prompt
favorable personal and work outcomes.
2. MPS can be calculated as follows:

3. To be high on motivating potential, jobs must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness and high on
both autonomy and feedback.
4. If jobs score high on motivating potential, the model predicts that motivation, performance, and satisfaction will improve, while absence and
turnover (the rate at which employees leave the job) will be reduced.

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Individual Difference Factor (Not in notes)

1. The importance of individual differences had been demonstrated in the model by showing that some individuals are more likely to positively
respond to an enriched job environment than others.
2. Thus, theory posits an individual difference characteristic, Growth Need Strength (GNS) that moderates the effect of the core job characteristics
on outcomes.
3. Jobholders with high GNS should respond more positively to the opportunities provided by jobs with elevated levels of the five core characteristics
compared to low GNS jobholders.

➢ Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation

1. The model is based upon 4 basic assumptions regarding human behavior. They are:
✓ It is a multivariate model. According to this model, individual behavior is determined by a combination of factors in the individual and in the
environment.
✓ Individuals are assumed to be rational human beings who make conscious decisions about their behavior in the organizations.
✓ Individuals have diverse needs, desires and goals.
✓ Since their expectations, individuals decide between alternate behaviors and such decided behavior will lead to a desired outcome.

2. Porter and Lawler's theory is an improvement over Vroom's expectancy theory. It says that motivation does not equal satisfaction or
performance. The main point in Porter and Lawler's model is that effort or motivation does not lead directly to performance.

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Various elements of the Model are:

1. Effort: Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee exerts on a given task. How much effort an employee will put in a task is determined by two
factors:
✓ Value of Reward: People try to figure out whether the rewards that is likely to be received from doing a job will be attractive to them. This is
referred to as valence in Vroom’s theory.
✓ Perception of effort-reward probability: Before people put forth any effort, they will also try to assess the probability of a certain level of effort
leading to a desired level of performance and the possibility of that performance leading to certain kinds of rewards. Effort Reward probability is
same as Expectancy and Instrumentality in Vroom’s Expectancy theory of motivation
2. Performance: The expected level of performance will depend upon the amount of effort, the abilities and traits of the individual and his role
perceptions. Abilities include knowledge, skills and intellectual capacity to perform the job. Traits which are important for many jobs are endurance
and goal directedness.

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3. Satisfaction: Performance leads to satisfaction. The level of satisfaction depends upon the amount of rewards achieved. If the amount of actual
rewards meets or exceed perceived equitable rewards, the employee will feel satisfied. Rewards may be of two kinds - intrinsic and extrinsic
rewards.

➢ Hawthorne Effect
1. It is a psychological phenomenon that produces an improvement in human behavior or performance because of increased attention from
superiors, clients or colleagues.
2. The Hawthorne Effect is named after a series of social experiments on the influence of physical conditions on productivity at Western Electric’s
factory at Hawthorne, Chicago in the 1920s and 30s.
3. The Hawthorne Effect was first described by Henry A. Landsberger in 1950 who noticed a tendency for some people to work harder and perform
better when they were being observed.

➢ Three-Dimensional Theory of Attribution

1. Bernard Weiner is credited for developing a theoretical framework that is used in social psychology to help explain that a person seeking to
understand another person's behavior, or their own behavior will attribute one or more causes to that behavior.
2. Weiner proposes a three-stage process that underlines these attributions:
✓ the person must perceive or observe the behavior,
✓ the person must believe that the behavior was intentionally performed, and
✓ that the behavior is attributed to internal or external causes
3. A key assumption of Weiner's theory is that people strive to maintain a positive self-image and do so by attributing their successes and failures to
causes, factors or events that protect them from a negative self-perception. That is, people want to feel good about them.
4. Weiner proposes several key factors that affect attributions: ability, effort, task difficulty, help from others, and luck.
5. Furthermore, attributions are classified into three dimensions:
✓ locus of control, internal vs. external,
✓ stability and

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✓ controllability

➢ Argyris’s Theory of Motivation

1. It is also called as Immaturity-Maturity Theory
2. Chris Argyris has postulated a descriptive and multidimensional developmental process along which individuals in an organization naturally grow
towards maturity.
3. He has examined various industrial organizations to determine the effect of management practices on individual behavior and their personal
growth in work environment.
4. In his view, there are 7 basic changes that take place in the personality of individuals moving from immaturity to maturity over the years. They
are:

According to Argyris, whenever an employee with high maturity level is faced with highly structured organization he tends to take one of three attitudes:

✓ Escape: reflects into resignation, absenteeism, etc.

✓ Fight: through structures like unions or even through an informal organization
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✓ Adaptation: consists in developing an apathy and indifference attitude, in which the monthly salary represents compensation for the “punishment”
that the work represents

➢ Morale
1. It is also known as esprit de corps
2. It is the capacity of a group's members to maintain belief in an institution or goal, particularly in the face of opposition or hardship
3. Morale is the capacity of a group of people to pull together persistently and consistently in pursuit of a common purpose
4. High Morale: It exists when employee attitudes are favorable to the total situation of a group and to the attainment of its objectives. Team work,
organizational commitment, zeal, enthusiasm, sense of belongingness denotes high morale.
5. Low Morale: It exists when attitudes inhibit the willingness and ability of an organization to attain its objectives. Lethargy, apathy, absenteeism,
turnover, dissatisfaction, conflicts denotes low morale.

➢ Difference between Motivation and Morale

1. Motivation is an internal-psychological drive of an individual which urges him to behave in a specific manner and morale is more of a group
scenario
2. Higher motivation often leads to higher morale of employees, but high morale does not essentially result in greatly motivated employees
3. While motivation is an individual concept, morale is a group concept.
4. Motivation acquires primary concern in every organization, while morale is a secondary phenomenon because high motivation essentially leads
to higher productivity while high morale may not necessarily lead to higher productivity.
5. Things tied to morale are usually things that are just part of the work environment, and things tied to motivation are tied to the performance of
the individual.

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➢ Factors affecting Morale

1. The Organization: This means the work atmosphere and context of working for the employee
2. The Nature of Work: If the job is monotonous and under-skilled it might affect the morale of an individual
3. The level of Job Satisfaction: If the employee is satisfied with the opportunities, rewards, healthy working conditions etc than an individual aspires
to feel satisfied with the job then this will boost his morale
4. The level of Supervision: Continuous feedback, high autonomy and strong leadership of the supervisor can enhance the employee morale
5. Worker’s perception of reward system: Belief of the employees that their efforts would be rewarded and that too through fair and equitable
reward grading system can increase their morale
6. The off the job activities of the employee: Physiological needs of individuals if satisfied can lead to increased morale

➢ Incentive is an act or promise for greater action. It is also called as a stimulus to greater action. Incentives are something which are given in addition
to wagers. It means additional remuneration or benefit to an employee in recognition of achievement or better work.
➢ Monetary incentives- Those incentives which satisfy the subordinates by providing them rewards in terms of rupees. Money has been recognized as
a chief source of satisfying the needs of people. Money is also helpful to satisfy the social needs by possessing various material items.
➢ Non-monetary incentives- These can satisfy the ego and self- actualization needs of employees. It can be done by giving security of service, social
gatherings, trainings, challenging work, job rotation, praise, recognition, promotional opportunities, increase autonomy, etc.

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➢ Personality

1. Personality Traits: These are the types of characteristics that most people have had for most of their lives. There are 5 major Traits. This is also
known as OCEAN model

2. Personality Attributes: As against personality traits, attributes are learned as part of external experiences. Locus of Control, Machiavellianism,
Self-Esteem, and Self-Monitoring are examples of personality attributes.

2 Work Sheets
Click the next green button on the bottom of your screen to view the Work sheets Worksheets on this topic. Work sheet consists of
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1. Fill in the blanks

2. True /False
3. MCQs
4. Match the column

This will give new dimensions to your learning and will test how much you can apply

So, do not forget and attempt this worksheet.

Happy Learning!!!

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