Converging

Media
Converging

Media
FIFTH EDITION

A NEW INTRODUCTION TO
Mass Communication

John V. Pavlik
RUTGERS UNIVERSITY

Shawn McIntosh
MASSACHUSETTS COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS

New York Ox ford

OXFORD UNIVERSIT Y PRESS

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Pavlik, John V. (John Vernon)

Converging media : a new introduction to mass communication /
John V. Pavlik, Rutgers University ; Shawn McIntosh, Massachusetts
College of Liberal Arts. -- Fifth edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-027151-0
1. Mass media. 2. Digital media. 3. Internet. I. McIntosh, Shawn.
II. Title.
P90.P3553 2016
302.23--dc23
2015028062

Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

on acid-free paper
To my wife, Jackie,
and my daughters,
Tristan and Orianna
—J.V.P.

To my parents,
Dennis and Kathie
—S.M.
Brief Contents
PREFACE xxii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxxiii

PART ONE T H E C H A N G I N G M E D I A L A N D S C A PE

1 Mass Communication and Its Digital Transformation 3

2 Media Literacy in the Digital Age 37

PART TWO M A SS CO M M U N I C AT I O N F O R M AT S

3 Print Media: Books, Newspapers, and Magazines 63

4 Audio Media: Music Recordings, Radio 97
5 Visual Media: Photography, Movies, and Television 125
6 Interactive Media: The Internet, Video Games, and Augmented Reality 161

PART THREE M E D I A PE R SPE C T I V E S

7 The Impact of Social Media 191

8 Journalism: From Information to Participation 227
9 Advertising and Public Relations: The Power of Persuasion 259

PART FOUR MEDIA AND SOCIE T Y

10 Media Ethics 295

11 Communication Law and Regulation in the Digital Age 323
12 Media Theory and Research 357
13 Mass Communication and Politics in the Digital Age 387
14 Global Media in the Digital Age 411

GLOSSARY G1
NOTES N1
CREDITS C1
INDEX I1
Contents
PREFACE xxii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxxiii

PART ONE T H E C H A N G I N G M E D I A L A N D S C A PE

1 Mass Communication and Its Digital Transformation 3

Telephony: Case Study in Convergence 4 Correlation 27

Cultural Transmission 27
Three Types of Convergence 7
Entertainment 27
Technological Convergence 8
Economic Convergence 9 Theories of Communication 28
Cultural Convergence 11 Transmission Models 28
Critical Theory and Cultural Studies 30
Implications of Convergence 12
Media Organization 13 Television: The Future of Convergence 31
Media Type 14 LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 33
Media Content 14 MEDIA MATTERS 34
Media Use 16 FURTHER READING 34
Media Distribution 18
Media Audience 18 Features
Media Profession 20
MEDIA PIONEERS: STEVE JOBS 10
Attitudes and Values 20
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: CRYING IN A BMW 11
Mass Communication in the Digital Age 23
Interpersonal Communication 23 CONVERGENCE CULTURE: USERGENERATED CONTENT:
Mass Communication 24 CREATIVITY OR PIRACY? 19
Mass Communication and Convergence 25
ETHICS IN MEDIA: INTERACTIVELY MAPPING GUN
Functions of Mass Communication 26 OWNERS 22
Surveillance 26

2 Media Literacy in the Digital Age 37

Education and Media 38 What Makes Mediated

Communication Different? 40
What Is Media Literacy? 39
Semiotics 40
Framing 42

vii
viii CONTENTS www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Early Concerns of Media Effects 43 MEDIA MATTERS 60

FURTHER READING 60
Media Grammar 44
Print Media 44
Features
Radio and Recorded Music 45
Film and Television 46 MEDIA PIONEERS: MARSHALL MCLUHAN 48
Digital-Media Grammar 47
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: MOBILE TELEPHONY IN
Implications of Commercial Media 47 THE DEVELOPING WORLD 50
Commercial-Media Debate 49
ETHICS IN MEDIA: WHEN MEDIA REPORT RAPE
Concentration of Media Ownership 51
ALLEGATIONS 55
Media Bias 53
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: DOS AND DON’TS WHEN
Developing Critical Media-Literacy Skills 56 EVALUATING ONLINE INFORMATION 57
MEDIA CAREERS 58
LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 58

PART TWO M A SS CO M M U N I C AT I O N F O R M AT S

3 Print Media: Books, Newspapers, and Magazines 63

Functions of Print Media 64 Local Newspapers 75
Transmission of Culture 64 National Newspapers 75
Diffusion of Ideas and Knowledge 64
History of Newspapers to Today 76
Entertainment 65
The Commercial Press and the Partisan Press 77
Distinctive Functions of Books 65 Colonial Readership and Finances 77
The Golden Age of Newspapers 77
History of Books to Today 66
Monastic Scribes 66 Current Newspaper-Industry Issues 79
Johannes Gutenberg 67 Newspaper Chains 80
Beginnings of Mass Communication Benefits of Chains 80
and Mass Literacy 68 Problems with Chains 81
Cheaper and Smaller Books 68 Leading Newspaper Chains 81
Dime Novels 68 Declining Number of Daily Newspapers 81
Mass-Market Paperbacks 69
Sales and Readership of Newspapers 81
Print-on-Demand 69
Circulation and Readership 84
Ebooks 70
Advertising 84
Current Book-Industry Issues 71 Outlook for Newspapers 86
Sales and Readership of Books 72 Distinctive Functions of Magazines 87
Outlook for Books 74 History of Magazines to Today 89
Distinctive Functions of Newspapers 75 Current Magazine-Industry Issues 90
 CONTENTS ix

Sales and Readership of Magazines 90 CONVERGENCE CULTURE: FREESHEETS: RIDING THE RAILS
OF NEWSPAPERS’ FUTURE? 85
Outlook for Magazines 91
MEDIA CAREERS 93 MEDIA PIONEERS: RUBEN SALAZAR 87
LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 94
MEDIA MATTERS 94
FURTHER READING 95

Features
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: GLOBAL EBOOK
MARKETPLACE 70

4 Audio Media: Music Recordings, Radio 97

The Recording Industry 98 FM Radio, Edwin Howard Armstrong, and David

Sarnoff 114
Distinctive Functions
Creating a Viable Business Model for Radio 115
of the Recording Industry 98
The Rise of Radio Networks 115
History of Recorded Music 99 Consolidation In Radio Station Ownership 116
From Tin Pan Alley to Hollywood 100
The Radio Industry Today 117
Roots of Rock and Roll 100
Redefining Rock 101 Radio Station Programming 118
The Recording Industry Today 102 Outlook for the Radio Industry 118
Podcasting 120
Recording-Industry Business Model 105
Satellite Radio 120
Creation 105
MEDIA CAREERS 121
Promotion 106
LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 122
Distribution 106
MEDIA MATTERS 123
Pricing Structure 107
FURTHER READING 123
Outlook for the Recording Industry 107
Digital Rights Management and Illegal File Features
Sharing 107
MEDIA PIONEERS: AMANDA PALMER 104
New Business Models Emerging 108
ETHICS IN MEDIA: MASHEDUP AND MIXEDUP MUSICAL
What Is Broadcasting? 109
ETHICS 111
Radio 110
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: NPR AND PRI: AMERICA’S
Distinctive Functions of Radio 110 PUBLIC RADIO NETWORKS 116

History of Radio 110 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: TRUSTING IN THE POWER

Wireless Telegraphy 112 OF THE AIRWAVES 121
Exploring Radio’s Early Potential 112
Voice Transmission 112
Radio Before, During, and After WWI 113
Widespread Public Adoption of Radio 114
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5 Visual Media: Photography, Movies, and Television 125

Photography 126 Programming and Genre Influences 147

History of Photography 126 Pushing the Programming Envelope 148
Photographic Industry Today 127 Cable Comes of Age 148
Filling the Days 149
Movies 127
Filling the Nights 149
History of the Movie Industry 128 Sports 150
Silent Era: New Medium, New Technologies, Reality Shows 151
New Storytelling 129 Digital Television: Preparing the Way for
Méliès and Griffith 130 Convergence 152
Murnau, Flaherty, and Eisenstein 131 The Rise of Flat-Panel Displays 152
Sound and Color 131
Television Distribution 153
Hollywood Movie Moguls 133
Broadcast TV 153
Warner Brothers 133
Cable TV 153
Walt Disney 133
Satellite TV 154
Samuel Goldwyn 134
Marcus Loew 134 Television Industry Today 154
Louis B. Mayer 134 Cable System Structure 154
Hollywood Star System 135 Satellite Versus Cable 155
The Director as Auteur 135
Television-Industry Business Model 156
Technological Influences on Movie Genres 136
Other Entertainment Sources for Movies 137 Outlook for the Television Industry 157
DVDs and Streaming 138 MEDIA CAREERS 158
LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 158
Movie Industry Today 139
MEDIA MATTERS 159
Marketing and Distribution for Movies 142 FURTHER READING 159

Movie-Industry Business Model 143

Features
Outlook for the Movie Industry 143
ETHICS IN MEDIA: THE PHOTOJOURNALIST’S DILEMMA:
Television 144 IMMERSION IN CONFLICT 130

History of Television 146 MEDIA PIONEERS: KATHLEEN KENNEDY 141

Seeing the Light: The First Television Systems 146
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: 3D MOVIES: WHAT WILL BE
Modern Television Takes Shape 146
THE IMPACT? 145

6 Interactive Media: The Internet, Video Games,

and Augmented Reality 161

Interactivity Defined 162 Historical Development of User

Interfaces 165
Interactive Media Versus Mass Media 163
Television Interfaces 165
 CONTENTS xi

Intuitive Interfaces 166 Video-Game Industry 180

Keyboards 166
Computer Mouse 166
Trends in Video Games 182
Touch Screens 167 Gamification 183
Natural Input Methods 167
Graphical User Interfaces 167
Augmented Reality 184

Historical Development of the Internet Ethics of Interactive Media 185

MEDIA CAREERS 186
and the World Wide Web 168
LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 187
Internet Protocol 169
MEDIA MATTERS 188
World Wide Web 170
FURTHER READING 188
Graphical Web Browsers 170
Broadband 171
Distribution Dynamics 171
Features
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: THE INTERNET OF
Video Games 173
BABEL 164
Historical Development of Video
MEDIA PIONEERS: SUPER MARIO 176
Games 174
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: IS PLAYING VIDEO GAMES BAD
Types of Video Games 177
FOR YOU? 181

PART THREE M E D I A PE R SPE C T I V E S

7 The Impact of Social Media 191

Defining Social Media 192 Social Media: The Good, the Bad,
Dialogic Commmunication 193 and the Ugly 218
Social Production 195 Are Social Media Making Us Less Social? 218
Are Social Media Making Us Dumber? 220
What Is “Social” About Social Media? 197
MEDIA CAREERS 222
Choice 197
LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 222
Conversation 197
MEDIA MATTERS 224
Curation 198
FURTHER READING 224
Creation 199
Collaboration 199
Features
Types of Social Media 200
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: SOCIAL NETWORKS OF
Email 201
INFLUENTIAL LANGUAGES 201
Discussion Boards and Web Forums 202
Chat Rooms 203 MEDIA PIONEERS: JACK DORSEY 206
Blogs and Microblogs 204
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: ARE WE REALLY SEPARATED BY
Wikis 205
SIX DEGREES? 211
Social-Networking Sites 207
ETHICS IN MEDIA: CYBERBULLYING: NEW TWISTS ON AN
Producers and Produsers 212
OLD PROBLEM 219
Reputation, Ratings, and Trust 214
Privacy 215
Transparency 217
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8 Journalism: From Information to Participation 227

What Is News? 228 Citizen Journalism 245

An International Perspective 246
The Historical Development of
Journalism 230 Journalism in the Digital World 248
News Values and the Associated Press 230 Nontraditional Sources 248
Pulitzer and Hearst: The Circulation Wars, Online User Habits 250
Sensationalism, and Standards 231 Personalization 251
Joseph Pulitzer 233 Contextualization 251
William Randolph Hearst 234 Convergence 251
The Rise of Electronic Journalism 234
The Business of Journalism 252
Murrow and News in TV’s Golden Age 235
Salaries 253
Changes in Television News 235
Diversity in the Newsroom 254
Foundations of Journalism 236 MEDIA CAREERS 254
The Hutchins Commission and A Free and LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 255
Responsible Press 236 MEDIA MATTERS 256
Separation of Editorial and Business Operations 237 FURTHER READING 256
Fairness and Balance in News Coverage 237
Framing the News 238 Features
Expert Sources 238
MEDIA PIONEERS: MARY ANN SHADD CARY
From Event to Public Eye: How News AND IDA B. WELLS 232
Is Created 239
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: COVERING ISLAM 238
Gathering the News 240
Producing the News 240 CONVERGENCE CULTURE: PLATYPUS JOURNALISM:
Distributing the News 242 THE FUTURE, OR EVOLUTIONARY DEAD END? 241

Types of Journalism 243 ETHICS IN MEDIA: MAINTAINING STANDARDS IN THE

Alternative Journalism 243 DIGITAL AGE 252
Public Journalism 244

9 Advertising and Public Relations: The Power of Persuasion 259

Strategic Communications 261 Selling Products, Selling Ideas 271

Persuasive Communications 262 Advertising Channels 271
The Role of Media in Persuasion 263 Print Media 272
Electronic Media 272
Advertising 264
Outdoor 273
The Historical Development of Advertising 264
Direct Mail 274
Advertising Agencies 266
Advertising in a Digital World 274
Commercial Television 266
Cookies 274
Internet 267
Email Marketing 275
The Rise of Branding 268
Banner Ads 275
 CONTENTS xiii

Pop-Ups and Video 275 Changing Trends in Advertising and PR 288

Classifieds and Auction Sites 275 MEDIA CAREERS 290
Search-Engine Ads 276 LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 291
Mobile Advertising 276 MEDIA MATTERS 292
Behavioral Advertising 277 FURTHER READING 292
Viral Marketing 277
Native Advertising 277 Features
The Advertising Business 278
MEDIA PIONEERS: MADAM C. J. WALKER 265
Advertising Agencies 279
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: MMORPG, FPSAND IGA 270
Public Relations 282
The Historical Development of Public Relations 282 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: HAIRRAISING SUBWAY
Trends in the Development of Public Relations 284 BILLBOARD AD GETS NOTICED 280
PR and Media Relations 285
MEDIA PIONEERS: DORIS E. FLEISCHMAN 284
Pseudo-Events 286
Distributing News to the Media in the ETHICS IN MEDIA: FOOLING MOST OF THE PEOPLE
Digital Age 286 MOST OF THE TIME . . . DIGITALLY 288
Finding Sources Online 286
PR Firms and the PR Industry 286

PART FOUR MEDIA AND SOCIE T Y

10 Media Ethics 295

Ethics, Morals, and Laws 296 Ethics in Journalism 310

Privacy Rights Versus the Public’s Right to Know 310
Major Systems of Ethical Reasoning 297
Going Undercover 311
Character, or Virtue Ethics 297
Victimizing the Victims 311
The Golden Rule 297
Misrepresentation and Plagiarism 312
The Golden Mean 298
Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics 312
Virtue Ethics in Action 298
Duties 298 Ethical Issues in Advertising 313
The Categorical Imperative 299 Deceptive Advertising 313
Discourse Ethics 299 Puffery 314
Duties-Based Ethics in Action 300 Conflicts of Interest in Advertising 314
Consequences 300 Advertising Codes of Ethics 314
Utilitarianism 301
Ethics in Public Relations 315
Social Justice 301
Conflicts of Interest in PR 316
Consequence-Based Ethics in Action 302
Public Relations Codes of Ethics 317
Relationships, or Dialogical Ethics 302
Ethics of Care 303 Ethics in Entertainment 318
Dialogical Ethics in Action 304 Stereotypes in Entertainment 318
Moral Relativism 305 Sex and Violence 319
MEDIA CAREERS 319
Issues in Ethical Decision Making 306
LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 320
Role of Commercialism in Media Ethics 308 MEDIA MATTERS 320
Media Types Influencing Content 309 FURTHER READING 321
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Features CONVERGENCE CULTURE: FORBIDDEN FRUIT 315

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: MISTAKEN IDENTITY: ONE MEDIA PIONEERS: KALLE LASN 316
LIFE LOST, ANOTHER RUINED 303

11 Communication Law and Regulation in the Digital Age 323

The Legal Framework 324 Political Speech 344

Equal-Time Rule 344
The Foundations of Freedom of
Fairness Doctrine 344
Expression 325
National Security 326 Children’s Programming Protections 345
Clear and Present Danger 327 The Children’s Television Act 345
Prior Restraint 327 Violent and Sexual Programming:
Libel 328 The V-Chip 346
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964) 328
Intellectual Property Rights 346
Protecting Journalists Against Libel 329
Fair Use 348
Shield Laws 329
Censorship 331 Privacy 348
The Censorship of Comics 331
Legal Issues in the Digital World 349
The Hays Code 332
Digital Rights Management 350
Indecent Content 333
Privacy 351
Obscenity 334
Content Rights and Responsibilities 352
Criticism, Ridicule, or Humor 335
MEDIA CAREERS 352
Regulating Electronic Media 335 LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 353
Early Days and the Radio Act of 1912 (1911–1926) 335 MEDIA MATTERS 354
Increasing Regulation and the Federal Radio FURTHER READING 354
Commission (1927–1933) 336
The Communications Act and Spectrum Scarcity Features
(1934–1995) 336
MEDIA PIONEERS: ANTHONY LEWIS 330
The Telecommunications Act and the Internet
(1996–Present) 337 CONVERGENCE CULTURE: THE GREAT NETWORK
International Electronic Media Regulation 338 NEUTRALITY DEBATE 338

The Federal Communications INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: THE RISE AND FALL OF

Commission (FCC) 339 RUSSIAN MEDIA 339
Universal Service 340
ETHICS IN MEDIA: DOES THE PUNISHMENT FIT THE
The FCC, License Renewal, and Regulatory Power 340
CRIME? 350
Spectrum Auction 341

Regulating Commercial and Political

Speech 341
Commercial Speech 342
Tobacco, Alcohol, and Marijuana Advertising 343
Unclear Regulatory Boundaries 343
 CONTENTS xv

12 Media Theory and Research 357

Role of Theory and Research 358 Media Ecology 374

Agenda Setting 375
Mass Society, Mass Communication 359
New Directions in Media Research 376
Media-Effects Research 359
Propaganda and the Magic Bullet 360 Media Research: What Type of Science
Payne Fund 360 Is It? 378
Radio’s Wider Impact 361 Quantitative Research 380
Television and Violence 362 Qualitative Research 380
Limited Effects 363 Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Cultivation Analysis 363 Working Together 382
Spiral of Silence 365 MEDIA CAREERS 382
Third-Person Effect 365 LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 383
Criticisms of Media-Effects Research 366 MEDIA MATTERS 384
FURTHER READING 384
Understanding the Audience 367
Audiences Creating Meaning 367
Features
Uses and Gratifications 367
Encoding/Decoding 368 CONVERGENCE CULTURE: HOW FREE IS ACADEMIC
Reception Analysis 368 FREEDOM? 364
Framing 369
MEDIA PIONEERS: danah boyd 371
Cultural Studies 370
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: THEORIES OLD, THEORIES
Ideology and the Culture Industry 370
NEW, THEORIES BORROWED . . . 374
Criticisms of Cultural Studies 372
ETHICS IN MEDIA: ADVERTISING’S NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON
Sociohistorical Frameworks 372
THE SEXES 377
Information Society 372
Political Economy 373

13 Mass Communication and Politics in the Digital Age 387

Journalism and Political Coverage 388 Politics and Entertainment 396

Politicians Using the News 390 Political Campaigns and Entertainment 396
Sound Bites and Horse Races 390 Political Debates 397
The Changing Tone of Television Political
Social Media and Political Campaigns 398
Coverage 391
Changes with Social Media 400
Opinion Polls 391
Changing Rules for Politicians 401
Political Advertising 393
Social Media and Civic Engagement 403
Impact of Negative Advertising 394
Databases and Government Transparency 403
Effectiveness of Negative Advertising 394
Smart Mobs 404
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Political Polarization and Media Habits 405 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: CROWDSOURCING

MEDIA CAREERS 407 ELECTION MONITORING 402
LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 407
MEDIA PIONEERS: BILL ADAIR 406
MEDIA MATTERS 408
FURTHER READING 408

Features
ETHICS IN MEDIA: CAN IMAGERY LEAD TO ACTION? 395

CONVERGENCE CULTURE: IMAGE IS EVERYTHING 399

14 Global Media in the Digital Age 411

Four Theories of International Mass Protecting Local Voices 429

Communication 413 Some Developing Nations 429
Authoritarian Theory 413 A Neighbo(u)ring Nation 429
Libertarian Theory 413 Promoting Global Voices 430
Social Responsibility Theory 414 Cybersecurity and Media 431
Soviet Theory 415 MEDIA CAREERS 432
LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD 433
The Public, the Public Sphere,
MEDIA MATTERS 434
and Public Opinion 416
FURTHER READING 434
Political and Socioeconomic Issues
with Global Media 418 Features
Media in Developing Countries 418
ETHICS IN MEDIA: JETHINOMICSTEACHING ETHICS
Searching for Truth: Self-Censorship in China 420
AND ECONOMICS IN JOURNALISM 414
The Digital Divide 422
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: THROUGH A PRISM OF GLOBAL
Global Media, Local Values 423
SURVEILLANCE 419
New Worlds—or Cultural Imperialism? 424
Convergence and Its Discontents 425 MEDIA PIONEERS: STEVE CHEN, CHAD HURLEY, AND
Globalization of Media Production 427 JAWED KARIM 426
Global Media Flow 428

GLOSSARY G-1
NOTES N-1
CREDITS C-1
INDEX I-1
 ACEJMC LEARNING GOALS xvii

Converging Media provides extensive content on the twelve core values and compe-
tencies of the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Commu-
nications (ACEJMC). As a nationally elected member of the ACEJMC from 2004
to 2007, John V. Pavlik recognized that the ACEJMC-based learning goals provide
a useful benchmark for assessing student learning. By covering the twelve core
values and competencies, this text provides a strong foundation for students to
become well-rounded journalists and experts in mass communication.

ACEJMC LEARNING GOALS HOW CONVERGING MEDIA SUPPORTS

1. FREEDOM OF SPEECH: Understand and apply the • Regulation of journalism and mass communication in the
principles and laws of freedom of speech and press for the digital age including libel and censorship (p. 328, 349)
country in which the institution that invites ACEJMC is located, • Fairness (p. 344)
as well as receive instruction in and understand the range of • The public’s right to know (p. 310)
systems of freedom of expression around the world, including
• Media systems around the world (p. 418)
the rights to dissent, to monitor and criticize power, and to
assemble and petition for redress of grievances.

2. HISTORY: Demonstrate an understanding of the history • Origins of photography, movies, television, and video
and role of professionals and institutions in shaping games (p. 126, 128, 146)
communications. • History of journalism (p. 230)
• History of advertising (p. 264)
• History of public relations (p. 282)
• History of media law and the regulation of electronic
media (p. 325)
• Early research on media effects (p. 359)
• History of recorded music and radio (p. 99, 112)
• History of print media (books, newspapers,
magazines) (p. 66, 76, 89)
• History of the Internet (p. 168)

3. GENDER, RACE, AND SEXUALITY: Demonstrate an • Effects of media and advertising on women
understanding of gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and men (p. 377)
and, as appropriate, other forms of diversity in domestic • Role of women in the history of newspapers (p. 232)
society in relation to mass communications. • Diversity in the newsroom (p. 254)
• Minority newspapers (p. 232, 254)

4. GLOBAL SOCIETY: Demonstrate an understanding of the • Relationships among various global and local media
diversity of peoples and cultures and of the significance and sources (p. 424)
impact of mass communications in a global society. • Cultural and socioeconomic impact of global
media (p. 426)
• “International Perspectives” boxes throughout
(example, p. 70)
• International theories of the press (p. 413)
• Media in a global society appears as a theme in several
chapters

5. THEORY: Understand concepts and apply theories in the • Photography, movies, and television (p. 135, 147)
use and presentation of images and information. • Grammar of media (p. 44)
• Information overload in the digital age (p. 218)
• Major media theories and research (p. 359, 370, 376)
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ACEJMC LEARNING GOALS HOW CONVERGING MEDIA SUPPORTS

6. ETHICS: Demonstrate an understanding of professional • “Ethics in Media” boxes throughout (example, p. 55)
ethical principles and work ethically in pursuit of truth, • Chapter on media ethics, including accuracy and the
accuracy, fairness, and diversity. pursuit of truth (p. 295)
• Chapter on communication law and regulation in the
digital age (p. 323)
• Fairness and diversity (p. 318)

7. CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING: Think critically, • “Convergence Culture” boxes throughout
creatively, and independently. (example, p. 211)
• “Media Matters” at end of chapters (example, p. 34)
• Discussion Questions throughout
• Critical-Thinking Questions in selected image captions
(example, p. 335)
• Foundations for critically examining media presented
early in the text (example, p. 39)

8. RESEARCH: Conduct research and evaluate information by • Chapter on media theory and research teaches
methods appropriate to the communications professions in students to evaluate research methods and
which they work. findings (p. 378)

9. WRITING ABILITY: Write correctly and clearly in forms and • Appropriate writing style for particular media and for
styles appropriate for the communications professions, the communities and purposes that media
audiences, and purposes they serve. professionals serve (p. 243)
• Importance of clear and accurate writing in news
creation (p. 240)

10. EVALUATION OF WORK: Critically evaluate their own work • Media Matters and Critical Thinking Questions
and that of others for accuracy and fairness, clarity, throughout the text encourage self-reflection in the
appropriate style, and grammatical correctness. form of spoken and written responses while promoting
group discussion and peer evaluation of work.

11. NUMERICAL AND STATISTICAL CONCEPTS: Apply basic • Data for students to analyze about newspaper circulation
numerical and statistical concepts. and readership and advertising impact (p. 84)
• Pricing structure of the recording industry (p. 106)
• Figures and tables throughout apply numerical and
statistical concepts (example, p. 73)
• “US Media Giants” (pullout at the back of the book)

12. TECHNOLOGY: Apply tools and technologies appropriate • Social media (p. 191)
for the communications professions in which they work. • Interactive media (p. 161)
• Role of mobile media, such as the iPad, in delivering
video (p. 183)
• Mobile media and digital books (p. 74)
• Impact of touch screens on human–computer
interface (p. 165)
• Use of digital technology in journalism (p. 248)
• Impact of digital technology and mobile media on
advertising (p. 274)
Features
CONVERGENCE CULTURE
User-Generated Content: Creativity or Piracy? (Chapter 1) p. 19
Dos and Don’ts When Evaluating Online Information (Chapter 2) p. 57
Freesheets: Riding the Rails of Newspapers’ Future? (Chapter 3) p. 85
NPR and PRI: America’s Public Radio Networks (Chapter 4) p. 116
3-D Movies: What Will Be the Impact? (Chapter 5) p. 145
Is Playing Video Games Bad for You? (Chapter 6) p. 181
Are We Really Separated by Six Degrees? (Chapter 7) p. 211
Platypus Journalism: The Future, or Evolutionary Dead End? (Chapter 8) p. 241
MMORPG, FPS—and IGA (Chapter 9) p. 270
Forbidden Fruit (Chapter 10) p. 315
The Great Network Neutrality Debate (Chapter 11) p. 338
How Free Is Academic Freedom? (Chapter 12) p. 364
Image Is Everything (Chapter 13) p. 399
Through a PRISM of Global Surveillance (Chapter 14) p. 419

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Crying in a BMW (Chapter 1) p. 11
Mobile Telephony in the Developing World (Chapter 2) p. 50
Global Ebook Marketplace (Chapter 3) p. 70
Trusting in the Power of the Airwaves (Chapter 4) p. 121
The Internet of Babel (Chapter 6) p. 164
Social Networks of Influential Languages (Chapter 7) p. 201
Covering Islam (Chapter 8) p. 238
Hair-Raising Subway Billboard Ad Gets Noticed (Chapter 9) p. 280
Mistaken Identity: One Life Lost, Another Ruined (Chapter 10) p. 303
The Rise and Fall of Russian Media (Chapter 11) p. 339
Theories Old, Theories New, Theories Borrowed . . . (Chapter 12) p. 374
Crowdsourcing Election Monitoring (Chapter 13) p. 402

ETHICS IN MEDIA
Interactively Mapping Gun Owners (Chapter 1) p. 22
When Media Report Rape Allegations (Chapter 2) p. 55
Mashed-Up and Mixed-Up Musical Ethics (Chapter 4) p. 111
The Photojournalist’s Dilemma: Immersion in Conflict (Chapter 5) p. 130
Cyberbullying: New Twists on an Old Problem (Chapter 7) p. 219
Maintaining Standards in the Digital Age (Chapter 8) p. 252
Fooling Most of the People Most of the Time . . . Digitally (Chapter 9) p. 288
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Does the Punishment Fit the Crime? (Chapter 11) p. 350

Advertising’s Negative Effects on the Sexes (Chapter 12) p. 377
Can Imagery Lead to Action? (Chapter 13) p. 395
J-Ethinomics—Teaching Ethics and Economics in Journalism (Chapter 14) p. 414

MEDIA PIONEERS
Steve Jobs (Chapter 1) p. 10
Marshall McLuhan (Chapter 2) p. 48
Ruben Salazar (Chapter 3) p. 87
Amanda Palmer (Chapter 4) p. 104
Kathleen Kennedy (Chapter 5) p. 141
Super Mario (Chapter 6) p. 176
Jack Dorsey (Chapter 7) p. 206
Mary Ann Shadd Cary and Ida B. Wells (Chapter 8) p. 232
Madam C. J. Walker (Chapter 9) p. 265
Doris E. Fleischman (Chapter 9) p. 284
Kalle Lasn (Chapter 10) p. 316
Anthony Lewis (Chapter 11) p. 330
danah boyd (Chapter 12) p. 371
Bill Adair (Chapter 13) p. 406
Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed Karim (Chapter 14) p. 426

TIMELINES
History (and Pre-history) of Newspapers (Chapter 3) p. 78
Milestones in Early Radio-Technology Development (Chapter 4) p. 113
Development of Photography (Chapter 5) p. 128
Selected Milestones in Early Motion Pictures (Chapter 5) p. 132
Milestones in the Development of the Internet (Chapter 6) p. 168
Milestones in the Development of Video Games (Chapter 6) p. 174
Social-Networking Sites (Chapter 7) p. 208

TABLES
Table 1-1: Traditional Theories or Models of Analog Media p. 24
Table 2-1: Reframing Political Issues for Conservatives p. 42
Table 2-2: Reframing Political Issues for Liberals p. 43
Table 3-1: Top Ten U.S. Paid-Circulation Magazines p. 91
Table 3-2: Digital Issues a Significant Portion of Magazine Sales p. 92
Table 4-1: The Major Record Labels and Their Main Subsidiary Labels p. 103
Table 4-2: Most Popular Radio Programming Genres p. 119
Table 5-1: Ownership Among Major and Subsidiary Film Studios p. 140
Table 5-2: Top Multichannel Video-Programming Distributors in the United
States, 2014 p. 155
 FEATURES xxi

Table 6-1: Best-Selling Video Games (to 2014) p. 178

Table 7-1: Most Popular Social-Networking Sites p. 210
Table 8-1: Top Global News Sites p. 249
Table 9-1: Top Six U.S. Companies by Brand Valuations p. 269
Table 9-2: Share of Global Advertising Expenditure (%) p. 278
Table 9-3: World’s Five Largest Advertising and Media-Services Companies p. 281
Table 9-4: Top Five Independent Public Relations Firms p. 287
Table 13-1: 2012 Presidential Campaign Expenditures p. 393

FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Three Types of Convergence and Their Influence on Media p. 8
Figure 1-2: “Media Iceberg” p. 15
Figure 1-3: Average Consumer Download Speed by Country (2015) p. 17
Figure 1-4: Shannon and Weaver Mathematical Theory p. 28
Figure 1-5: Schramm–Osgood Model p. 29
Figure 2-1: Semiotic Signifier and Signified p. 41
Figure 3-1: Book Publishing Products and Services Segmentation p. 72
Figure 3-2: Book Publishing Industry Revenue Growth, 2009–2014 p. 73
Figure 3-3: Top 10 U.S. Newspapers by Circulation, in millions, 2014 p. 76
Figure 3-4: Major Newspaper Chains in the United States p. 82
Figure 3-5: Print Versus Online Ad Revenue (2003–2012) p. 85
Figure 3-6: Newspaper Print Ad Revenue Declines p. 86
Figure 6-1: Client/Server and Peer-to-Peer Networks p. 172
Figure 7-1: Social Media as a Pathway to News: Facebook Leads the Way p. 212
Figure 8-1: Salary Range for Journalists by Experience p. 253
Figure 9-1: Salaries for Advertising Account Managers by Experience p. 289
Figure 9-2: Salaries for Corporate PR Specialists by Experience p. 290
Figure 10-1: The Potter Box p. 307
Figure 13-1: Political Polarization and Media Habits p. 405
Figure 14-1: 2015 World Press Freedom Index p. 421
Figure 14-2: World Internet Users and Penetration Rates p. 423
 www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Preface
With the potential to strengthen or to undermine personal freedom, media con-
vergence is a double-edged sword. Digital technologies, including mobile and
social media, have empowered citizens to access, interact with, and generate con-
tent and stories around the world and on demand. In recent years, Twitter and
similar services have helped citizens throughout the globe organize protests
against government policy, oppressive regimes, and corporate malfeasance. At the
same time, however, these powerful digital tools have enabled governments, cor-
porations, and others to conduct sweeping surveillance of citizens and even inter-
national leaders around the world, as demonstrated by the epic Edward Snowden
revelations and the more recent June 2015 WikiLeaks about the NSA spying on
the last three French presidents.
Privacy may be little more than a memory in an age when ubiquitous high-
definition cameras, big data analytics, and social media are generating massive
databases with information on nearly every man, woman, and child around the
globe. Even when we are not being spied on, we may be eagerly revealing too much
about ourselves. As Alessandro Acquisti, professor of information technology and
public policy at Carnegie Mellon University, observed in a 2013 60 Minutes inter-
view with Lesley Stahl, “Most of us have fully identified, high-definition frontal
photos of ourselves online.” On Facebook alone, users have posted billions of
photos of themselves, their friends, and their relatives. And Facebook’s increas-
ingly refined facial-recognition technology will continue to facilitate being tagged
by friends and being tracked by those whose intentions may be less friendly.
The existence of such vast repositories of data, valuable for security and com-
mercial purposes (such as individually targeted advertising), raises concerns for
civil liberties, particularly the right to privacy and freedom of speech. Another
related issue involves who has the right to own and control this information, espe-
cially with telecommunications companies and Internet giants contributing to the
NSA’s surveillance program.
Meanwhile, the digitization of media and the convergence of media formats
and industries proceed unabated. Research indicates that we now spend more
time using digital devices than we do with any other medium, including televi-
sion. Digital content is more likely to be viewed on a tablet or a smartphone than
on a laptop or desktop computer. Digital distribution is now the dominant format
for music, television, and radio, whether delivered terrestrially, by satellite, or via
the Internet.
Thanks to tablets and e-readers, the popularity of ebooks has surged. Follow-
ing significant declines in print circulation, newspapers and magazines are expe-
riencing growth in tablet, smartphone, and online distribution. Digital movies,
television, and video-game distribution is now mainstream, with companies such
as Netflix and Amazon producing and streaming their own original television
shows. Tablets and other mobile devices are blurring the lines between Internet,
movies, and television while allowing technology companies such as Google,
Apple, and Amazon to challenge traditional media distributors.
Our engagement with media has also changed, becoming more active as mass
and interpersonal communications converge. Anyone can broadcast a personal
opinion on Twitter or via other social media; and increasingly, people do so while
xxii
 PREFACE xxiii

consuming traditional media such as television, posting comments and convers-

ing about popular shows. Interactive media, especially video games, also consti-
tute an increasingly popular form of entertainment.
Convergence is a worldwide phenomenon today. The globalization of media
industries and distribution has produced a cultural convergence that, at worst,
smothers various local perspectives in a homogeneous Westernized culture and,
at best, enables different local voices to be heard. Diverse cultural viewpoints have
also begun to influence the content of new Hollywood blockbusters and other
forms of Western media.
Rarely has media usage so varied. Those who grew up in a pre-Internet era of
mass communication may enjoy reading a printed newspaper over breakfast; digi-
tal natives may get their news from their Facebook feeds—if they get any news at
all. The older group may have impressive collections of DVDs, CDs, and even vinyl;
the younger group may trust the digital, online “cloud” with their favorite movies
and music, accessible from any location or on their portable devices. One group
may worry how increased product placement affects the type of shows produced;
the other group may wonder what product placement is and why it matters. Some
may feel that their romantic associations are nobody’s business; others may pub-
licly announce their relationship status, posting that and much more personal in-
formation on social-networking sites.
Interestingly, this media divide is often represented in the college classroom
comprised of students who are digital natives and their professors who hail from
an older mass-media tradition. Yet, just like the media discussed in this book, the
two parties can converge, often across generations, to enrich their understanding
of where media have been, where they are today, and where they are going. Each
group can—and should—learn from the other.
Convergence is creating the kind of mass communication that audiences have
long desired, tools that increase control over what they watch, read, or listen to
and increase the ability to share their stories and their lives with others. But with
that greater power comes greater responsibility and a greater need for us to under-
stand how our media work and how they may affect our society and political sys-
tems. A double-edged sword does indeed cut both ways; which way it cuts depends
largely on who is wielding it and how.

Converging Media, Fifth Edition: An Updated

Introduction to Mass Communication
Change is a constant in the mass-communication industry, and in recent years
this transformation has rocketed forward with surprising speed. Students are
changing. The field is changing. The world is changing. Yet these changes go largely
unnoticed in most textbooks. An introductory textbook should provide a founda-
tion of knowledge for students learning a new field. But when the foundation sits
on a bed of shifting sand, the introduction needs to be revised continually.
Converging Media: A New Introduction to Mass Communication embraces the
metamorphosis of today’s mass-communication system and examines the changes
even as it prepares students for what comes tomorrow. This book represents the
beginning of a third wave in mass-communication textbooks, building on the ear-
lier waves of case studies and critical-cultural approaches. This new approach de-
mands a more balanced and nuanced understanding of the role that technology
and digital media have played in our mass-communication environment.
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The fifth edition of Converging Media follows the class-tested formula of the
previous edition by offering

• A Fresh Perspective. Through the lens of convergence, our book shows

how different aspects of media are parts of a whole and how they influence
each other. Digital media are not relegated to special features or an isolated
chapter; they are integrated throughout every chapter. This better reflects
the world as students live in it and prepares them to understand the changes
that are taking place. This organization invites students and professors to
engage in timely discussions of media within a larger framework of under-
standing traditional mass-communication topics.
• Comprehensive Coverage of Traditional Media. To understand the pre-
sent, we have to study the past. We cover the development and historical influ-
ences of print and electronic media and the issues these media face today. The
communication professions of journalism, advertising, and public relations are
viewed from historical, societal, and career perspectives, giving students in-
sights into how they interact and influence each other.
• Unique Coverage of Social Media. As the first introductory mass-
communication textbook to devote a chapter to this emerging area, we
place social media within a larger media and sociocultural context. Today’s
popular social media tools are given a historical context and are connected
thematically to older online communication tools. Social media are such an
integral part of the media mix for so many people that they must be covered
in an introductory course, not introduced in an upper-division media and
technology course.
• Cutting-Edge Examples. We have chosen examples that are diverse, inter-
esting, and up to date. We have written Converging Media with students
always in mind—understanding the changing world they live in today.
Taken from popular media that are familiar and relevant to undergradu-
ates, the examples illustrate how the landscape of media has evolved—and
is still evolving.
• Cultural Context. Mass communication, media technologies, and conver-
gence take place firmly within a sociocultural milieu that simultaneously
affects and is affected by these forces. Understanding this cultural context
is vital for a complete grasp of convergence and today’s media environment.
We emphasize the cultural influences and implications of media technolo-
gies while explaining how they work and how they were developed.
• Emphasis on Ethics. The book has a chapter devoted entirely to ethics
(Chapter 10) and we continue to thread ethics-related discussions throughout
other chapters, as appropriate (see Ethics in Media boxes). Students should
learn that ethical considerations are tightly linked to a full understanding of
mass communication and media. Ethics can also help guide us in the complex
and often-confusing world of converging media, giving a basis for sound and
humane decisions on media use, production, and new technologies.
• International Perspectives. A chapter on today’s global media environ-
ment (Chapter 14) provides a broad perspective on media in various coun-
tries and the social, economic, and cultural effects of media globalization
overseas and domestically. In the remaining chapters, we also highlight in-
ternational perspectives in feature boxes and in the text itself. Through
comparisons and contrasts, students obtain an appreciation for different
media systems throughout the world and how they work.
 PREFACE xxv

Features for Students

We have kept features limited and focused on a few key areas that foreground in-
teresting and relevant aspects of the content discussed in the book.
• Convergence Culture boxes showcase how media impact our social, politi-
cal, and popular culture in sometimes-dramatic ways. Three are new to this
edition, six updated.
• Media Pioneers boxes examine the careers of visionaries and leaders in
the world of media both historically and in the contemporary scene. They
feature individuals past and present who have made or are making media
history. Subjects represent a diversity of past and present, media vocations,
and cultural and ethnic backgrounds. This feature now appears in every
chapter. Four are new to this edition, the rest updated.
• Ethics in Media boxes, appearing in select chapters, discuss timely issues
related to ethical practices and issues in mass media. Three are new to this
edition, five updated.
• International Perspectives boxes take a global perspective on chapter
topics, showcasing how the use of media and technology and media indus-
tries are similar to or different from the U.S. context and why that is so. Two
are new to this edition, six updated.
• Timelines, appearing in select chapters, provide a history, or even pre-
history, of different media, such as newspapers, television, and social-
networking site launches, giving the context for their development.
• Media Matters (formerly known as Media Quiz) encourage critical think-
ing about media-related topics.
• Chapter Opening Vignettes have been updated for currency where neces-
sary, and seven have been completely revised and are new to this edition.
• Discussion Questions are now located throughout each chapter.
• Further Reading assignments round out each chapter.

Changes to the Fifth Edition

This fifth edition has undergone several changes to keep pace with the rapidly
evolving world of media.
• Coverage of New Issues. Throughout the text, we have updated and ex-
panded coverage of critical topics, including the convergence of interper-
sonal communication and mass communication, gamification, augmented
reality, cybersecurity, and the third screen. Noteworthy chapter-specific
changes include
• Chapter 1: Discussion of digital natives and digital immigrants.
Expanded treatment of the digital divide.
• Chapter 2: Addition of a Media Pioneers feature. Extended analysis of
concept of balance in journalism.
• Chapter 3: Updated research on book readership, publishing, and sales,
particularly ebooks, self-publishing, and Amazon. Extended treatment of
newspaper chain acquisitions and mergers. Expanded discussion of
online news sites, including recent competition presented by social media
and citizen journalism. New Media Pioneers box.
xxvi PREFACE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

• Chapter 4: Updated data on the record industry and radio programming.

Expanded discussion of revenues and podcasts. Substantial revision and
updating of Media Pioneers box.
• Chapter 5: Discussion of cord-cutters and cord-nevers.
• Chapter 6: Updated data on the video-game industry.
• Chapter 7: Updated discussion of Facebook, teen usage, and privacy norms.
New timeline on social-networking sites, such as Instagram and Ello.
• Chapter 8: Updated information on the latest transformations in jour-
nalism production and business models.
• Chapter 9: Discussion of behavioral advertising and native advertising.
Extended treatment of branding. New Media Pioneers feature.
• Chapter 10: Expanded discussion of dialogic social media. Addition of a
Media Pioneers feature. New section on misrepresentation and plagiarism.
• Chapter 11: Expanded treatment of prior restraint and the First Amend-
ment’s application to social media. New content on the legality and future
of advertising recreational marijuana on electronic media.
• Chapter 12: Updated and revised discussion of new directions in media
research, along with the introduction of longitudinal and cross-sectional
studies and random samples and sampling error.
• Chapter 13: Updated discussion of political campaign expenditures. Ex-
tended treatment of “going viral” and memes.
• Chapter 14: Updated discussion of the impact of social media on the
public sphere, particularly concerns about cybersecurity. Expanded anal-
ysis of censorship in Asia and world press freedom in general.
• Emphasis on Careers in Media. In addition to the Media Pioneers feature,
which presents the contributions and career foundations of innovators and
leaders who have influenced and continue to shape the world of media, a
new Media Careers section has been added to the end of each chapter
(with the exception of Chapter 1). In it, we discuss relevant traditional and
emerging career paths in the industry, helping students appreciate the full
range of possibilities in communications professions.
• Discussion Questions. Formerly located at the end of each chapter, dis-
cussion questions that encourage critical thinking have been integrated
throughout the chapter.
• Further Reading. The fifth edition includes new sources in each chapter.

How the Book Is Organized

Converging Media has the comprehensive mission of explaining not only the world of
digital media and social media but also the basics of communication theory, ethics,
and traditional mass-communication forms, while also assisting in the development
of media-literacy skills. We do this using a class-tested, multipart structure.

PART 1: THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE

Chapter 1 not only explains the multifaceted nature of convergence (and dis-
putes over its definition) but looks at theories of communication in general to see
how the nature of mass communication is changing. Chapter 2 discusses media
literacy, which helps meet students’ need for solid critical-thinking skills in the
 PREFACE xxvii

twenty-first century’s complex and fast-changing digital-media environment.

Providing an early foundation in media literacy ensures that students will bring a
critical perspective to the remainder of the book.

PART 2: MASSCOMMUNICATION FORMATS

Chapter 3 begins the exploration of traditional media with a discussion of the print
industry and the digital dynamics to which it is now subject. Chapter 4 explores
sound—namely, the recording industry and radio. The recording industry has of
course been at the forefront of changes that digital media have brought to their indus-
try through sharing of music files. Radio is increasingly facing questions about its role
as people come to expect music on demand. There are also more options for bands to
promote their music, such as in video games and on television shows. Chapter 5 looks
at visual media—photography, movies, and television—and how each of these devel-
oped and influenced the ways that we see media. Photography is often ignored in
books such as this but is an important aspect of the development of our media usage.
Technological advances in photography not only led directly to motion pictures but
increased the importance we place on visual media today. Chapter 6 explores how
interactivity and user interface have played fundamental roles in the development of
the Internet and video games. The chapter also discusses gamification as well as the
promise and perils of augmented reality.

PART 3: MEDIA PERSPECTIVES

Chapters 7, 8, and 9 examine the way that digital and social media are changing
traditional communication professions. Chapter 7 provides an overview of social
media, which is allowing the public to talk back to media producers and compa-
nies. Users of social media can also band together and create entirely new projects
outside the traditional media professions. Journalism, the subject of Chapter 8,
is probably the field most threatened by the digital democratization of news re-
porting. Yet it remains an exciting field to enter, precisely because of the impor-
tance of social media and journalism to democracy. Advertising and public
relations, the subjects of Chapter 9, also confront drastic changes as advertisers
face more fragmented audiences with greater media choices than in the past and
as consumers migrate to mobile media use.

PART 4: MEDIA AND SOCIETY

Part 4 shows the broader social effects of media developments. Chapter 10 treats
media ethics, with an in-depth discussion of the issues each profession faces. We
explore the unique dilemmas raised by digital technologies, including threats to
privacy. Chapter 11 explores legal and regulatory aspects of media, especially as
related to the First Amendment. For students who are interested in better under-
standing media or who are considering a career in academia, Chapter 12 intro-
duces some major media theories and presents different types of research and the
strengths and weaknesses of each. Chapter 13 thoroughly examines politics and
communication, an area that, in introductory books, is often confined to U.S. elec-
tion coverage. Chapter 14, on global media, introduces the notions of the public
sphere and public opinion and looks at the media’s role in democratic and
nondemocratic countries throughout the world. The globalization of media
xxviii PREFACE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

technology, industry, and content highlights international issues, including the

digital divide, cultural imperialism, and cybersecurity.

Supplements
Adopters of the fifth edition of Converging Media will be pleased to know that
Oxford University Press offers a comprehensive support package for both students
and instructors, for all kinds of introductory mass-communication courses.

FOR STUDENTS
• The Companion Website at www.oup.com/us/pavlik offers a wealth of
study and review resources, including learning objectives, summaries, chap-
ter quizzes, flashcards, activities, discussion questions, suggested reading,
and links to a variety of media-related websites.

FOR INSTRUCTORS
• Ancillary Resource Center (ARC) at www.oup-arc.com. This conveni-
ent, instructor-focused website provides access to all of the up-to-date
teaching resources for this text—at any time—while guaranteeing the se-
curity of grade-significant resources. In addition, it allows OUP to keep in-
structors informed when new content becomes available. The following
items are available on the ARC:
• The Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank provides sample syllabi, teach-
ing tips, exercises, and test questions that will prove useful to both new
and veteran instructors. The Instructor’s Manual includes chapter over-
views, learning objectives, detailed chapter/lecture outlines, discussion
topics, and suggested activities for each chapter.
• The comprehensive Computerized Test Bank offers over eight hundred
exam questions in multiple-choice, short-answer, and essay formats, with
each item classified according to Bloom’s taxonomy and tagged to page
and section references in the text,
• Newly revised PowerPoint-based lecture slides highlight key con-
cepts, terms and examples, and incorporate images from each chapter.
With streamlined text, more visual support, and additional lecture tips in
the notes section, these presentations are ready to use and fully editable
to make preparing for class faster and easier than ever.
• Course cartridges for a variety of Learning Management Systems, includ-
ing Blackboard Learn, Canvas, and Moodle, allow instructors to create their
own course websites integrating student and instructor resources available
on the Ancillary Resource Center and Companion Website. Contact your
Oxford University Press representative for access or for more information
about these supplements or customized options.

Acknowledgments
Creating a book such as this is very much a collaborative effort, and the authors
have benefited greatly from the advice and wisdom not only of the reviewers but
of those who adopted the first, second, third, and fourth editions of the book.
 PREFACE xxix

These adopters sometimes had to work hard to persuade colleagues and depart-
ments that Converging Media was the text to use to introduce students to mass
communication. We can only hope that the argument is easier to make with this
fifth edition as we witness a growing number of books about media convergence in
the market.
We would also like to thank the adopters who wrote to us over the years
asking when a revised edition would be published and who offered encourag-
ing words about the usefulness of the book when there were still plenty of
professors who were not convinced that a new approach to teaching mass com-
munication was needed or who thought that only minor tweaks to curricula
would do the trick.
John Pavlik truly appreciates the love and support of his family, especially his
wife, Jackie, and his daughters, Orianna and Tristan. Shawn McIntosh is similarly
grateful for the love and support of his wife, Naren, and his son, Altan, who is
growing up in this evolving media world as a digital native.
We want especially to thank the editors at Oxford University Press with whom
we worked: Toni Magyar, our editor; Maegan Sherlock, development editor; Marie
La Vina and Paul Longo, editorial assistants; and David Jurman, marketing man-
ager. They immediately understood and shared our vision of what this textbook
should and could be to introductory mass-communication courses. Their insights
and advice helped this book surpass our expectations. We also wish to thank
Dr. Mary Ann McHugh, whose extensive editing and creative contributions have
streamlined and updated much of the text. We are grateful for the fine job of
Oxford’s production group: production manager, Lisa Grzan; production editor,
Marianne Paul; and art director, Michele Laseau. The copyeditor, Deanna Hegle,
also helped clarify, simplify, and improve the book.
And last but certainly not least, we wish to thank the following reviewers for
the detailed and insightful feedback on various parts of the book and instructor
resources.

FIFTH EDITION REVIEWERS

Amelia H. Arsenault, Georgia State University
James Brancato, Cedar Crest College
Scott Brown, California State University, Northridge
Jennifer Fogel, State University of New York–Oswego
Shari Hoppin, Troy University
Jenn Mackay, Virginia Tech
David Magolis, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania
Andrea McDonnell, Emmanuel College
Andrew Nelson, Loyola University New Orleans
Stephen Swanson, McLennan Community College

FOURTH EDITION REVIEWERS

Joseph Abisaid, Monmouth College
Nathan Atkinson, Georgia State University
Jeff Boone, Angelo State University
xxx PREFACE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Pennie Boyett, Tarrant County College–Southeast

Allison Butler, University of Massachusetts–Amherst
Elizabeth B. Christian, University of New Haven
Sara Drabik, Northern Kentucky University
Mara Einstein, Queens College
Jason Genovese, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania
Aimee Gillette, Howard Community College
Meredith Guthrie, University of Pittsburgh
Jeffrey B. Hedrick, Jacksonville State University
Mark Hungerford, University of New Hampshire
George Johnson, James Madison University
Hume Johnson, Roger Williams University
Tom Kelleher, University of Hawaii–Manoa
Vincent Kiernan, Georgetown University
Daekyung Kim, James Madison University
Derek Lackaff, Elon University
Ryan Lange, Alvernia University
David Magolis, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania
Rick Marks, College of Southern Nevada
Joy A. McDonald, Hampton University
Meaghan Meachem, Lyndon State College
Wendy Nelson, Palomar College
Pamela O’Brien, Bowie State University
Andrea Otanez, Everett Community College
Eun-A Park, University of New Haven
Richard D. Pineda, University of Texas–El Paso
Hilary Russo, St. John’s University
Jessie M. Quintero Johnson, University of Massachusetts–Boston
CarrieLynn D. Reinhard, Dominican University
Karen A. Ritzenhoff, Central Connecticut State University
Kevin Tankersley, Baylor University
Anita J. Turpin, Roanoke College
Tammy R. Vigil, Boston University
Justin Walden, Pennsylvania State University
Jamie Ward, University of Michigan–Dearborn
Matt Weidman, Widener University–Exton
Ronald A. Yaros, University of Maryland–College Park

THIRD EDITION REVIEWERS

Lonny J. Avi Brooks, California State University, East Bay
Ovril Patricia Cambridge, Ohio University
 PREFACE xxxi

Skye Dent, Fayetteville State University

Marie Dick, St. Cloud State University
Paul Glover, Henderson State University
Chandler Harriss, Alfred University
Myleea D. Hill, Arkansas State University
Hans Ibold, Indiana University
Daekyung Kim, Idaho State University
Viktoria Kreher, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale
Carole McNall, St. Bonaventure University
Robert M. Ogles, Purdue University
Ted Satterfield, Northwestern Oklahoma State University
Lauren Reichart Smith, Auburn University
Elyse Warford, Georgia State University
Scott Winter, University of Nebraska–Lincoln

SECOND EDITION REVIEWERS

Charles Apple, University of Michigan–Flint
Charlyne Berens, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
William R. Bettler, Hanover College
Joseph S. Clark, Florida State University
David Cundy, Iona College
James Ettema, Northwestern University
Michael Robert Evans, Indiana University
Thom Gencarelli, Manhattan College
Roger George, Bellevue College
Donald G. Godfrey, Arizona State University
David Gore, Eastern Michigan University
Margot Hardenbergh, Fordham University
Chandler Harriss, Alfred University
Karima A. Haynes, Bowie State University
Jeffrey B. Hedrick, Jacksonville State University
Tamara Henry, American University
Patricia Holmes, University of Louisiana–Lafayette
Seok Kang, University of Texas–San Antonio
Greg Lisby, Georgia State University
John Madormo, North Central College
Charles Marsh, University of Kansas
Stephen J. McNeill, Kennesaw State University
Olivia Miller, University of Memphis
James E. Mueller, University of North Texas
xxxii PREFACE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Robert M. Ogles, Purdue University

Selene Phillips, University of Louisville
Marshel D. Rossow, Minnesota State University–Mankato
Ted Satterfield, Northwestern Oklahoma State University
Randall K. Scott, University of Montevallo
Brad Schultz, University of Mississippi
Arthur L. Terry, Bethel University
Mina Tsay, University of Kentucky

FIRST EDITION REVIEWERS

Robert Bellamy, Duquesne University
Gerald Boyer, Maryville University
Mark Braun, Gustavus Adolphus College
Margaret Cassidy, Adelphi University
Steven Chappell, Truman State University
Joseph Chuk, Kutztown University
Vic Costello, Gardner-Webb University
David Gordon, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire
Charlotte Kwok Glaser, College of Notre Dame
Colin Gromatzky, New Mexico State University
Steven Keeler, Cayuga College
Yasue Kuwahara, Northern Kentucky University
Dianne Lamb, George Southern University
Mitchell Land, University of North Texas
Jeremy Harris Lipschultz, University of Nebraska–Omaha
Arthur Lizie, Bridgewater State College
John Lule, Lehigh University
Thomas McPhail, University of Missouri
Anthony Olorunnisola, Pennsylvania State University
Kathleen Olson, Lehigh University
Ronald Roat, University of Southern Indiana
Marshel D. Rossow, Minnesota State University–Mankato
Andris Straumanis, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire
L. Lee Thomas, Doane College
Max Utsler, University of Kansas
 PREFACE xxxiii

About the Authors

John V. Pavlik is a professor in the Department of Journalism and Media Studies at
the School of Communication and Information, Rutgers, the State University of
New Jersey. He is also faculty associate at the Columbia Institute for Tele-
Information. Having published widely on the impact of new technology on journal-
ism, media, and society, Pavlik has also authored more than a dozen computer
software packages for education in journalism and mass communication. He is
codeveloper of the situated documentary, a new type of digital storytelling using
mobile augmented reality. He is former associate dean for research at Northwestern
University in Qatar and a former senior fellow at the San Diego Supercomputer
Center. He was the inaugural Fulbright Distinguished Chair in Media Studies in
2008 at the Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna, Austria. He received his PhD and MA in
mass communication from the University of Minnesota and is a 1978 graduate of
the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Wisconsin
at Madison.

Shawn McIntosh is an assistant professor of digital journalism and communications

in the Department of English/Communications at the Massachusetts College of
Liberal Arts in North Adams, Massachusetts. He was a lecturer in strategic commu-
nication at Columbia University’s School of Continuing Education, where he taught
graduate courses in theories of persuasion, communication ethics, and digital
media, and was an adjunct faculty member at New York University’s School of Pro-
fessional Studies, where he taught public affairs and research methods courses. He
was an adjunct faculty member at Iona College, where he taught online journalism,
website publishing, feature writing, and information visualization. McIntosh was
an editor and freelance writer for ten years for various newspapers and magazines
in the UK, the United States, and Japan. He has taught journalism and strategic
communications in Latvia and Chile on Fulbright specialist awards. His research
interests include social media, citizen journalism, and communication for social
change. He received a BS in microbiology from the University of Idaho and an MS in
journalism from the Graduate School of Journalism at Columbia University.
Converging

Media
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

4 Telephony: Case Study

in Convergence
7 Three Types of
Convergence
12 Implications of
Convergence
23 Mass Communication
in the Digital Age
26 Functions of Mass
Communication
28 Theories of
Communication
31 Television: The Future
of Convergence
 1

Mass Communication
and Its Digital
Transformation

A
crude Seth Rogen comedy seems an unlikely candidate to spark LEARNING OBJECTIVES
an international incident that became a cause célèbre for free
speech, increased fears about cyberwarfare, and led to U.S. sanc- >> Define convergence.
tions against North Korea, but that is exactly what happened in the >> Discuss the main types of
final months of 2014 and into early 2015. This curious chain of events also convergence and their
highlights— often unexpectedly—just how much digital media has trans- implications for
formed mass communication. communication.
North Korea was vocal in its displeasure about the planned Christmas Day re- >> Explain the eight major
lease of the comedy The Interview in which Rogen and James Franco play a pair of changes taking place in
celebrity tabloid-show producers chosen by the CIA to assassinate North Korean communication today
leader Kim Jong-un. because of convergence.
On November 24, Sony Pictures, distributor of the film, learned that its computer >> Define mass communication.
systems had been hacked. In the days that followed, a string of embarrassing emails >> Describe the basic theories
between executives and other sensitive corporate data, including early versions of of mass communication.
screenplays and executive salaries, were leaked to the public. Sony and some cyber- >> Identify the basic components
security experts, including those in the FBI, claim it was a North Korean group, while and functions of the mass-
other experts remain doubtful. communication process.
On December 17, Sony announced the cancellation of the theatrical release of
The Interview after receiving threats that movie theaters showing it would be blown
up, an executive decision widely criticized as a blow to free speech. Another movie
studio scrapped plans to make another anti-North Korean movie, and Paramount
refused to allow the rerelease of Team America: World Police, the 2004 comedic movie
by the makers of South Park. It too made fun of North Korea, and some theaters also
wanted it to show on Christmas Day.
Less than a week later, Sony reversed itself and announced that The Interview
would play in theaters that still supported this and be available for rent on
video-on-demand (VOD). Just before New Year’s, several cable and satellite compa-
nies announced deals with Sony to show The Interview for pay-per-view, on iTunes,
Xbox Video, YouTube Movies, Google Play, and other on-demand services, long

3
4 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

before the usual three-month window between theatrical releases and being shown on
cable or DVD. Between December 24, 2014, and January 4, 2015, The Interview earned
$31 million, making it Sony’s number one online film.1
Several ironies make this fiasco worthy of its own comedy feature film. First, it was not
government that threatened free speech but corporate interests, ranging from Sony Pic-
tures itself to theater owners who refused to show the movie. Second, the United States
issued more sanctions against North Korea in early January, even though cybersecurity
experts were still debating who was actually responsible for the hack. Third, it was re-
vealed that even when confronted with a legacy of artificial constraints from an earlier
mass-communications era, convergence will prevail, especially where the possibility exists
to release a film originally intended for movie theaters on home entertainment gaming
systems or iTunes. Finally, a comedy critically reviewed as mediocre at best attracted many
more viewers—and generated more income—than it likely would have.

The media of mass communication have long played a fundamental role in people’s
lives. The media inform, educate, persuade, entertain, and even—or perhaps
especially—sell. Media can provide personal companionship and public scrutiny.
They can shape perception on matters great and small. They can function in count-
less and increasing ways as extensions of one’s self.
We will examine the nature of mass communication and how it is changing in
the digital and social media age in a global village connected by electronic net-
works. Specific technological advances are producing widespread societal, cul-
tural, and economic changes as journalists, public relations professionals, and
advertising practitioners—in short, content creators and consumers of all kinds—
face a new world of media symbols, processes, and effects.
Few communications technologies better encapsulate the fundamental as-
pects of convergence than two seemingly very different devices: the telephone and
the television. We will first look briefly at the history and evolution of the tele-
phone as a communications device because it touches on almost every important
issue that we are dealing with today regarding the Internet and digital media.
Furthermore, the phone continues to be at the heart of some of the most innova-
tive changes taking place in how we communicate with each other and how we
interact with the world and with media. At the end of the chapter, we will take a
brief look at the television, how it continues to be at the forefront of convergence
and how it is changing our relationship with the media.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Keep a media diary for a day of the media you consume (and
create). Note the sources of your news, the types of online communication you use with
friends and family, and the frequency you are on the phone (talking and texting). What did
you learn from the diary?

Telephony: Case Study in Convergence

Although nowadays we may take the portability of our cell phones for granted,
this mobility has important repercussions for a wide range of activities. First, we
are no longer tied to a specific place when making or answering a phone call. The
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 5

question “Where are you now?” when calling a friend on a landline need not be
asked—your friend is obviously at home; otherwise, he would not have answered
the phone.
By being able to communicate anywhere and anytime, you are able to coordi-
nate with others with greater spontaneity than in the past. Prior to widespread
use of cell phones, if you had a sudden change of plans (or change of heart) regard-
ing a meeting with someone, you had very limited ways to let the person know you
would not show up. Coordinating meeting times and places among several people
in a group took much more effort and did not allow for last-minute changes. Also,
consider how much more we use a phone we carry, as opposed to when you had to
travel to the location of the phone (e.g., home, a phone booth). This makes us more
likely to call or text to share information on the spot. It also can mean, however,
that we are less likely to interact with those immediately around us as we commu-
nicate with distant others.
Our familiarity with the phone belies its revolutionary character from a com-
munications standpoint. Before the phone, people could not talk directly to others
whom they could not physically see. In an emergency, the only way to inform the
proper authorities was to physically go where they were and let them know. The
phone played a major role in changing our patterns of communication with each
other and thereby changing social relations. But it was the telegraph, created more
than thirty years before the telephone, that first revolutionized our speed of
communication.
The telegraph was the first means of electronic communication, using a series
of taps on a keypad that represented dots and dashes to spell out words. These
signals were transmitted over telegraph wires connecting one location to another.
Telegraph operators were specially trained to code and decode messages, and the
result was a thriving new industry that grew during the mid- to late nineteenth
century. This innovative form of instantaneous communication led to entirely
new kinds of business enterprises, including personal messaging services and
“newswire” services such as Reuters and the Associated Press.
Telephones adopted the principles discovered with telegraphy but allowed
voice to be transmitted. Although Alexander Graham Bell is the inventor of record
for the telephone in 1876, others were also working on how to transmit voice elec-
tronically through wires; and there is some evidence that Bell’s invention may
have borrowed liberally from existing patents of inven-
tors trying to build similar devices. Still, after years of
lawsuits, it was Bell who won out. This parallels the many
suits and countersuits seen today as companies claim
patent infringement on Internet or software inventions
and technologies (e.g., Apple’s $1 billion mobile-device
patent infringement victory over Samsung in 2012).2
Regardless of who can claim credit for inventing the
telephone, it was easier for the general public to use than
the telegraph. Even so, it was not immediately thought of
as an interpersonal communication device, largely be-
cause it was expensive and difficult to connect every single
household to the telephone network. This parallels the
“last mile” issue in twenty-first-century broadband, or
high-speed, Internet connections coming directly into As the telephone network spread, telephone lines started to clutter the
homes and touches on the importance of networks in our landscape.
6 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

communication environment. It also highlights how seemingly obvious uses for

new communications technologies become apparent only much later. How they
may be used or adopted is very much an open question that relies not only on the
technology alone but on a range of economic, social, and cultural issues at the time.
Despite the dramatic changes the phone would bring to communications, it
was initially either ignored or thought of as simply a novelty. With subsequent
technological improvements that made it easier to hear and to increase the number
of voices that could be carried on a single wire, the telephone became more widely
accepted. The ring of the telephone was a death knell for most telegraph compa-
nies, just as later media technologies rendered earlier technologies from which
they were built obsolete and changed entire industries in the process.
Initially, especially in Europe, the telephone acted as a kind of early radio. Wealthy
patrons paid a fee to listen to music performances that were sent along the wires, and
some public venues would pipe in sermons or performances for their patrons.3 For
several years in Budapest, Hungary, Telefon Hírmondó delivered news over the tele-
phone, with subscribers dialing in at certain times to listen to someone reading the
news of the day. A similar service was also tried in 1911 in Newark, New Jersey, but
lasted for only a few months before closing.
Delivering news over telephone wires therefore is not something new with the
Internet, and it also shows a public desire for information and entertainment “on
demand,” long before video recorders or TiVo. What was still missing at that time
was an economic model that could support a business such as telephone newspa-
pers. This issue is commonly dealt with today by media companies that need to see
a return on investments before they are willing to experiment with new ways of
doing business.
The decision whether to make the telephone a government-run agency or a
private enterprise was an important crossroad, and the choices made in Europe
(government) differed from those made in the United States (private enterprise).
Even into the twenty-first century, these choices have had profound repercussions
for the actual and perceived development, use, and control of the Internet. And it
continues to be the case that new technologies often inherit the baggage of politi-
cal or social decisions made much earlier.
Leaving the early development of American telephone systems to private en-
terprise resulted in many incompatibilities among competing systems. Local tel-
ephone companies sold their own telephones, which would often not work with
other telephone systems. This might have prevented a person from calling some-
body who used a competing phone provider. The issue of compatibility between
systems is still seen today in the form of competing computer operating systems,
gaming systems, Internet browsers, and other electronic devices, including ebooks
and tablet computers.
During the formative years of the telephone industry, the U.S. government
sought to eliminate such incompatibilities in the phone network by granting one
company, AT&T, a monopoly on the telephone system. This, too, had important re-
percussions for later developments in telecommunications. Just as the monopoly
telegraph company, Western Union, had done in the late 1800s when it became ap-
parent the telephone was a threat to its business, AT&T in the 1960s and 1970s tried
to hamper the development of a new kind of network that would potentially hurt its
business. The network needed to develop the Internet was not compatible with the
AT&T system. Even though AT&T realized the new network was more efficient, the
telephone company feared losing dominance and initially refused to adopt it.
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 7

Issues of government regulation and private enterprise, monopoly powers,

and business interests at the expense of the public interest are still very much
with us today. How much we pay for services, what companies charge and how
they set up payment plans, and a variety of other business decisions are influenced
by the laws and regulations that have been created, sometimes as a result of indus-
try lobbying efforts.
Just as payment amounts and methods may influence how we use the tele-
phone, social and cultural factors play an equally important role in determining
whether a technology is adopted. Initially, people do not know how to act or inter-
act with a new technology. Consider the classic story of the farmer, for example,
who in the early days of the telephone went to town to place an order for supplies.
The store clerk told him to place his order directly with the company over the
phone, so the farmer dutifully wrote out his order, rolled it up carefully, and then
jammed the rolled note into one of the holes of the phone handset and waited.
If this seems too silly to be true, recall your own reac-
tions when you have to use a friend’s phone or an unfa-
miliar TV remote control. The variety of functions seen in
phones today stretches its very definition compared to
even twenty years ago. Young people today in much of
the world would consider a phone that does not take pic-
tures or play video games or provide an address book a
dinosaur. In short, the phone continues to evolve as a
multifunctional communications device. The so-called
smartphone connects us to our friends and to the world
of information and entertainment through the Internet
via almost 1 billion mobile applications (apps). It provides
a nearly seamless interface between interpersonal and
mass communication, as we access via a favorite app a
review of a restaurant and then subsequently snap a photo
Today’s cell phones typically have a variety of functions that have
of our meal to share via Instagram. We might even wire- nothing to do with the traditional functions of the phone.
lessly post our own review on the spot, after which it can
be seen by potentially millions of people worldwide.
All these aspects of the development and use of the phone—ranging from the
technical, legal, and regulatory to the economic, social, and cultural—touch on
the notion of media convergence. But as we will see, convergence is a debated con-
cept and has multiple layers of meaning. As we explore this phenomenon, we will
unpack its many layers and reveal how they encompass some of the most dramatic
transformations taking place in communications today.

Three Types of Convergence

Convergence is known broadly as the coming together of computing, telecom- convergence
munications, and media in a digital environment. It is important to study and un- The coming together of computing,
derstand convergence because what might first seem like wholly technological or telecommunications, and media in
media issues profoundly influence our economic, social, and cultural lives as well. a digital environment.
There is some disagreement among scholars over a single definition of conver-
gence, an indication of the far-reaching consequences of the changes taking place
in mass communication today. Indeed, many transformative forces for which we
have still to develop adequate descriptions are in play, changes whose effects are
8 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

also uncertain. For now, the term “convergence” seems to come closest to encom-
passing many of these forces. Some argue that convergence has already occurred,
and in many respects you could say that is true. But we believe that convergence is
an ongoing and dynamic phenomenon that continues to shape the world of tradi-
tional media.
We can look at three main categories of convergence as in Figure 1-1 as ways
to frame our understanding of the changes taking place today in the media indus-
tries: technological convergence, economic convergence, and cultural convergence.
As you will see, these three categories actually overlap in many respects.

TECHNOLOGICAL CONVERGENCE
Perhaps the most easily visible aspect of convergence is the rise of digital media
and online communication networks. Technological convergence refers to specific
types of media, such as print, audio, and video, all converging into a digital media
form. Such types of convergence are becoming increasingly apparent in news or-
ganizations, for example, where today’s journalists often need to be able to tell
stories in text, audio, video, and even interactive media.

FIGURE 11 Three Types of Convergence and Their Influence on Media

Technological Convergence

Media content changes

Media type changes
Media use changes
Media distribution changes
Media audience changes
Media profession changes

Cultural Attitude/value Media organization Economic

Convergence changes changes Convergence

Digital media often change the very nature of their traditional counterparts
and affect how we use and perceive them. For example, although you can look at
an ebook on a Kindle as simply digital print, the fact is that a Kindle ebook alters
the reading experience. One obvious way is that because of its storage capacity,
you can easily carry many books in one device, allowing you to move back and
forth between books or for cross-referencing passages quickly. Furthermore, you
can change the text size to make reading more comfortable, look up words, anno-
tate and index sections, and even purchase new books on the spot through a wire-
less Internet connection. Precisely because users can alter the look and size of the
text they are reading, the notion of page numbers also becomes meaningless on
a  Kindle—much to the chagrin of students who realize they need to cite
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 9

quotations taken from a book. You can even share your high-
lighted passages with others, making book reading a collabora-
tive experience.
Most of these activities, such as looking up a word you don’t
know in a dictionary, already occur with printed books. The sig-
nificant difference, however, is that a single device now allows
for all these actions, eliminating the need to carry a separate
dictionary or permanently mark a book. Activities that used to
be separate or cumbersome are now easier and folded into the
media experience. Not simply a matter of convenience, these
changes fundamentally alter how we interact with our media.
We may be far more likely to look up a word on a Kindle than if
we had to walk to the shelf to get the dictionary, for example.
The music, television, and film industries, which we will look at Ebook readers such as the Kindle and the Nook have
transformed the reading habits of people around the world,
in later chapters, provide other examples of how our media use not to mention the book industry. CRITICAL THINKING
changes thanks in large part to changes in technology. QUESTIONS: How do you think ebooks are influencing the
This form of convergence, although highly relevant for to- notion of books and reading? Are ebooks better or more
useful than traditional books? Which would you rather read,
day’s communications professionals, is not the only way to and why?
think of convergence. The changes that come from new tech-
nologies also affect business models and established industries,
which often see the upstarts as threats to their dominance. These fears can be
valid, as sometimes these new companies become larger and more powerful than
established ones. Google, founded in 1998, is a case in point. Because of the im-
portance of networks in today’s world, it is often advantageous for a company to
control not only media content but the means of distributing that content through
the networks, which is part of what economic convergence is about. In August
2015 Google itself announced that it would change its company name to Alphabet,
with Google simply being one part of a corporation that exists in many other fields
besides just media and technology.

ECONOMIC CONVERGENCE
Economic convergence refers to the merging of Internet or telecommunications
companies with traditional media companies, such as Comcast with NBC Univer-
sal. Traditional media companies have grown fewer and much larger in the past
fifty years through mergers and acquisitions, a process we define as consolidation, consolidation
not convergence. Economic convergence occurs when formerly independent media A process whereby traditional
enterprises further the success of one another because they fall under the same media companies have grown
corporate umbrella. Entertainment companies may own news stations; large cor- fewer and much larger in the past
porations traditionally outside of the media business, such as GE, may purchase fifty years through mergers and
acquisitions.
media companies like NBC. This can result in conflicts of interest when corporate
parents don’t want some aspects of their businesses covered in the news or when
a news outlet gives prominent coverage to a movie produced by a studio also owned
by the corporate parent.
Economic convergence also has important repercussions for the nature of the
media, telecommunications, and computing industries. A telecommunications
company that also owns a media company can speed the transmission of its own
content and slow the content from competing companies, thus influencing cus-
tomers to watch more of its own material. It could also control the type of content
its customers see by blocking material from certain websites.
10 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

MEDIA PIONEERS
Steve Jobs
The cover of Time magazine on February 15, 1982, featured convergence of tele-
26-year-old Steve Jobs as symbolic of America’s risk takers, communications and
one who “practically singlehandedly created the personal the Internet. Unlike ex-
computer industry.” Jobs personalized his high-tech isting tablets, the iPad
microprocessor devices by having form meet function (2010) enveloped
with eye-catching yet minimalist designs that placed the computing, telecommu-
digital world at the user’s fingertips. nications, digital pub-
His singular talent was not necessarily for invention but lishing, and even
for recognizing how to create what he envisioned from what television and movies.
was available and then finding talented people to do so. In Jobs ran his corpora-
1979, at Xerox’s PARC facility in Palo Alto, California, Jobs saw tion as a closed system,
the future of personal computing—a graphic user interface convinced that only Apple could ensure the quality and in-
operated by a mouse, the distinguishing feature of what tegrity of its products. Although, for example, he encour-
eventually developed into the Macintosh computer in 1984.4 aged anyone to develop apps for use on Apple’s mobile
Similarly, decades later, Jobs repurposed for the iPhone a devices, such apps are made available only with Apple’s
lightweight, damage-resistant glass that Corning had approval. Jobs’s business model delivered Apple from
created but never placed in production. near bankruptcy in 1997, and made it the most valuable
Not content to create devices that manipulated the company in the United States shortly before his death
existing world, Jobs changed the world so that people in 2011. 5
could better use the tools he created. The iPod (2001) did Jobs was fond of saying he did not believe in giving cus-
not introduce any radical new technology, but the tomers what they wanted; he gave them what they did not
accompanying creation of iTunes forever changed the know they needed.6 In his mind’s eye, that need was digital
music industry. Cellular technology was hardly new when convergence made possible with smart devices that almost
the iPhone (2007) brought about a transformative anyone could use and enjoy.

The Internet is not causing this type of behavior, as numerous historical ex-
amples exist of media owners censoring content or blocking public access. But
what makes this issue more significant and prominent is the combination of con-
solidated media giants and ever larger audiences. Despite the explosion of chan-
nels and media content, our choices may be narrower than they appear. Consider
the increasingly frequent temporary blackouts of channels as cable companies and
media conglomerates fight over television licensing fees and let their agreements
lapse. Over 3 million households on the East Coast missed the first two games of
the 2010 World Series as Cablevision and Fox Networks fought over the terms of a
new licensing agreement and Fox channels were suspended for Cablevision sub-
scribers. In late 2014 and into early 2015, satellite provider DISH Network stopped
carrying Fox News and Fox Business channels because of disagreements over li-
censing charges.
As both sides accuse the other of working in bad faith and both sides try to gain
public sympathy through advertisements, websites, and social media, determining
a winner in the court of public opinion is difficult. In a cultural shift, the relation-
ship between the audience or public and media producers is also changing.
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 11

CULTURAL CONVERGENCE
Culture refers to the values, beliefs, and practices shared by a group of people. It
may refer to a population at large, such as Americans, or to various subgroups
within a larger group who may share certain ethnic, social, or professional tradi-
tions and practices, such as Irish Americans, video gamers, or corporate attorneys.
A powerful aspect of cultural convergence occurs through the globalization of
media content when, for example, an HBO series such as Sex and the City becomes
wildly popular among female office workers in Thailand; or when a Mexican tele-
novela, or soap opera, finds avid mass audiences in Russia. The popularity of such
shows across a variety of nations speaks to some aspect they possess that foreign
audiences identify with or aspire to, indicating that there may be more in common
between a young professional woman in Bangkok and one in New York City than
one might imagine. In the context of cultural convergence, a significant concern is
the impact of global media on multiculturalism, or the diversity of culture, espe-
cially internationally.
But we can also look at cultural convergence from the perspective of how we
consume, create, and distribute media content. The shift from an audience that
was forced to be largely passive and silent, simply consuming content produced by
large-scale media companies to a public that can now produce and share content

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Crying in a BMW
Television dating shows have become very popular in
China, offering viewers a titillating mix of sharp tongues,
attractive young women, discussions about sex, and
rampant materialism. In the most popular show, If You
Are the One, produced by Jiangsu TV, a female contestant
won notoriety when asked by a bachelor if she would
like to ride on his bicycle with him. She said she would
“rather cry in the back of a BMW” than smile on the back
of a bicycle.
Another female contestant told the panel that if
anyone other than her boyfriend wanted to hold her
hand it would cost the person $30,000.7 These kinds of
comments—combined with on-screen and offscreen
scandals—have drawn the ire of China’s television cen- state-run television allowed commercial stations in the
sors who claim shows like these are corrupting China’s 1990s, it may have created a dragon it cannot now fully
youth with vulgarity and crass materialistic values. As a control. Periodic attempts to set strict guidelines that dis-
result, some shows were canceled, and those that stayed courage materialism among Chinese youth have had
on the air toned down the more flamboyant aspects of doubtful effect. In April 2012, Chinese media reported
the programs. that several people were arrested for their involvement
The popular dating shows form part of China’s bur- in a scheme in which a 17-year-old teenager donated a
geoning commercial television industry. When China’s kidney because he wanted to buy an iPad and an iPhone.8
 12 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

with others cheaply and easily is one of the major themes of this book and a crucial
component of cultural convergence.
Although mass communication will continue, in the sense that media compa-
nies and others will continue to produce messages for large audiences, a significant
trend involves more personalized and frequent messages tailored to the needs of
individuals. Furthermore, what was traditionally considered interpersonal com-
munication, such as email, can also be widely distributed by individuals through
online networks, making the dividing line between interpersonal
and mass communication increasingly hard to distinguish.
The ability of companies to better target people with personal-
ized advertising and messages by tracking their online activities
raises important issues of privacy, consumer rights, and media
business economic models. Whether people will become more
active in media production and more engaged in civic or political
activities than in the past remains open to debate, with some schol-
ars taking an increasingly critical look at how media corporations
and companies in general are turning online public participation to
their advantage. In one future, there is an engaged public who uses
digital media and online networks to further interactivity and de-
mocracy prevails; and in another, there are established media con-
glomerates and other powerful economic forces that hijack public
interests for their own ends. Such tensions and concerns will shape
Digital technology has allowed more people to create the nature of the Internet and digital media use far into the twenty-
professional-quality videos and other media content. first century.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Discuss ways in which audiences can engage with each other
through social media and with media organizations. Do you think this has made audiences
more active? Why or why not?

Implications of Convergence
Whether an Internet-connected world will ultimately and fundamentally im-
prove  society is impossible to say; yet, for better and for worse, digital media
have  changed and will continue to transform the relationship between mass-
communication industries and the public. Media organizations face many chal-
lenges, but so do media consumers as the nature of our media environment
changes. Some general trends can be discerned that will provide a better perspec-
tive on how our digital-media use is changing our media world and, by extension,
our social and cultural worlds.
Clearly, the changes brought about by convergence have had dramatic implica-
tions. Within the larger framework of the three types of convergence, these changes
affect eight different areas, recurring themes addressed throughout this book:
1. Media organization
2. Media type
3. Media content
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 13

4. Media use
5. Media distribution
6. Media audience
7. Media profession
8. Attitudes and values

MEDIA ORGANIZATION
In the world that predated convergence, media content was created and published
or broadcast on predetermined schedules by centralized media organizations in
which a central unit or individual controls content production and distribution as
well as marketing and other functions. A newspaper was printed and distributed
daily or weekly; a television show appeared at a certain time on a certain day. The
economics of the media system throughout most of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries heavily favored a mass-production model leveraging centralized control
to produce efficiencies. Only large companies could bear the costs of content crea-
tion, production, marketing, and distribution.
Internet-based media can be less centralized, partly because many of the as-
sociated costs have been greatly reduced. Of course, movies, television shows, and
many other types of mass-produced media still rely on the old production and
distribution models; but now new marketing avenues on the Internet make it
easier to mass distribute media products, as illustrated by the The Interview and
Sony Pictures example at the beginning of the chapter.
Unlike public service media, most media companies throughout the world op-
erate to make a profit. Advertising is one of the main sources of revenue for these
organizations, and advertisers today are spending less in traditional media and
more online. The gap is beginning to narrow, although many media companies are
still not making up the difference with online advertising. This has increased the
financial pressure, especially in print media, which, having seen the largest drop
in advertising, has led to layoffs, reduced printing and pages of newspapers and
magazines, closings, and buyouts of struggling companies.
Concentration of media ownership, or consolidation, was a growing trend
even before digital media. Convergence is in some ways fueling media consolida-
tion by leading traditional media giants such as Time Warner to join with a former
online colossus such as America Online, giving rise in 2001 to the short-lived AOL
Time Warner. In 2010, AOL, long jettisoned from Time Warner, bought one of the
most popular blogs on the Web, The Huffington Post, yet another illustration of how
the boundaries between traditional technology companies and media companies
have blurred.
The trend is clear: Analog and digital media are rapidly being consolidated
into the hands of a few very large, very powerful, and very rich owners, an eco-
nomic structure referred to as an oligopoly. These media enterprises are increas- oligopoly
ingly likely to be part of large, global media organizations publicly owned and An economic structure in which a
accountable to shareholders, whose main interest is the financial bottom line. few very large, very powerful, and
When traditional telecommunications companies, such as Comcast, join with very rich owners control an
large media companies, such as NBC Universal, it gives the companies a tremen- industry or collection of related
industries.
dous centralized control over what access and content is available to media con-
sumers, which is problematic.
 14 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Related to changes in media organization and structure are changes in the

types of media or ways in which we get our media content. The seemingly insignifi-
cant decision to watch a television program on a TV on a specific day and time or
on demand on a mobile device actually has significant consequences for media
organizations, advertising revenues, and audiences.

MEDIA TYPE
Just what constitutes a television or radio receiver, or TV or radio programming,
is in a state of flux. Once, it was simple. Radio programming was what a listener
heard on a radio. Today, however, radio stations can transmit their programming
via Internet or satellite and listeners can tune in via computers or smartphones.
Moreover, these radio station websites can include images, graphics, text, and
video, and listeners can choose what they want to hear or see when they want. The
audience can sometimes even choose how they want to get content, such as watch-
ing the video, listening to the podcast, or reading the story. A growing number of
print and radio reporters trained in digital video shooting and editing can now be
“VJs,” or video journalists, webcasting their stories visually.
Beyond decisions to either watch a video or read a story, defining media types
entails consideration of vaster concerns such as media empires built on owning
certain kinds of media and complex governmental laws that regulate different
media industries and media ownership. In the United States, for example, print
media enjoy more free-speech protections than the more tightly regulated elec-
tronic broadcast media, and cable providers are treated differently than broadcast
networks. This raises the question of how text on the Internet should be treated—
does it have the same First Amendment protections as its print counterpart be-
cause it is simply words? Or should it be treated as electronic media because it is
delivered electronically? And now, as more people watch TV on mobile devices,
what are the responsibilities of the Internet provider in all of this, as simply the
channel and not the creator of the content itself? Many of these questions have
yet to be settled.

MEDIA CONTENT
Stories told in a digital, online medium can make connections with other types of
content much more easily than in any other medium. This is done primarily
hyperlink through the use of hyperlinks, clickable pointers to other online content. Online
Clickable pointer to other online
interactive advertisements encourage visitors to click on the ads and go to the
content. sponsor’s website, or play a game, or take a survey. In entertainment program-
ming, hyperlinked content allows a viewer to explore a story in a nonlinear narra-
tive, whose outcome may be determined by the user’s choice of links.
On-demand content has become increasingly popular. In the traditional
media world, the publisher or broadcaster set the schedule for news, entertain-
ment, and marketing information. Children growing up in an on-demand media
world of YouTube, podcasting, and digital video recorders (DVRs) may not readily
understand why the same options don’t always exist while listening to the radio or
watching a traditional television channel that has no on-demand features. The
changes have happened so fast and been so extensive that new terms have been
created to highlight the differences between a generation that has grown up with
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 15

digital technologies and those that were born in the analog era. Digital natives digital native
are the postmillennial generation that have only known digital and social media, A term coined in 2001 by author
whereas digital immigrants are older generations that may also use digital Marc Prensky for a member of a
media, but that generally have more trouble adapting in varying degrees to the younger generation that has
digital media world. grown up with and is consequently
very comfortable using digital
Digitization, the process that makes media computer readable, is transform-
media and adapting to rapid
ing both how and when media organizations distribute their content. Delivery no technological changes.
longer occurs solely through traditional channels but also via the Internet, satel-
lites, mobile devices, and a host of other digital technologies. Increasingly, content digital immigrant
is available twenty-four hours a day, with news organizations updating news con-
An individual who grew up in the
tinuously and for a worldwide audience. analog media era and who
Digital technology is similarly transforming the production cycle and process generally has more trouble
as illustrated by Figure 1-2. In fact, the transformation may be even deeper in adapting to new digital
terms of media-content production. Whether in Hollywood motion pictures, tel- technologies, despite perhaps a
desire to use and understand them.
evision shows or news, books, magazines, newspapers, or online, producing media
content has rapidly become almost an entirely digital process. Shot with digital digitization
cameras and edited on computers, movies can be sent by high-speed Internet to
digital movie theaters. Reporters working for television, radio, newspapers, or any The process that makes media
computer readable.
other news operation capture their raw material with digital devices as well, edit-
ing their stories digitally. Even book authors typically compose on a computer,
with digital words remaining the norm throughout the production process, being
read on e-readers, smartphones, or tablets.
Digital media are challenging our understanding of media content as static or wiki
unchangeable. This is especially evident in a wiki, a website that can be edited by Website that lets anyone add, edit,
anyone. Wikis have grown in popularity, revealing the demand among Web users or delete pages and content.

FIGURE 12 “Media Iceberg”

Typing on paper, Physical products

taking film photographs (printed material,
or movie film videotapes, film, etc.)

Analog

Digital

Online distribution of text,

audio, video, photography

Page layout and design

text editing
video/audio editing

Writing on computer
digital recording video,
film or audio
16 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

for such a function. The wiki owes much of its success to Wikipedia, where the
stuffy and authoritative encyclopedia article became a collaborative hybrid of en-
cyclopedia and breaking news updated by users.
Of course, content was never actually unchangeable; it just seemed that way.
A book could be reprinted as a new edition, yet for most readers the changes be-
tween editions were practically speaking impossible to discern. An online book is
a much more fluid and dynamic document, with discussion forums on book mate-
rial incorporated into the contents, ongoing online discussions between the
author and readers, and interactions among readers.
Similarly, mash-ups of existing media have become common thanks to digital
editing tools for music and video. Any popular item produced from mass media
(e.g., advertisements, movie trailers, music videos) has the potential of being
quickly transformed into a number of user-generated parodies or send-ups, most
done simply for the fun of creating something rather than for commercial gain.
Consider the many mash-up videos of Canadian singer-songwriter Carly Rae
Jepsen’s 2012 smash hit “Call Me Maybe.” Online discussions and mash-ups
exemplify increasing audience interaction and participation, one of many changes
in media use.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Discuss any media content you have created in the past week
or so (such as posting pictures to social media, forwarding videos or stories, etc.) and what
happened with that media. Who saw the content you posted, and did it reach a wider au-
dience than you thought it would?

MEDIA USE
The pervasiveness of the media system, expanded exponentially by modern global
satellite communications, entails unprecedented access to mass communication.
Fewer and fewer places on the globe are truly isolated, even famously remote and
physically inaccessible locations. In May 1996, climber and guide Rob Hall was
trapped high on Mt. Everest for more than a day after a sudden storm hit. Facing
certain death—unable to descend and unable to be rescued—Hall was nonethe-
less capable of speaking to his pregnant wife in New Zealand by satellite phone.9
A 24/7 media age, which had begun to emerge even before the advent of the
Internet, has arrived. This environment has several implications for industries
and for consumers, how we use media, and what we expect from them. Media
companies have to find content to fill the time, and thus we are seeing more encore
performances of hit shows or movies on channels like TNT, showing the same
movie two or three times in a row and on multiple nights. This practice fills pro-
gramming time while allowing viewers greater scheduling flexibility.
Portable media devices and flat-screen technologies mean that we can take
our media with us and access them in previously inaccessible places. Video dis-
plays in elevators or at checkout registers are two examples of how advertisers are
using technology to reach captive audiences. Playing video games or watching
videos on smartphones make media even more ubiquitous. Research shows we live
in a multiscreen world where the tablet has begun to replace the personal com-
puter or laptop.10 Although the TV is still the first screen or the most used, it is
often employed in combination with a tablet or a smartphone, a phenomenon
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 17

called “the third or fourth screen,” depending on

the relative position of the movie screen in terms
of public use.
Pervasive mass communication means
better access to entertainment, information, and
news—in theory. It can also mean that media or-
ganizations can turn us into super-consumers of
media of questionable social or civic value. One
might, for example, question the value of viewing
a lowbrow reality show on your mobile phone
while riding the bus or spending hours at home
watching funny cat videos on YouTube.
All the activities mentioned here are predi-
cated on the broad assumption that individuals
have ready access to computers, a broadband In-
ternet (wired or Wi-Fi) connection, and the
knowledge and skills to use them. Many in ad-
vanced, industrialized countries take these as In Switzerland, Secretary of State John Kerry and his team huddle around a tablet
givens, but these digital advantages are far from to watch President Obama announce from the White House a new agreement
with Iran on its nuclear program. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: How
universal, even within developed countries. important is a tablet or mobile device for your news consumption? Does digital
Better Internet access has neither arrived portability help keep you better informed?
equally to all nor allowed everyone to benefit
equally from that access. People in lower socioec-
onomic groups in industrialized countries have lagged in almost every category of
Internet access. The high cost of telecommunication services, including broadband
Internet, keeps many from being able to develop the skills and knowledge that can
help them participate fully in society.
Although still far behind dozens of other countries, the United States has
been making slight gains in high-speed Internet penetration and affordability of
available services, as well as Internet speed. In 2013, the United States ranked
thirty-third in terms of Internet speed, trailing Canada, but in 2015 it had moved
up to twenty-seventh, slightly behind Norway. Even so, Americans’ average Inter-
net speed was less than a third that of first-ranked Singapore.11 (See Figure 1-3.)

FIGURE 13 Average Consumer Download Speed by Country (2015)

Speed (Mbps)

1. Singapore 119.69
2. Hong Kong 104.12
3. Japan 81.24
4. Romania 75.03
5. Lithuania 63.3
6. Sweden 60.07
7. South Korea 59.16
8. Saint Pierre and Miquelon 51.23
9. Netherlands 51
10. Macau 50.71
27. United States 36.22

Source: Ookla Speedtest, Household Download Index, http://www.netindex.com/download/allcountries/

 18 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

MEDIA DISTRIBUTION
Content is much more fluid, dynamic, and rapidly transmitted around the globe in
an online environment. The expansive reach of global media and instantaneous
communications is not without its perils, however, for events in distant places
can have far-reaching repercussions. False rumors about political or company
leaders can demonstrate the power and danger of rapid global communication. For
instance, a fake tweet in spring 2013 from a hacked Associated Press account
claiming President Obama had been injured in an explosion temporarily wiped
out $130 billion in the stock market.
The Internet enables audiences around the world to participate in a dialog
about global events and issues, bringing individuals separated by thousands of
miles and various political and cultural boundaries into direct contact with each
other. It is not clear what the net effect of this sea change in communication will
be, but it is clear the foundation is potentially being laid for a more connected and
engaged global public. Increased connectivity and engagement does not necessar-
ily mean more rational discussion or civilized debate though, especially as people
discover that what they may consider cultural common sense others may consider
heresy. Consider the vitriol displayed in many discussion groups, even among
people of the same culture but whose opinions differ.
Audiences are increasingly active in their communication with each other and
with the creators of mass-communication content, a trend that can decrease cor-
viral marketing porate power as it increases consumer control. Through viral marketing, the
Promoting a product, service, or
online equivalent of word-of-mouth advertising, a popular website, product, or
brand online through word of piece of content can rapidly reach millions of online users, all without corporate
mouth, usually via online discussion promotion or advertising dollars. The success of peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing
groups, chats, and emails. programs demonstrates how an Internet audience can shift the balance of power
from media organizations to consumers, even though those organizations created
peer-to-peer (P2P) and provided that content in the first place.
The basis of file-sharing services, a Digital media make it easier than ever for the public to create and distribute
computer communications model media content, whether it is user-generated content (UGC) such as an original
and network whose computers are
drawing done via illustration software, an animation or video, or a song sampled and
considered equal peers who can
send, store, and receive information mixed from current hits by famous recording artists. Writing and music have led the
equally well. way in consumer-created content—especially music, where remixes of previously
recorded (and copyrighted) material are common. This is not to say that the average
user-generated person now has the same ability to produce and create a hit song as a major recording
content (UGC) label, for most individuals lack the marketing and promotion resources that a re-
Content created by the general cording label has at its disposal; but the basic capability of producing and distribut-
public for distribution by digital ing at least exists. Media companies have failed to control the channels of media
media. distribution as they once did, and the Internet continues to threaten their business
models. This has led to important changes in how consumers view and use content
while changing the relationship between media companies and their audiences.

MEDIA AUDIENCE
Traditional mass communication is largely one way, from the sender of a message
to the receiver. Relatively large, heterogeneous, and anonymous audiences have
relatively few means by which to communicate either with each other on a mass
scale or with the creators and publishers. Audiences in the age of convergence can
now more easily and quickly communicate with each other and with those who
create and publish mass-communication content via social media, email, online
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 19

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
User-Generated Content: Creativity or Piracy?
With the ease of copying and altering digital content, almost Yet copyright remains a cornerstone of media indus-
anyone can remake media content. Two or three popular tries, a fundamental way for media companies to generate
songs from different artists can be combined into a new revenues. Most media industries, especially in entertain-
song; an artist’s paintings can be manipulated digitally and ment, would be hard pressed to envision a world with no
mixed with one’s own work. Is this kind of content creation copyright that would still allow them to create the kind of
original art, or is it copyright infringement because it relies on content they do.
preexisting art owned by someone else? Creative Commons, a non-profit orga-
What are the ethical and legal obligations nization, has made a range of “copyleft”
of the creator who uses others’ works? contracts for content creators that help
Some argue that previous works en- ensure creative works remain in the public
countered by an artist will influence domain. Under the various contracts, con-
almost any creative endeavor and that tent creators allow their content to be used
digital content simply facilitates mash-ups. by anyone for free but with certain stipula-
They argue that copyright—essentially a tions, such as they must be credited or the
government-granted monopoly to the con- content can be used only if it isn’t sold. An-
tent creator (or owner of the copyright, as is other common stipulation within the com-
often the case with recording labels where munity is that people using the content
the artists don’t own the copyright)—is must allow it to remain free for public use.
anachronistic in the digital age and increasingly stifles cre- Visit the Creative Commons website and click on the
ativity through steep licensing or copyright fees. Copyright “Find CC-licensed works” link (under the Explore heading).
reduces the amount of creative material in the public domain, Search for some content of interest, such as “hip hop” via
thus reducing the pool of works freely available. SoundCloud (Music) or ccMixter (Music). What do you find?

forums, and other interactive media. In addition, they can create the content
themselves and reach far larger audiences with less expense than was possible
with traditional media. They are generally not anonymous because they can be
tracked through user names or IP addresses.
Audiences aren’t willing to wait for the evening news or the next day’s news-
paper for developments in a breaking story. They can get their information and
entertainment from literally thousands of sources around the world. Audiences
are no longer content to sit back and listen in silence to what the media report;
they actively seek, relay, and question the most recent information on social
media, blogs, instant messaging, and other informal communication channels.
There have been cases of employees finding out about looming company layoffs
through websites hours before the company officially announced its plans, and
military family members learning of the death of a loved one in combat through
social media before the military informed the family.
Digital media do not cause people to become active media producers, called
“produsers” by some media scholars in an attempt to capture how we now use produsers
and produce (not just consume) content. Nevertheless, digital media provide Audiences who no longer are
people who are so inclined with ready tools to produce media far more cheaply and simply consumers but also
easily than with analog alternatives. Active audiences have two important impli- produce content.
cations for media companies: They may compete for the limited time of target au-
diences, and they may become more critical consumers of mass communication,
which is relevant to media literacy, the topic covered in Chapter 2.
 20 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

As produsers, people learn to become more critical of the media and to raise
questions about the quality of the news, information, and entertainment they re-
ceive. The channels available through interactive media let the public speak to a
general audience and directly to traditional media producers, thereby imparting a
sense of shared experience, even perhaps community, as people see that others
may feel as they do; others also found a particular advertisement offensive or con-
sidered a certain show rather lame. An interactive public is more likely to be an
active public, organizing and working together on common problems. Those who
have developed trusting relationships through interaction are less likely to per-
ceive themselves as anonymous faces in a crowd or isolated individuals who have
no voice.
Risks accompany these changes, however. Actively choosing the media you
want to see, hear, or read can narrow the scope of news or entertainment that you
would the late Michael Dertouzos, former MIT Media Lab director called the tai-
loring of news to one’s specific interests “The Daily Me.” Some scholars worry that
this phenomenon could fragment audiences into small groups of like-minded in-
dividuals who avoid interacting with other groups and who select only news and
information that reinforces their beliefs and values. Although digital media can
easily accelerate media fragmentation, a trend already evident in analog media,
personalization and localization of news does have potential benefits by allowing
the public to get the most relevant and engaging content for them as individuals
while becoming better informed about current events.

MEDIA PROFESSION
Obviously, all the changes that convergence has brought to mass communication
will also change the way communications professionals do their jobs. Just as digi-
tal media absorbed traditional print, video, and audio, divisions between print
and electronic journalists, and between advertising and public relations practi-
tioners, will fade. In addition to writing effectively, more newsrooms expect re-
porters to use video and audio to tell stories. To better reach and persuade
audiences, those in advertising and public relations find themselves increasingly
using tools that were previously the sole domain of the other profession.
To take advantage of digital media, new skills will have to be learned, and it
will be more important than ever not to abandon the fundamental principles and
ethics of each profession in the inexorable march toward the digital realm. This is
no easy order given how corporate parents can exert pressure to blur the lines be-
citizen journalism
tween news and entertainment or news and promotion.
The gathering and sharing of news Giving the audience a chance to respond to and interact with journalists as
and information by public citizens, well as provide their own news coverage in the form of citizen journalism is an-
particularly via mobile and social
media, sometimes via traditional
other important development in journalism today. A mistake in a story can be
media. publicly countered, corrected in the discussion section of the story, and then incor-
porated in a revised version. Citizens can provide news content or report on stories
of relevance to their locales that big news operations may not deem newsworthy.

ATTITUDES AND VALUES

Changes in audience interactions have had repercussions for companies in general
and media companies in particular. People have come to expect a certain degree of
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 21

transparency in their communications with each other and with leading organiza-
tions, including media organizations. A growing number of cases that exposed
organizations deceiving the public have damaged their reputations. One such ex-
ample involved Edelman, a global PR firm that financed the “Wal-Marting Across
America” blog in 2006. The blog was ostensibly written by a couple traveling
around the country who liked to park their recreational vehicle at Wal-Mart be-
cause of the free services offered to RVers. Of course, they had nothing but good
things to say about Wal-Mart and its employees. When the truth was revealed that
Edelman, whose client was Wal-Mart, was actually paying the couple, the ethics of
such a blog, which failed to state who was funding it, were hotly debated.
Because most people on the Web do not physically make contact with each
other and know one another only through their online interactions and communi-
cation, establishing a sense of trust has become crucial. A growing number of
reputation systems aid users in this effort, such as rankings on Amazon or eBay
and “karma points” on Slashdot, a popular technology news and discussion web-
site. Managing an online reputation is serious business for companies as well as
for individuals. Imagine the potential impact of bad reviews on eBay for someone
trying to make a living by selling items on the site. Companies are also vulnerable
and can fall prey to disinformation campaigns, which makes monitoring rival
blogs and online discussions important.
Reputation and transparency rely on digital relationships founded on trust
and respect. Media companies that do not realize this will suffer in the long run.
For many, it means a shift in corporate policies or philosophies and a loss of the
control they have enjoyed through much of the mass-communications era. Conven-
tional wisdom among some executives is that employees are more willing to spend
company time doing personal things, like shopping online, than they were in the
past. But, on the other hand, companies, which also expect employees to stay longer
at work or to answer business emails while at home or on vacation, must accept
that the blurring of company time and private time is a large-scale trend.
The convergence of digital media has led to confusion over our traditional
notions of privacy, both for individuals and for companies. Although privacy laws
in a number of cases have clearly been violated, even by traditional standards,
often what is acceptable or even legal and what is not is still a source of confusion.
A person writing a blog, for instance, may consider it a private journal. So if a po-
tential employer mentions inappropriate postings during a job interview, she may
be angered by what feels like an invasion of her privacy. Similarly, information
that always has been public but too cumbersome to retrieve, such as property
deeds or police arrests, can now be easy to find online.
One component of privacy is alone time, and these moments have become
increasingly rare in an age of pervasive media. Maintaining a sense of privacy can
be difficult when we are getting barraged with updates from Facebook friends or
receiving text messages. Some even argue that digital natives raised on social
media have lost the ability to appreciate or even tolerate solitude, once a coveted
commodity.
Wireless communication between devices, without the need for specific
human direction—such as swiping a debit card at a supermarket checkout—
makes it easy to establish a profile of a person simply through his electronic trans-
actions over a short period of time. The ability to track consumers with such
accuracy, especially on the Web and through mobile devices, means that we can
personalize our media content; but it also means we have revealed much about our
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ETHICS IN MEDIA
Interactively Mapping Gun Owners
On December 22, 2012, the Poughkeepsie (NY) Journal
News published online an interactive map providing the
names and addresses of all registered handgun owners
in New York and Rockland counties. Although the
Second Amendment to the United States Constitution
protects citizens’ right to bear arms, there has never
been consensus about just what this right means.
Recently, the enduring national debate about gun con-
trol or rights has intensified following a spate of shoot-
ing of schoolchildren, such as that in Newtown,
Connecticut, in 2012; Sparks, Nevada, in 2013; Troutdale,
Oregon, in 2014, and elsewhere—these, in addition to
similar episodes of carnage on university campuses
across the country.
When the Journal News published the names and
addresses of thousands of legal gun owners, however, a
vigorous debate ensued about gun owners’ right to pri-
vacy and public access to personal information, even if
such information was in the public domain. Within
Mining public data sources, this interactive news map enables access to
seventy-two hours of the publication of the interactive detailed personal information about gun ownership.
map, more than 1,700 comments about the map and its
data had been posted on the Journal News discussion board. special interest and who were willing to physically go where
Both sides weighed in on the debate. One poster wrote, the data were housed.
“LOVE the Gun License map! Excellent information to anyone The convergence of data, the Internet, and digital devices
concerned with who they live around!” Another wrote, “So has made it increasingly common for media organizations or
should we start wearing yellow Stars of David so the general others to post such personal information for all to see, from
public can be aware of who we are?” Poughkeepsie to Kathmandu. Is it ethical to make these data
In the age before ubiquitous Internet access, govern- so easily and widely available for all? Should media make such
ment agencies centrally kept such public domain data and personal information available if it helps foster more debate
restricted access to limited groups or individuals with a about important topics, regardless of ethical concerns?

behavioral targeting personal habits and interests, not all of which we may wish to share with compa-
Advertisers tracking individuals’
nies or advertisers who use that information for behavioral targeting in their
web-browsing behavior to provide advertising campaigns.
ads that closely match the topics of Mass-communication organizations can keep detailed and updated records
sites visited or searches made. on their audiences by tracking their paths within their websites through intelli-
gent software agents and programs known as cookies. These allow a website to
cookies recognize when a previous user returns and to offer personalized content. Cookies
Information that a website puts on provide invaluable information for media organizations to better understand an
a user’s local hard drive so that it audience’s media behaviors, preferences, and habits. Advertisers on websites also
can recognize when that computer
add cookies to your computer so they can track your browsing behavior as well.
accesses the website again. Cookies
also allow for conveniences like Surveillance is an increasingly powerful tool necessary to optimize content and to
password recognition and give advertisers a high return on their investment, even as it raises serious con-
personalization. cerns about the erosion of privacy.
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 23

So far we have discussed how convergence has been changing the media in-
dustries and their business models, the issues communications professionals have
faced with the advent of new technologies, the nature of the relationship between
media producers and audiences, and legal matters that have yet to be addressed.
You have gotten a glimpse of the powerful transformations taking place today in
mass communications and the media and will see even more detailed examples in
subsequent chapters.
But before we can move forward, we have to take a step back and look at what
mass communication itself is and how media scholars theorize it operates. We will
then be able to use these foundations to better understand the changes taking
place today.

Mass Communication in the Digital Age

The traditional mass-communication model differs from other forms of commu-
nication, such as interpersonal communication, which is communication be- interpersonal
tween two or more persons. Interpersonal communication often interacts and communication
intersects with mass communication, communication to a large group or groups Communication between two or
of people that remain largely unknown to the sender of the message. more individuals, often in a small
group, although it can involve
communication between a live
speaker and an audience.
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Interpersonal communication is usually interactive, or flowing at least two ways, mass communication
and tends not to be anonymous. Think of chatting with a friend or a small group. Communication to a large group or
Responses are generally immediate, and the speaker or speakers will often adjust groups of people that remain
their messages based on the responses they receive. Interpersonal communication largely unknown to the sender
of the message.
involves both verbal and nonverbal messages: not just what was said, but how it
was said.
medium
These same principles apply to live public speaking, even though this is a
one-to-many model, and opportunities for audience feedback will be more lim- A communication channel, such as
talking on the telephone, instant
ited than in a casual small-group setting. The speaker and the audience can messaging, or writing back and
communicate through a variety of nonverbal cues such as forth in a chat room.
facial expressions, physical contact, or body language. If
speakers see looks of boredom or audience members yawning,
they can adjust their presentation accordingly in an effort to
make it more interesting.
Interpersonal communication can also take place through
a medium, or communication channel, such as the telephone,
when texting or talking, or the Internet, when participating in
a chat room or on a discussion board, for example. Note how
the mediation limits some aspects of interpersonal communi-
cation compared to face-to-face interactions. Visual cues are
absent either on the telephone or online (unless using a
webcam), and meanings can be misconstrued in text messages
(even those supplemented with emoticons). The online medium
also blurs the line between interpersonal and mass communi-
Interpersonal communication takes place between two or more
cation, as a private email or text can be forwarded to many people, is interactive, and can happen face-to-face or through a
other people. medium.
 24 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

MASS COMMUNICATION
Media of mass communication refer to any technological means of communicat-
ing between large numbers of people distributed widely over space or time.
Ever  since Johannes Gutenberg invented the Western world’s first mechanical
printing press in Germany in 1455, one general model of communication has tra-
ditionally characterized mass media, whose central features, as articulated by dif-
ferent theorists, are also outlined in Table 1-1.
According to this framework, media companies create content they believe
the audience will want and distribute that content to an audience who has very
few ways to provide immediate feedback. This premise has characterized all media
of mass communication—books, magazines, newspapers, broadcast television or
radio, cable or satellite TV, recorded music, or motion pictures. Digital media,
however, are radically changing that model, as we will see throughout this book.
In the traditional mass-communication model, content creators play a funda-
synchronous media mental role in society by representing and defining reality (consider the work of
Media that take place in real time journalists or other communication professionals) or by creating fictional works
and require the audience to be to explain, interpret, or entertain (consider the work of artists, authors, and film
present during the broadcast or auteurs). Authors and artists create stories about issues and events; they write
performance, such as live television
or radio.
books and articles; they create music or motion pictures; and then they publish,
broadcast, or present their creations at set dates or times and in set locations.
asynchronous media Some mass-communications models, such as live television or radio, are
synchronous media, which require the audience to be assembled simultaneously
Media that do not require the
audience to assemble at a given
for the broadcast, transmission, or event. Others are asynchronous media, such
time, such as printed materials and as newspapers or magazines, for example, which do not require the audience
recorded audio or video. to  assemble at any given time. Audio and video recording devices let people

TABLE 11 Traditional Theories or Models of Analog Media

THEORY OR MODEL MAIN FEATURES OR CHARACTERISTICS

General Mass Media 1. Communication flow is largely one-way, from sender or source to receiver or audience.
2. Communication is from one or a few to many (i.e., one or a few sources generate and
distribute content to large, heterogeneous audiences).
3. Communication is anonymous (sources typically do not know their audiences, and
audiences do not know the sources, except at a general level).
4. Audiences are seen as largely passive recipients of the messages distributed by the media,
with little opportunity for feedback and practically no opportunity for immediate feedback
or interaction with each other.

Shannon and Weaver Information source

Transmission Model (see p. 28) Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
Destination

Schramm’s Simplified 1. A source, who encodes

Communication Model 2. a message, or signal, which is transmitted (via the media or directly via interpersonal
(see p. 29) communication) to
3. a destination, where the receiver decodes it.
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 25

time shift and record a live concert or performance so that it can be watched any- time shift
time, thereby turning synchronous media into asynchronous media. Recording of an audio or video
event for later listening or viewing.

MASS COMMUNICATION AND CONVERGENCE

Digital media and online networks have blurred the line between interper-
sonal and mass communication. The media companies built on mass-
communication models, despite facing many challenges in the digital era, are
not disappearing anytime soon, and neither will certain fundamental aspects
of mass communication.
What is changing, however, is the interplay between mediated interpersonal
communication and mass communication: Interpersonal communication is capa-
ble of adopting some characteristics of mass communication, and mass communi-
cation is trying to adopt certain characteristics of interpersonal communication
in an attempt to remain relevant to audiences. Let’s examine some examples.
Email is considered a form of mediated interpersonal communication, yet as
anyone who has had his or her inbox clogged with forwarded jokes from Aunt Ger-
trude can attest, it can also be broadcast to many recipients, following the one-to-
many model typical of mass communication.
Despite their interpersonal tone and scope, some weblogs, or blogs, have blog
become very influential among the public or among decision makers, with reader- Short for weblog, a type of website
ship greater than many well-established mainstream publications. Blogs may in which a person posts regular
allow immediate feedback or discussion from readers, who often must be regis- journal or diary entries, with the
tered to post feedback and are therefore not anonymous—thereby weakening two posts arranged chronologically.
of the linchpins in the definition of mass communication. Yet it is hard to claim
that the most popular blogs are not a type of mass communication because of the
numbers of audience members reading them and the lack of interaction between
the blog author and a respondent.
Twitter also follows a blended mass-communication and mediated
interpersonal-communication model, as people broadcast their tweets to thou-
sands or even millions of followers, yet the followers can re-tweet and interact
with each other and their followers.
The fragmented nature of audiences on the Web complicates attempts to
define a “mass.” Some websites have small but dedicated followings, while others
have millions of visitors a month, reaching far more people than your typical local
newspaper. Yet the local newspaper would traditionally be considered a type of
mass communication, unlike a YouTube video such as “Charlie Bit My Finger—
Again!,” despite over 808 million views eight years after being posted and well
over two thousand various remixes and spoofs.
It is important to remember that much of the interaction and conversation
that occurs online does so because of the information and entertainment gener-
ated from mass communication. “Charlie Bit My Finger,” for example, gave rise to
a handful of fan clubs on Facebook (including a Mexican one). Consider a TV series
like Star Trek, though, which ran for only three seasons in the late 1960s but con-
tinues to have a thriving fan subculture that consumes—and creates—content
about the series and its actors, not to mention the various movies and television-
series spin-offs from the original Star Trek. The daily mix of news, information,
and entertainment that we consume through mass-communication channels
gives us fodder for remixes, blogs, interactions with each other—and reactions to
media producers who provide the content.
 26 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Functions of Mass Communication

Defining mass communication was once straightforward. The media were rela-
tively stable and well known. The functions of mass communication in society
were also relatively well understood and thoroughly researched. Studies by Harold
D. Lasswell, Charles Wright, and others suggest that these functions have tended
to fall largely into four broad categories.12 These functions can be a useful lens
through which to examine various forms of mass communication.

SURVEILLANCE
surveillance In mass communication, surveillance refers primarily to journalism that pro-
Primarily the journalism function vides information about processes, issues, events, and other developments in so-
of mass communication, which ciety. This can include news on the latest military activities, weather alerts, and
provides information about political scandals. Aspects of advertising and public relations as well as educa-
processes, issues, events, and tional communication can also employ surveillance.
other developments in society.
One weakness in the surveillance function is that an excess of news about
disasters, murders, or other unusual events can skew the audience’s perception of
what is normal in society. Receiving too much information on a particular topic
can also promote apathy. Consider how media coverage of a scandal regarding a
sports figure such as Yankees baseball player Alex Rodriguez can take on a life of
its own and seem to continue forever until we are truly sick of seeing any more
stories about A-Rod and athlete doping. Celebrity scandals may present more triv-
ial examples, but skewed or apathetic responses to coverage of wars or disasters,
especially in developing countries, are more significant and problematic.

Although surveillance is an important function of mass communication, repeated exposure to a story can
have negative effects. After you hear about plane crashes in the media, are you more likely to worry about
being in a plane crash?
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 27

CORRELATION
Correlation refers to the ways in which media interpret events and issues and correlation
ascribe meanings that help individuals understand their roles within the larger Media interpretation ascribing
society and culture. Journalism, advertising, and public relations all shape public meaning to issues and events that
opinion through commentary, criticism, or even targeted marketing campaigns. helps individuals understand their
Polls or surveys allow individuals to learn what others think about an issue and roles within the larger society and
culture.
where their views fit within mainstream opinions. People may even shift their
views or beliefs subtly to better align themselves with a desirable social group.
By correlating one’s views with other groups or perceived notions of general
public opinion, the media can help maintain social stability, although this func-
tion can be taken too far, and the media can thwart social change or block a full
range of views from being disseminated to a mass audience. Interpretation can
also tend to favor established business or elite interests over disadvantaged or
minority groups, increasing the apparent credibility and authority of the domi-
nant culture.

CULTURAL TRANSMISSION
Cultural transmission refers to the transference of the dominant culture, as
well as its subcultures, from one generation to the next or to immigrants. This
includes socialization, which the media perform by teaching societal rules and
depicting standards of behavior. This function is especially important for children
but also necessary for adults who may have immigrated recently to a new country
with a different culture. Wartime propaganda posters provide
Not all aspects of cultural transmission are viewed favorably. It has been criti- windows into how public opinion can
be shaped.
cized for creating a homogenized culture that promotes mindless consumerism as
a means to achieve happiness rather than imparting more humanistic, and ulti-
mately more rewarding, values such as an appreciation of multiculturalism and cultural transmission
diversity. The process of passing on culturally
relevant knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and values from person
to person or group to group.
ENTERTAINMENT
The entertainment function is performed in part by all three
of these activities (surveillance, correlation, and cultural
transmission) but also involves the generation of content de-
signed specifically and exclusively to entertain. Although
some claim that this function helps raise artistic and cultural
taste among the general populace, others disagree, arguing
that mass media encourage escapism and promote lowbrow
entertainment at the expense of high art.
Entertainment can also perpetuate certain stereotypes
about various groups, wittingly or unwittingly. These can be
especially hard to detect because they are often presented
as  part and parcel of a story line that makes oversimplified
characters seem natural in context. For good and for bad,
powerful cultural principles and symbols permeate enter- Cultural transmission is a function of mass communication
tainment, transmitting specific sets of values that can go sometimes criticized for promoting mindless consumerism.
unquestioned.
28 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider your own use of social and digital media. What is the
source of much of what you discuss with your friends online—does it come from news or
politics or primarily entertainment sources such as television, movies, and music? What
implications do you think your habits have for notions of the public?

Theories of Communication
Over the centuries, great thinkers have tried to define communication and under-
stand it as a process. They have proposed a variety of theories in their attempts to
explain it. One of the earliest communication theorists was the philosopher
Aristotle, who in 300  called the study of communication “rhetoric” and identi-
fied three primary elements within the process: the speaker, the subject, and the
person addressed. He also identified three basic rhetorical appeals to persuade an
audience: pathos, an appeal that excites emotions; ethos, an appeal that estab-
lishes the speaker’s credibility; and logos, an appeal that relies on logic and reason-
ing. Aristotle’s principal ideas laid an enduring foundation for communication
research even today.
The need to enrich our understanding of communication from a theoretical
perspective arose with the importance that mass communication began to have in
people’s lives, especially as electronic communication such as radio and television
became so dominant.

TRANSMISSION MODELS
In 1949, scientists Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver formulated an influen-
tial model of communication.13 Known as a transmission model of communica-
tion, it is closely related to communication theorist Harold Lasswell’s famous
question about media effects, which he posed in 1948: “Who says what in which
channel to whom with what effect?” This model has allowed for many general ap-
plications in mass communication.
The Shannon and Weaver mathematical theory of communication is based
on a linear system of electronic communication. The original formulation of the
model included five main elements (see Figure 1-4). An information source for-
mulates a message. A transmitter encodes the message into signals. The signals
are delivered via a channel. A receiver decodes the signals, “reconstructing” the

FIGURE 14 Shannon and Weaver Mathematical Theory

Received
Message Signal Message
signal
Information
Transmitter Receiver Destination
source

Noise
source
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 29

original message, which reaches its destination. The communication flow in this
model is decidedly one-directional, from the sender to the receiver. The system
has a limited capacity to provide feedback from the receiver to the information
source: to acknowledge receipt of the message, to indicate whether the message
has been understood, and to communicate the receiver’s reaction. The communi-
cation process can be adversely affected by noise, or interference, from the envi-
ronment, possibly by way of competing or distracting messages or even electrical
interference.
The model clearly explains how a telephone works. The information source
speaks (encoding a message); the phone (transmitter) transforms the sound waves
into electrical impulses (the signal), which are sent over the channel (the tiny box
in the center of Figure 1-4); and those electrical impulses are turned back into
sound waves by the phone (receiver) at the other end of the line where they are
heard and (one hopes) understood (decoded) by another person (destination).
Noise is any interference anywhere along the way.
The Shannon and Weaver model is especially technological in its orientation
and therefore limited in its utility for understanding traditional mass communi-
cation because it does not fully reflect the role of humans in the process—
specifically, how meaning is created. Moreover, the advent of digital, networked simplified
communication media is greatly expanding the interactive nature of communica- communications model
tion, making the limited feedback capacity of the model more problematic even by
Developed by Wilbur Schramm
its own standards. in 1954 and based on the
Adapting the Shannon and Weaver model and integrating concepts from Aris- mathematical theory of
totle, pioneering communication scholar Wilbur Schramm in 1954 developed a communication. It includes a
simplified communications model in the book The Process and Effects of Mass source who encodes a message, or
signal, which is transmitted (via the
Communication, as summarized in Figure 1-5.14 media or directly via interpersonal
Significantly, Schramm envisioned understanding as an integral part of communication) to a destination
human communication. He also realized that another important aspect of the where the receiver decodes it.

FIGURE 15 Schramm–Osgood Model

Message

Encoder Decoder

Interpreter Interpreter

Decoder Encoder

Message
 30 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

traditional communication model needed correcting: in human communication,

mediated or not, communication is not a one-way process. Schramm wrote, “In
fact, it is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere
and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are little switchboard centers hand-
ling and rerouting the great endless current of information.” As a result, Schramm
and Charles Osgood developed a circular model of communication. The partici-
pants exchange roles of source/encoder and receiver/decoder.
However, even this model, based on certain concepts derived from the trans-
mission model, has its limitations for some scholars. Conceiving of people as
switchboards of information processing does not adequately explain how an ad-
vertisement may tug at our heart strings and evoke deep-ranging yet differing
emotions in people or how people may see the same message very differently. For
that we have to look at other theoretical traditions.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Imagine a small classified ad on Craigslist that simply says

“Baby shoes for sale. Never used.” Explain the ad in terms of the transmission model, then
consider how these six words may evoke thoughts or feelings with you. Does the transmis-
sion model of communication adequately describe your feelings as well?

CRITICAL THEORY AND CULTURAL STUDIES

A typical critique of transmission models of communication (made by others out-
side the critical-theory tradition as well as within) is that they treat communica-
tion as some kind of separate phenomenon independent of the people who are
engaging in communication. Its technological orientation may explain an elec-
tronic signal well, but it falls far short when trying to explain the deeper meaning
behind someone reading a morning paper. Defining humans as a type of switch-
board center, as Schramm does, does not explain how media economics may influ-
ence what paper we are able to read or if we even have an Internet connection—nor
does it help us better understand the ways in which power, identity, and a host of
other factors affect how we make and share meaning through communication.
critical theory In contrast, critical theory is broadly influenced by Marxist notions of ideol-
A theoretical approach broadly
ogy, exploitation, capitalism, and the economy in understanding and eventually
influenced by Marxist notions of transforming society. There are many branches of critical theory, not all of which
the role of ideology, exploitation, focus on media and mass communication, and they often disagree with each other
capitalism, and the economy in on fundamental points. We will explore cultural studies, which tend to focus
understanding and eventually
transforming society.
more on mass communication.
To understand a cultural-studies approach to the subject of communication, it
cultural studies is important first to see its intellectual heritage through the lens of critical theory
and to know how it differs from traditional, or positivist, social science. Critical
An interdisciplinary framework for
theorists criticize positivist researchers for applying physical science research
studying communication that
rejects the scientific approach methods inappropriately to human behavior. They do not agree that certain statis-
while investigating the role of tical techniques, and enough research, can uncover various “natural laws” of soci-
culture in creating and maintaining ety and behavior.
social relations and systems of Critical theorists not only claim that the process of scientific creation of “fact”
power.
is a social and variable process like any other (consider how Pluto has gone from
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 31

being viewed as a planet to now being planetary object 134340), but they also
refute that natural laws can be discovered to explain human behavior. They see
the drive to predict and better control society as one more form of oppression. In
short, critical theorists would say positivists ask uninspiring questions and get
uninteresting—if not misleading—answers that largely describe the societal and
cultural status quo as unproblematic.
Cultural-studies researchers join critical theorists in rejecting the positivist
scientific approach. By utilizing a host of disciplines ranging from anthropology
and sociology to political science and literary theory, they examine the symbolic
environment created by mass media and study their role in culture and society.
For these researchers, a television commercial can be a rich source of cultural
codes and representations that tell us in subtle and not-so-subtle ways how we as
members of society should act and think.
Communications scholar James Carey was a leading cultural-studies theo- James Carey
rist who developed what he called a ritual view of communication. He claimed that Communications scholar and
“communication is a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, historian who has shaped a
repaired, and transformed.”15 From this view, the act of reading a newspaper has cultural-studies approach to
less to do with receiving information than with participating in a shared cultural communication theory.
experience that portrays and confirms the world in a certain way. By reading the
paper, we are actually participating in a ritual that produces and reproduces cer-
tain sociocultural norms played out through our actions and interactions with
others.16 The same dynamic can be said to take place with online media, such as
posting photos on Flickr or texting a friend—you are not simply transmitting in-
formation but are sharing ways of doing things and ways of thinking that actually
create the society we live in through our repeated actions.

Television: The Future of Convergence

We started this chapter by looking at the telephone, an example of a communica-
tion technology whose role in convergence you may not have considered. We will
end by looking briefly at television, particularly at how convergence has shaped
television today and how it will affect its future.
We will discuss the invention and development of television in Chapter 5 and James Carey was one of the most
influential media and communications
focus here on the role convergence has played for this quintessential mass- scholars of the twentieth century.
communication technology. Television’s dominance as a mass medium in the
latter half of the twentieth century through to today means it has been much
discussed, debated, and studied. Television has been blamed for everything from
a decline in young people reading to a rise in societal violence. The impact of few
mass-communications technologies has been as striking. Despite disagreement
about the degree to which television may affect our culture and society, the belief
that television has certain detrimental (or beneficial) effects has influenced every- product placement
thing from government regulation to the kinds of commercials and programming A form of advertising in which
we see. The enormous popularity of television makes it a powerful instrument for brand-name goods or services are
teaching people culture and social norms—or at least idealized norms. placed prominently within
Television viewing habits changed with the advent of the remote control. programming content that is
otherwise devoid of advertising,
Channel-surfing made it easy for people to later name and understand the process demonstrating the convergence of
of Web surfing that occurs on the Internet. Digital video recorders (DVRs) also programming with advertising
changed TV viewing habits. The use of product placement has grown in response content.
 32 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

to advertisers’ fears that viewers fast-forward through commercials when watch-

ing recorded programming. Product placement shows a convergence of normal
programming with advertisement content, often not recognized as such.
Over the years, television has been able to adapt to new methods of distribut-
ing content. Over-the-air broadcast towers used to be the primary way that people
received their television signals; today cable and satellite systems are dominant.
However, cable television systems were first created in 1948 so that viewers in
areas where over-the-air signals could not easily reach could get television pro-
gramming, long before most households had cable systems.
The first transatlantic satellite signal was sent in 1962, when television as a
mass medium was still not even fifteen years old.17 Entertainment, especially
movies and sports programming, played a role in encouraging the growth of cable
and satellite–cable partnerships in the 1970s.
superstation In 1978, Ted Turner launched WTBS Atlanta as a national superstation, a
A local TV station that reaches a
local TV station that reaches a national audience by beaming its programming
national audience by beaming its nationwide via satellite to local cable systems, which then transmit to local sub-
programming nationwide via scribers. In 1980, Turner employed the same technological combination to launch
satellite to local cable systems. the first twenty-four-hour TV news network, the Cable News Network (CNN).
Today, many countries use similar systems for their own national broadcasting. In
a country like Indonesia, which has hundreds of islands, a cable system between
islands is simply not practical. Using satellite to beam programming to local cable
operators, who connect viewers in their areas with cable, has proven to be an eco-
nomical solution.
Television is a major communications industry in its own right. But when it
began as a mass medium in the late 1940s, its rapid rise in popularity was seen as
a threat by the film industry, which blacklisted actors if they performed on televi-
sion shows. It took several years for the film industry to realize that television
could replace the second- and third-run movie theaters as a source of additional
revenues for older films. The specter that the movie industry feared of mass audi-
ences staying home and watching television instead of going out to the movies
never materialized; people still went in droves.
Today, the tug-of-war between the movie industry and television for attract-
ing audiences continues, even as some film companies own television channels
through the process of consolidation. The latest battles have been taking place in
the area of 3D, which used to be seen solely in movie theaters. Not only has 3D
viewing technology for movies gotten better, but television screens have rapidly
caught up; and now 3D television is also on the market.
Perhaps one of the biggest areas of convergence is the melding of the televi-
sion and the personal computer or mobile device. Television is becoming more in-
teractive, encouraging viewers to do things like vote for their favorite American
Idol contestants (although still not through the television—they use mobile
phones for that). At the same time, a growing number are watching television pro-
gramming on their PCs, tablets, or smartphones. In the future, it may not matter
much whether we think of television as merged with mobile device or mobile
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 33

device as merged with television; we will simply have a high-definition screen with
which we can interact, accessing the Web or social media even as we watch our
favorite programs.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider watching the same film on TV, a PC, a tablet, or in a
theater. List several ways in which these viewing experiences differ, and identify the rela-
tive advantages and disadvantages of each.

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

This book takes the premise that mass communication as we have known it is
fundamentally changing, perhaps to the point where this term is no longer a
relevant or accurate description of current communication. Convergence is,
broadly speaking, the process where we are seeing these transformations take
place on technological, economic, and sociocultural levels. Many of the ramifica-
tions of convergence will likely not be realized or fully known for years to come,
while others seem to have had immediate and dramatic effects on our media
landscape.
What we have today is a fascinating and confusing mixture of mass-
communication industries and business models combining with various emerging
digital technologies and communications practices that simultaneously threaten
and hold great promise for traditional media companies and the communica-
tions  professions. Issues of consumer privacy, of copyright, and of affordable
access to the Internet, among other legal, regulatory, and ethical issues, have still
to be worked out.
The public may finally have some say in the matter in the new digital media
environment. Through communication tools that give the public unprecedented
power to share information with each other and to “talk back” to those in power,
people are able to connect and organize on any number of issues important to
them, affecting policy changes through online and offline means. We have already
seen the power of online organizing for various politicians in terms of getting
donations and engaging young people in political campaigns. Will the Internet
and other digital media flourish and produce a rich montage of diverse voices?
Or will the emerging global media system be a homogenous blend of commercial
banality where news and entertainment are little more than commodities that sit
with equally insipid user-generated content? It is still an open question, but deal-
ing responsibly with issues like these is the moral mandate of mass communica-
tion in the digital age. In this book, we hope to give you the tools to do so.
34 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

MEDIA MATTERS THE NATURE OF “INTERMASS” COMMUNICATION

Even before the Internet era, scholars were asking how mass media and interpersonal communication affected
each other.18 Where is the dividing line between interpersonal and mass communication in your media world? Is
the line disappearing?

1. How long have you had a Facebook page? Which ones? Why are you changing your
2. How often do you update or add content to usage patterns?
the page, and what prompts you to do so? 5. Are you typically on the Web or social media
3. How would you feel if your professor or a when you watch TV?
potential employer insisted that you friend 6. Do you often text or chat online with friends
them so they can see your page? while watching the same program?
4. Are you starting to spend more time on 7. Have you ever uploaded music, videos, or other
social media sites other than Facebook? content to file-sharing sites?

According to World Internet Project research, chances are good that you have participated in many if not most of
these activities.19 This shows that the line between interpersonal and mass communication is a blurry one indeed.

FURTHER READING

Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. Henry Jenkins (2008) NYU Press.
The Coming Convergence: Surprising Ways Diverse Technologies Interact to Shape Our World and
Change the Future. Stanley Schmidt (2008) Prometheus Books.
Understanding Media Convergence: The State of the Field. August Grant, Jeffrey Wilkinson (eds.)
(2008) Oxford University Press.
Media Organizations and Convergence: Case Studies of Media Convergence Pioneers (LEA’s Commu-
nication Series). Gracie Lawson-Borders (2005) Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
The History of the Telephone. Herbert Casson (2006) Cosimo Classics.
America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940. Claude Fischer (1994) University of
California Press.
The History of Wireless: How Creative Minds Produced Technology for the Masses. Ira Brodsky (2008)
Telescope Books.
Speaking into the Air: A History of the Idea of Communication. John Durham Peters (1999) University
of Chicago Press.
Understanding Media Theory. Kevin Williams (2003) Oxford University Press.
Understanding Media Cultures: Social Theory and Mass Communication, 2nd ed. Nick Stevenson
(2002) Sage Publications.
Theories of Communication: A Short Introduction. Armand Mattelart, Michèle Mattelart (1998) Sage
Publications.
 CHAPTER 1 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION 35

Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media, 5th ed. Werner J. Severin,
James W. Tankard Jr. (2001) Addison Wesley Longman.
Digital Disconnect: How Capitalism Is Turning the Internet Against Democracy. Robert W. McChesney
(2013) The New Press.
What Will Be: How the New World of Information Will Change Our Lives. Michael Dertouzos (1997)
HarperEdge.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

38 Education and Media

39 What Is Media Literacy?
40 What Makes Mediated
Communication
Different?
43 Early Concerns of Media
Effects
44 Media Grammar
47 Implications of
Commercial Media
53 Media Bias
56 Developing Critical
Media-Literacy Skills
 2

Media Literacy
in the Digital Age
O
n February 9, 2014, Missouri football player Michael Sam announced LEARNING OBJECTIVES
in an ESPN interview that he was gay, paving the way for him to
become the first openly gay player in the National Football League >> Define media literacy.
(NFL).1 Although Sam made his announcement via traditional news >> Explain how mediated and
media, including ESPN and The New York Times, the real national discussion nonmediated communication
about Sam’s entry into professional football followed online in the social media differ.
arena. Twitter exploded with activity shortly after Sam’s historic revelation. >> Define the role of semiotics
One example of a popular tweet welcoming Sam into the NFL world came and framing in influencing our
from Richie Incognito, a pro football player who himself had been criticized for understanding of the world
bullying another player by using homophobic slurs: “It takes guts to do what and media content.
you did. I wish u nothing but the best.”2 Within hours, on February 10, 2014, users >> Define media grammar and
had retweeted Incognito’s original posting 361 times and favorited it 299 times. describe its various aspects in
But Sam wasn’t the first professional athlete to come out as gay. On April 29, different media.
2013, Jason Collins, center for the Washington Wizards, also revealed his sexual orien- >> Explain how commercial
tation to an unsuspecting public. And more than twenty years prior, in 1981, Czech forces influence media
American tennis star Martina Navratilova made that aspect of her private life public, organizations and content.
a similar announcement that prompted a vastly different reaction from the media. >> Define media bias and its
“The media certainly roasted me,” Navratilova told Democracy Now! “I had my effects on media content.
share of, you know, ‘Here’s Martina’s love nest,’ or ‘Good Versus Evil,’ as one columnist >> Use basic media-literacy skills
headed a column about me playing against Chris Evert. So, it was pretty nasty, but, to improve your critical
you know, you just kind of deal with it.”3 thinking when consuming
media content.
Navratilova was pleased to see the positive coverage of Collins and surprised
that the media wanted to discuss the issue. “I certainly didn’t get an invitation to
speak on Good Morning America, because it was, like, still a taboo subject,” she said.
“It was such a negative subject, it made headlines, but in a very bad way.”
Comparing the varying reactions to these announcements across the years
raises interesting questions about the role of media in our society. Did the media
gradually help change our attitudes about gay rights, or did the media simply follow
gradual changes in public opinion? What part might entertainment have played,

37
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including sitcoms such as Will & Grace that feature gay characters, in increasing our accep-
tance of gays?
Also consider how the media outlet itself may influence the acceptance of stories. If
Collins had penned his essay in The Advocate, a prominent gay magazine, instead of a
mainstream sports magazine such as Sports Illustrated, do you think other media outlets
and the public would have been as receptive?

We live in a media society. Mass media surround and influence our world in a va-
riety of ways. They entertain us, they inform us, and they sell us everything from
household products to political candidates. Although we often tend to study media
and mass communications as something separate from our culture, society, and
lives, the fact is that media are just as real as the “real world.”
Media are pervasive in modern life, making it more important than ever to
understand how their messages may influence us. We must look critically at all
media we receive and understand something about how media organizations work
as businesses, how they fit into other aspects of society, and how they can influ-
ence culture and manipulate public opinion.
In this chapter, we explain some basic principles of media literacy in both non-
digital and digital media while teaching you to analyze critically the media mes-
sages you encounter.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Compare news articles about Michael Sam and Jason Collins
announcing they are gay with news coverage of Martina Navratilova’s similar announce-
ment. What differences do you see in how the stories were depicted, and what effect do
you think such framing had on public opinion about homosexuality?

Education and Media

In school, we learn to read, write, and do arithmetic. We learn about history, other
cultures, literature, science, and politics. We learn athletic skills and teamwork;
we can even learn about art, mechanics, computer programming, and cooking.
But we also learn much from our daily and extensive interactions with media
content—some may even argue that we learn more of practical value from daily
exposure to media than to class content during a typical school day. The common
component of the four functions of mass communication mentioned in the previ-
ous chapter—surveillance, correlation, cultural transmission, and entertainment—
is that they essentially educate and inform us.
This raises a significant question: If media are so pervasive in our lives, why
aren’t we studying them in the same way that we study geography or biology, for
example? Why can we take a class in high school on how to dismantle a car engine
but not one that teaches us how to deconstruct our modern systems of media and
mass communications?
The question highlights two interesting and related issues. First, it shows that
education, like media, is not something separate from our lives. We are learning
all the time, even when not in a formal academic setting such as a classroom or
when doing homework. Second, given that we are learning all the time through
our interactions with each other and with media content, we must strive to ensure
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 39

that what we are learning is accurate and useful. This requires skills to examine
where that learning is coming from and how it may be affecting our thought
processes.
Educators have recognized a growing need to teach media-literacy skills to
school-age children, starting as young as kindergarten or elementary school and
continuing to high school graduation. Some countries, such as Canada and Australia,
have taken the lead in media-literacy education, while the United States generally
lags behind. This is changing, however, and a growing number of states, such as New
Jersey, have implemented statewide media-literacy guidelines for K–12 schools.

What Is Media Literacy?

Being able to read a book, navigate a website or post a tweet, and recognize that a
background music change signals a scary part of a movie are all types of media
literacy. Some fall under what we would consider the traditional meaning of the
term “literacy,” and others can be classified as visual literacy or computer literacy.
Media literacy encompasses all these skills and many more, and the various ap-
proaches to media education differ to some degree on what exactly media-literacy
education should entail.
Media literacy can be defined as the process of critically analyzing media media literacy
content by considering its particular presentation, its underlying political or social The process of interacting with and
messages, and its media ownership or regulation that may affect the type of con- critically analyzing media content
tent we receive. Some approaches to media education emphasize media-creation by considering its particular
skills as a way to examine our media critically, through either creative media pro- presentation, its underlying
political or social messages, and its
jects or alternative media production such as recreating a popular commercial ownership or regulation issues that
from a feminist perspective. may affect what is presented and in
Developing media literacy is an ongoing process, not simply a goal. Even what form.
though you can never attain perfection, it is always possible to improve your media
literacy and thus become a wiser media user. The importance of media in contem-
porary society makes it imperative that audience members think critically about
media content to better control their actions and not be controlled by media mes-
sages. Learning new skills in creating media, such as taking courses on graphic
design or video production, can help further your media literacy.
Media-literacy scholar W. James Potter
talks about building “knowledge structures,”
ways to visualize developing one’s level of
knowledge on a given topic or topics.4 If, for ex-
ample, you have a basic understanding of the
history of the World Wide Web, and someone
claims to have been on Facebook since 2001,
you can be confident that he or she is incorrect:
Facebook was not created until 2004 (and then
only for Harvard students).
Still, media literacy entails more than
simply remembering historical facts. Media
consumers should always question what they
see, hear, or otherwise experience when re-
ceiving or interacting with mediated commu-
nication. Is a news story biased? Why is it even Learning media-literacy skills has become even more important for students today.
 40 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

news? Does a popular television show or video game encourage gender or racial
stereotypes or antisocial behavior? What is an advertiser really trying to sell and
to whom? These are just a sample of the kinds of questions critical media consum-
ers should ask.
It is important to develop knowledge not just about the media but also about
the larger social, political, and economic forces that influence media content,
media production, and communication technologies in general. To that end, we
must first step back and consider what a medium is. Then we will look at some of
the concerns people have had over the years about the effects that media may or
may not have on us.

What Makes Mediated

Communication Different?
An enduring and fundamental concern about the media is that what we see and
hear through mediated communication—the signs, symbols, and words from
books, the Web, television, and radio—can somehow affect us in ways that non-
mediated communication does not. This assumption has led to a large body of re-
search on media effects, which we discuss in more detail in Chapter 12.
Some theoretical frameworks offer explanations of how we may make sense of
the world through media and how the media messages we receive seem somehow
natural.

SEMIOTICS
semiotics Semiotics, the study of signs and symbols, goes back in some form to Plato and
The study of signs and symbols.
Aristotle. Contemporary semiotics has been greatly influenced by Ferdinand de
Saussure, the father of linguistics, and his notion of signs as having dual properties.
These properties are the signifier, or the form; and the signified, or what the form
represents (some semioticians propose a third component, an interpretant, be-
tween these two). For example, an image of a rose, the signifier, may signify any
number of things, or signifieds, depending on the context (see Figure 2-1). An image
of a rose on a Valentine’s Day card may mean one thing, whereas a rose tattoo with
blood-dipped thorns on the arm of a biker may mean something else entirely.
Context plays a major role in the audience’s understanding of the sig-
nified, even when the signifier remains the same. The power of signs to
affect our thinking should not be underestimated. René Magritte’s famous
painting of a pipe that also says “This is not a pipe” illustrates how we typi-
cally take the sign as reality. Most people, when shown his painting and
asked what it is, will reply, “A pipe.” But Magritte is absolutely correct: his
picture of a pipe is not actually a pipe—it is simply a picture of a pipe.
We must also remember that in semiotics, “sign” does not simply
refer to visual images but words as well. Words could be considered a
more complex form of sign, for we have to learn that certain sounds carry
particular meanings (which are entirely arbitrary). There is no logical
reason that the color red is called “red” in English, “rojo” in Spanish, and
Rene Magritte’s famous “This is not a pipe” picture
reminds us how we mistakenly understand the “aka” in Japanese; all of these are simply linguistic conventions for those
representation of something as the thing itself. particular languages.
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 41

FIGURE 21 Semiotic Signifier and Signified

Signifier Signified
a symbol, sound, the concept
or image that the signifier
gives meaning represents

Love
Happiness
Thoughtfulness
Relationship Sign
Wedding the association
+ Romance = of the signifier
Birthday with the signified
Anniversary
Apology
Guilt
Illness
Death
Funeral

When Gertrude Stein said, “A rose is a rose is a rose,” she was highlighting the semiotic principle that we
subconsciously associate items, such as a rose, with imagery and emotions. A rose (the signifier) can mean
many different things (the signified), depending on the context. Examining this relationship (the sign)
deepens our understanding of the ways we generate meaning when we communicate.

Although this point may seem rather obvious, another semiotic insight is not
quite so evident. Once we learn what certain sounds mean (or what certain visual
images mean), we take what we have learned as natural and accept it largely with-
out question. This fact makes the creation and use of signs extremely powerful
because it not only influences our thinking but even directs certain behaviors.
Think of what you do without question, for example, whenever you are driving and
come to a stop sign.
Similarly, an indexical sign is visual but signifies something else to which it is
not actually related except by association. Consider the image of a floppy disk in
most software programs that indicates the “save file” function. Most computers in
use today do not even have floppy-disk drives, yet we understand what the image
has come to represent.
Some scholars argue that semiotics is the heart of communication. Noted se-
miotician and novelist Umberto Eco, in his book A Theory of Semiotics, asserts that
“Every act of communication to or between human beings—or any other intelli-
gent biological or mechanical apparatus—presupposes a signification system as
its necessary condition.” In other words, without a common understanding of
what signs mean, whether they are visual or lingual, we would not be able to
communicate.
Some knowledge of semiotics is required for a deeper understanding of the
processes of communication and the production of meaning among people and in
cultures. It is also especially important for advertising professionals who seek
insights into how target audiences may receive various ad and branding
campaigns.
 42 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

FRAMING
framing All forms of mass communication, including news, employ framing, which works
The presentation and
in much the same manner as signs in semiotics. It relies on the notion that we clas-
communication of a message in a sify, organize, and interpret things into certain schema, or frameworks, to simplify
particular way that influences our the complex. We have to do this just to get through the day; if we carefully consid-
perception of it. ered and analyzed every message we received, we would never be able to leave the
house in the morning. Instead, we take mental shortcuts with much of what we
encounter, letting some things go unexamined as we carry on with our lives.
Frames act much like signs and symbols in semiotics: Once accepted, they
appear natural and go largely unquestioned. They also shape our perceptions of
people, places, issues, and events. Two words—“rights” versus “benefits”—provide
a simple example of framing. If an Iraq War veteran is lobbying the government to
obtain better health care and services for injuries, demanding veterans’ rights has
a different connotation than asking for veterans’ benefits. The term “benefits”
suggests something extra, a privilege perhaps not available to other people and
Fox News and MSNBC framed their therefore unequal or unfair. Arguing for veterans’ rights, on the other hand, sug-
coverage of the Keystone Pipeline quite gests something fundamental that is being with withheld.
differently, with Fox News emphasizing Framing may sound simply like spin, but it is not. We all frame our world, and
jobs—Keystone pipeline would create
“tens of thousands of jobs”—and good communicators know how to frame debates in ways that favor their views
MSNBC focusing on the environmental and disadvantage those of opponents. A persuasive communicator who wins the
impact: “New Canadian pipeline, new framing battle also likely wins that particular debate. Pollster and political com-
environmental problems.”
munications consultant Frank Luntz helps conservative politicians reframe words
to persuade others. See Table 2-1 for examples.
Similarly, George Lakoff, UC Berkeley professor of linguistics and cognitive
echo effect
science, discusses liberal framing, often chastising Democrats for failing to employ
A phenomenon that occurs when persuasive depictions of controversial issues such as health care. See Table 2-2 for
people surround themselves with examples of liberal reframing. Note how some of these have successfully become
online voices that echo their own,
reinforcing their views and the the dominant term for the issue, just as some terms have for conservative frames.
belief that those opinions are Framing is of great consequence in today’s world because of the ubiquity of
in the majority when in fact they mass-communication media. It is easy to see how this media coverage can shape
may not be. our perceptions of the world, especially when “framed” conversations are intensi-
fied by the echo effect, a phenomenon that occurs when people surround them-
selves with online voices that echo their own, reinforcing their views and the
belief that those opinions are in the majority when in fact they may not be. But, as
we will see, concerns about media effects are not new.

TABLE 21 Reframing Political Issues for Conservatives

NEVER SAY INSTEAD SAY

Tax cuts Tax relief

Inheritance tax Death tax

Undocumented workers/aliens Illegal immigrants

George Lakoff is a noted cognitive
linguist who discusses the effects of Drilling for oil Exploring for energy
framing on the public’s perception of a
range of social and political matters. Source: Frank Luntz, Words That Work: It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear.
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 43

TABLE 22 Reframing Political Issues for Liberals

ISSUE OR CAUSE DISCUSSED AS

Tax subsidies Corporate welfare (Ralph Nader)

Gay marriage Same-sex marriage

Tax increases for the wealthy Paying a fair share

Abortion debate Pro-choice or women’s rights

Early Concerns of Media Effects

Over the last century, public concern has arisen about the possible effects of each
new medium of mass communication as it has emerged. Questions have been
asked about each medium’s impact on culture, political processes, children’s values
and behaviors, and the like. In the 1920s, much of the public became worried
about the depiction of sex, violence, and lawlessness in film. In recent years, ques-
tions have proliferated about how the Internet and video games may influence us,
even perhaps altering how we think.
Such anxieties have a long history. In the 1800s, critics warned that newspa-
pers caused juvenile crime. Moralists believed that the flow of sensational news
stories about crime and vice would lead people to imitate such immoral behavior.
In 1888, Punch magazine attributed Jack the Ripper’s crimes committed in
Whitechapel, a rough inner-city district of London, to “highly coloured pictorial
advertisements.”
Alarm about the effects of media on children has even deeper roots. We know
that in ancient Greece, philosophers Socrates and Plato worried about the influence
of literacy on children. Plato was especially apprehensive about the morally cor-
rupting resonance of poetry, particularly allegorical tales such as Homer’s Battles of
the Gods, which he sought to ban.5 In 360 , Plato offered this reasoning:
Children cannot distinguish between what is allegory and what isn’t, and opin-
ions formed at that age are usually difficult to eradicate or change; it is therefore
of the utmost importance that the first stories they hear shall aim at producing
the right moral effect.
PLATO, THE REPUBLIC
It is hard today to appreciate the profound effect writing once had on society.
No longer was a good memory prized as it was in a nonliterate oral culture, be-
cause memorization was not needed to store information. The form of storytelling
changed with writing because repetitive phrases were no longer needed as memory
prompts for storytellers, and the rhythm and cadences of what was written dif-
fered from what had been spoken.
Moreover, storytellers could lose control of their words in written form. Some-
one could take a person’s words and twist their meaning, with no chance for an
immediate response or perhaps any response at all. In fact, the author of a work
had no way of knowing who might read it or when. Greek children sneaking off
with a scroll of poetry to read in secret may seem comical; but in a fundamental
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sense, this is no different than kids today sneaking into an R-rated movie in the
multiplex or surreptitiously removing the parental controls on the cable TV ser-
vice or computer.
Plato’s issues with writing as a new medium relate to its particular media
grammar, knowledge of which is integral to the development of media literacy.

Media Grammar
media grammar First, a critical consumer of media messages must understand media grammar,
The underlying rules, structures,
the underlying rules, structures, and patterns by which a medium presents itself
and patterns by which a medium and is used and understood by the audience. Each medium of mass communica-
presents itself and is used and tion presents its messages uniquely. With media familiar through widespread use
understood by the audience. or exposure, we do not often think about the extent to which media grammar af-
fects our perceptions—what we see and how we see it. In many respects, it be-
comes background in much the same way that semiotic signs become natural to
us. Nevertheless, media grammar can have profound implications for our under-
standing of media content. We become more aware of it when we encounter a new
medium whose rules we do not yet know.
Here, we will look briefly at the main forms of media, the basics of their par-
ticular grammar, and their potential effects on our perceptions and expectations.

PRINT MEDIA
Print media, partly due to their long history compared to other
types of mass communication, have developed a very sophisti-
cated media grammar. Everything about a book—its physical
dimensions, the artwork on its jacket, the size and style of the
typeface, whether it is hardcover or paperback, whether it con-
tains pictures or not—conveys important messages to the po-
tential buyer beyond the actual content. Within a book itself,
several aspects of media grammar have evolved over the years.
Spacing between words to aid reading comprehension is an
early example, as are page numbering, tables of contents, in-
dexes, and chapter headings. Many of these conventions we
now take for granted actually took years to become widely
adopted and standard in books.
Newspapers have their own types of media grammar that
have also evolved over time and that continue to change. An
obvious example is the number of color photos and graphics in
newspapers today compared to forty years ago. Because space is
limited in a newspaper, more graphics means less room for text.
Many media critics and journalists have complained that this
packaging of news into relatively short, easy-to-read units ac-
companied by splashy visuals does readers a disservice by not
providing them with the necessary depth of information. Pro-
Even without knowing the language, we can often recognize ponents of the trend argue that to compete with television and
what kind of foreign newspaper we are viewing simply from the other visual media for audience attention, newspapers must
look of the publication. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION:
What visual aspects of the newspaper help us identify its type present news in formats that accommodate readers’ busy
of publication and its type of target audience? lifestyles.
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 45

Most newspapers are organized into sections, such as sports, business, and local
news. Not only do these help organize information so that readers can quickly find
stories that interest them, but they also create parameters for what types of stories
to expect. Sections also help define where certain advertisers prefer to appear in the
paper, showing how media grammar can intersect with commercial interests.
Magazines use sophisticated graphic and design techniques, even more so
than newspapers, and feature more long-form writing, often with just one or two
articles per page and multipage pieces. Advertising often takes up a full page, and
in some magazines it is hard to tell immediately if something is an ad rather than
graphics at the beginning of a feature. Magazines combine certain elements of
books and newspapers in their media grammar. Because of their length, they usu-
ally have a table of contents (many also have an advertiser index) that helps read-
ers rapidly access specific articles. Like newspapers, magazines are often divided
into subject-related sections within their topic areas. actualities
Given that the grammar for print media developed over hundreds of years, we Edited audio clips from interviews
have adapted surprisingly quickly to the rise of electronic media, especially audio with people.
and, later, video.
voice-over

RADIO AND RECORDED MUSIC An unseen announcer or narrator

talking while other activity takes
Radio and recorded music have their own grammar, one based only on sound. place, either on radio or during a
Radio uses a combination of audio techniques to achieve different ends. These television scene.
include volume changes, multiple audio tracks, actualities
(i.e., edited audio clips from interviews with people), sound effects,
and voice-overs, all of which can be used to convey information,
capture attention, or evoke a mood or scene.
Recorded music typically conforms to particular stylistic con-
ventions, especially regarding length (less than five minutes a
song) and music format. Popular music genres, such as hip-hop,
rock, and country, have certain rhythms, lyrical styles, and sounds
that make them clearly distinguishable. This underlying media
grammar of specific categories or genres makes it easier to market
and promote artists. Once again, we see how media grammar can
interact with the economic interests of the media. Radio stations
brand themselves by the genres they generally play, making it
easier for audiences to pick stations that play music they like.
Still, putting music into genres such as this has its drawbacks.
Someone with a sound or style that does not readily conform to a
well-established genre may find it harder to get airplay because radio
stations are reluctant to play something that does not fit nicely into
their established formats. An artist may also find it difficult to get a
recording contract in the first place, for a recording label will not
want to sign someone it believes radios will not want to promote.
Even the apparently chaotic talk radio has a well-defined media
grammar. It is one of the few traditional mass-communication for-
mats to include frequent interaction between media producers or
hosts and the audience. Despite its highly interactive nature, how-
ever, those who call in are obviously in a subordinate position, as
they do not control how long they speak and can even be discon- Rush Limbaugh is a conservative commentator, considered
nected at any time. the father of today’s politically oriented talk show format.
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Although radio developed years before television became a mass medium, and
some of the earliest television shows were taken directly from popular radio pro-
grams, media producers and audiences had already developed a fairly complex
visual grammar, thanks in large part to the popularity of movies.

FILM AND TELEVISION

Film and television have much shorter histories than print, but they have devel-
oped an intricate media grammar based on editing, camera angles, lighting, move-
ment, and sound.
In the early history of film, for example, most movies were only a few minutes
long and either simply recorded daily activities or essentially filmed short stage plays.
Filmmakers started producing more sophisticated story
lines for their short films and introduced a technique unique
to film at the time—crosscut scenes. By crosscutting differ-
ent scenes to simulate events happening simultaneously in
two different locations (think of the classic scenes of a train
heading down the tracks and a woman tied to the tracks by
the villain), filmmakers were able to tell much more com-
plex and dramatic stories. Further, increasing the speed be-
tween crosscut scenes increased dramatic tension.
With many more such tools at their disposal, today’s
filmmakers are able to convey a lot of information, all
through visual or audio techniques. Think of how we respond
to background music and strong shadows in horror movies,
or how we understand a dream sequence or flashback, or
In what has been dubbed geek-chic TV, The Big Bang Theory, the most how we visually distinguish good from bad characters even
popular comedy since Friends, follows the exploits of another group of before the plot or dialog has revealed their true natures.
friends, most of whom are nerdy scientists. This multi-cam sitcom
prompts mirthful responses from its devoted and enormous TV
The media grammar of television fiction employs many
audience with a prominent laugh track. CRITICAL THINKING of the same techniques seen in movies, although television
QUESTIONS: With closed captions instead of volume on, watch an production budgets are, of course, much smaller than movie
episode of your favorite sitcom that has a laugh track. Do you chuckle
as readily without the auditory cues?
budgets. Consider the media grammar of an average sitcom—
it is usually shot on a set, with perhaps less than half a dozen
locations (almost always indoors), and the actors come and go as if on a stage. The
camera is usually stationary, although multiple camera angles are used; and punch
laugh track lines are reinforced by a laugh track, which in some sitcoms can be timed with almost
A television sitcom device that clockwork precision (even if the line isn’t particularly funny).
generates prerecorded laughter Other types of television shows have their own media grammars, such as game
timed to coincide with punch lines shows, soap operas, talk shows, and news. Television news, especially, has borrowed
of jokes. some elements of online media grammar—which had originally borrowed heavily
from television for graphical user interfaces such as windows and digital video. Exam-
ples include multiple windows on the television screen showing different kinds of in-
formation and scrolling news tickers across the bottom of the screen giving updates.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider the media grammar of a popular film, focusing es-
pecially on how camera angles give the audience cues as to what to think and feel about
the characters. Come up with as many different camera techniques and their possible
meanings as you can and compare with other students’ interpretations.
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 47

DIGITALMEDIA GRAMMAR
We may be thoroughly familiar and comfortable with the Internet and social media,
but many people throughout the world have limited or no contact with the online
realm, whose grammar is still developing. The Web of 2004 bears little resemblance
to the Web today, and the Web will look even more different ten years from now.
Even with constant changes in the Web, certain elements of media grammar
have been established. Hypertext, for example, is generally either underlined or hypertext
otherwise set apart typographically or graphically from nonlinked text. More and Text online linked by HTML coding
more web designers are following an unwritten rule to have a website logo in the to another web page or website or
upper-left corner of the screen linked to the website’s home page. Icons in the to a different part of the same web
form of buttons, badges, and other symbols create a visual, interactive language page.
that lets us interact easily with the content and inform others on our social net-
works what we are reading or doing. Other examples include more or less stand-
ardized icons for functions such as printing, opening a document, playing a video,
emailing a document, and zooming in or out on maps.
The media grammar of digital media evolves with our communication devices.
Today, we think nothing of swiping across the screen on our mobile phone to move
to a new window or pinching the screen to zoom out.
These kinds of touch-screen interfaces in turn affect
the design and features of websites, further changing
the look and feel of the Web.
The digital media grammar has adopted freely
from traditional media forms that it has absorbed,
but it has also continued to innovate and create new
ways for us to interact with the media. For example,
the shift from a point-and-click interaction with a
mouse to touch-screen swipes and “pinches” to ma-
nipulate the content helps make us aware that there is
nothing natural about how we use media today. The
same principle applies to how the evolution of our cur-
rent media system operates and how it has evolved,
even though we are often so embedded in that system
that it is hard to step outside of it and examine it Many websites share certain conventions that users have come to expect,
critically. such as a link in the top left-hand corner back to the home page.

Implications of Commercial Media

Even in open and democratic societies with a free press, economic factors and cor-
porate decisions often influence what is and is not covered in the news and what
kind of entertainment is created for the general public. Rarely do typical media
consumers think of the commercial factors that shape the content they see every
day, forces that affect everything from what types of entertainment shows are
produced to what kind of news is reported.
These activities happen at the local, national, and international levels. At the
local level, reducing the number of reporters at a news organization to save money
can result in a noticeable drop in local coverage, such as coverage of area schools.
The newspaper company may save money, but the public is poorer for the lessened
coverage of local issues. A company that advertises heavily in a local newspaper
may gain undue influence in the paper’s decision as to whether to publish articles
48 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

MEDIA PIONEERS
Marshall McLuhan
International cultural icon and provocative media prophet lengthy interview with
Marshall McLuhan is known today less for a prolific body of McLuhan at home in
writing than for a couple of prescient precepts so oft re- the Toronto suburbs
peated they now border on the cliché. Yet the scholar who where he lived with his
coined aphorisms as familiar as “the global village” and “the wife and several chil-
medium is the message” leaves a colorful pioneering legacy dren. Woody Allen, in
as a public intellectual few academics can claim. his 1977 tour de force
“Academic” was nonetheless a profession the twenty-year- Annie Hall, even cast
old undergraduate expressly rejected in 1930s Western Canada. McLuhan as himself in a
As Terence Gordon explains, “He was learning in spite of his pro- cameo scene satirizing
fessors (emphasis in original), but he would become a professor a pedantic and preten-
of English in spite of himself.”6 After receiving a BA from the tious media professor.
University of Manitoba, McLuhan went on to Cambridge Uni- McLuhan, however, was not simply famous for being
versity, where he finished another BA (1936), required to pro- famous. A rare visionary, he foresaw in the sixties, long
ceed to an MA (1939) and a PhD (1942). Following a period of before the Internet, a global village created by the move-
agnosticism in his youth, McLuhan became a devout Roman ment from print to electronic media. And one of his most
Catholic (a conversion his Baptist mother had discouraged); and significant and enduring contributions to the yet undefined
from 1946 until experiencing a stroke in 1979, he taught at St. area of media literacy was a directive to look beyond the
Michael’s College at the University of Toronto. superficial content of the message and consider how the
With spectacular sales of Understanding Media: The Exten- intrinsic, various, and complex effects of the medium—
sions of Man (1964) came pop-culture fame, a degree of another message in itself—affect our perceptions.
mainstream recognition arguably unprecedented for a In spite of, or perhaps because of, his arresting pro-
North American academic. During the cultural revolution of nouncements and his celebrity status, the work of the
the sixties and seventies, McLuhan counted iconic figures as Canadian media theorist has been denounced by some for
diverse as then Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and dilettantism, cryptic rhetoric, and empirically unsubstanti-
hippie guru Timothy Leary among those he influenced. ated claims that unabashedly baffle, among other per-
Marshall advised Pierre on television appearances and alleg- ceived flaws. McLuhan, characterizing his academic
edly inspired Tim’s buzz phrase “turn on, tune in, drop out.”7 inquiries as “probes,” remained apparently unfazed by crit-
“Whatcha doin’, Marshall McLuhan?” was a recurring line on ics, even wryly professing to share some of their confusion:
Laugh-In, a popular TV comedy of the era. In 1969, Playboy “I don’t pretend to understand it. After all, my stuff is very
made a serious attempt to answer such a question in a difficult.”8

critical of it by threatening to withdraw its advertising. Or a newspaper publisher

with other business interests in tourism or real estate, for example, may influence
coverage by discouraging or even forbidding reports on certain crimes that may
hurt these commercial ventures.
Such manipulation of content is not confined to small-town media outlets. In
1998, HarperCollins, a subsidiary of Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation, can-
celled a book by Chris Patten, former British governor of Hong Kong. East and
West was reportedly highly critical of China’s policies, and Murdoch at the time
was courting China to accept Murdoch’s Star TV satellite and cable programs.
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 49

Similarly, a few years prior, he removed the BBC from Star TV when Chinese lead-
ers expressed displeasure at the BBC’s reports on the killings in Tiananmen
Square in June 1989. More recently, accusations swirled about Murdoch’s undue
influence on the 2013 elections in his native Australia, where he controls 70 per-
cent of the capital city news circulation. The publishing mogul was allegedly
using his newspaper headlines and even front pages to promote his candidate
and party of choice.9
These incidents are not meant to illustrate that Rupert Murdoch is particularly
greedy or selfish; similar stories of corporate decisions influencing what we see or
do not see can be told about all of the major media corporations and will be covered
in more detail throughout the book, especially Chapter 10 on media ethics.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Would you be willing to pay an annual television licensing fee
if television networks and cable companies promised to show fewer commercials? If so,
how much would you be willing to pay? Would you pay more to see no commercials?

COMMERCIALMEDIA DEBATE
Media scholar Robert McChesney has written several books that reveal how corpo-
rate media have adversely affected the quality of communications content we re-
ceive and how media companies have
lobbied the government to further their
own corporate interests at the expense of
the public interest. He claims that today’s
corporate media giants actually harm
our democracy and political processes in
a number of ways. These range from poor
news coverage that does not challenge
the status quo (especially when it comes
to media companies’ own business in-
vestments) to banal entertainment that
dulls our senses and incessant advertis-
ing that implies happiness is found
through consumerism—although, as we
discuss later, most media outlets depend
on that very advertising to exist.
According to McChesney, the com- Media scholar Robert McChesney founded Free Press to promote media reform and to
weaken the power of corporate media giants.
mercial nature of mass communications
underlies all mass media. And all would
agree, regardless of political ideology, that it takes money to run a media organiza-
tion. The question becomes one of where the money comes from—the commercial
marketplace or public sources of funding.
Arguably, media companies are businesses just like any other; and a business
that fails to turn a profit will fail to do right by its private owners or shareholders
if it is publicly traded. In recent history, media businesses have been among the
most profitable of any industry, with profit margins typically around 20 percent
on an annual basis.
50 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

On the other hand, critics of our corporate media system argue that media
companies are not like other companies, that their “products”—the signs and
symbols that shape our culture and views of the world through the news and en-
tertainment we consume—influence our thinking and behavior considerably
more than other types of products. Therefore, media companies should be publicly
funded so that they are not as beholden to the marketplace and the influence of
market logic on media content.
Proponents of commercial media identify the profit motive as a key incentive
for media companies to produce quality content that people will want to watch or

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Mobile Telephony in the Developing World
Despite the prevalence of the Internet and personal Mobile telephones provide an easy and relatively
computers in the United States and other industrialized cheap way to communicate, and text messaging
countries in Europe, South America, and the Asia-Pacific allows further mass coordination so that the phone
region, an even stronger competitor to the Internet and becomes part of a larger, ad hoc, mass-communica-
PC has emerged in the developing world—the mobile tion system. They also foster a sense of community
phone. among phone users. In Nigeria, for example, women
Mobile telephony can hold several advantages over generally run the various stalls in the urban market,
the Internet in many developing countries. First, poor coordinating prices with sellers in different locations
telecommunications infrastructures in these countries by mobile phone. What’s more, recognizing their
often make landline calls expensive and sporadic at best common interests and grievances, these sellers joined
together to try to alleviate some of the greater prob-
lems they faced.
Kenya’s M-Pesa, a mobile payment system, has
become the primary source of remittances by Kenyans
in the city to relatives in the countryside. So popular is
M-Pesa that its transactions comprise 31 percent of
Kenya’s gross domestic product (GDP).10 M-Pesa was
launched by mobile telecommunications company Safa-
ricom, which has 19 million customers in Kenya, 15 mil-
lion of whom use M-Pesa.
Africa’s vast number of mobile phone users, esti-
mated at 700 million or 70 percent of the African popula-
tion, and the lack of bank access for many, means that
mobile phone payments are a promising growth area.11
It shows how technology and economics converge to
for those who have phones. Without adequate phone help developing countries leapfrog rich industrialized
lines, let alone consistent electric power, it is nearly im- countries in some areas.
possible to depend on a PC or regular Internet service. As low-cost smartphones expand their reach in the
Many of these countries do not have cable television developing world, and companies such as Google begin
wires, relying instead on satellite transmission of cable to deliver free, high-speed, wireless Internet service
content, when allowed by the governments. In countries through its “Project Loon” using aerial balloons, mobile
such as Malaysia, for example, owning a satellite dish is a Internet becomes another compelling advantage to
crime. mobile media.
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 51

read. The Disney Company, for example, is among the most profitable of major
publicly owned media companies in the United States. And it is recognized for its
quality entertainment products, including award-winning motion pictures, re-
corded music, and television (it owns the ABC television network and ESPN, the
most profitable channel on television).
Critics claim, however, that financial pressures can lead media companies, es-
pecially publicly traded companies, to focus on the short term with decisions such
as cutting costs or laying off staff, actions that may increase near-term profits but
decrease the quality of a product such as news coverage. These profits may be im-
mediate but not sustainable.
Critics also assert that consumers actually have fewer choices than we believe
when it comes to media content, thanks in large part to the concentration of media
ownership.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Imagine a media system that is entirely publicly funded and
government run. What problems might arise with such a system, and how might program-
ming be different?

CONCENTRATION OF MEDIA OWNERSHIP

Economies of scale have financial incentives for most companies. Strictly speak-
ing, economy of scale refers to the decrease in unit manufacturing cost that re-
sults from mass production. Media enterprises can reduce costs and increase
profit by becoming larger and reaching a larger market with their content. Of
course, just getting bigger doesn’t necessarily translate into greater economies of
scale, but it is the basic reason behind a fundamental trend in media over the past
half-century. Successful media enterprises have acquired, either through pur-
chase or merger, other media enterprises and have thereby grown in size and
scope. Newspaper companies have bought other newspaper companies; radio-
station groups have bought other radio-station groups. Cross-media enterprises
have acquired other media enterprises, sometimes extending internationally as
well. The result is a media system that is increasingly large, multifaceted, and
global in ownership. These companies compete with other large media enterprises
and across international borders.
Some critics have argued that despite the possible economies of scale, media
conglomerates and media monopolies (i.e., when only one media organization
serves the public or community) have a significant downside. Greater concentra-
tion of ownership, or fewer owners owning more media, results in less diversity of
media voices and the possible silencing of minority and non-mainstream views—
a disservice to the public.
In his book New Media Monopoly, Ben H. Bagdikian, one of the most vocal crit-
ics of concentrated media ownership, presents evidence that during the 1990s, a
small number of the country’s largest corporations purchased more public com- Despite News Corporation’s split into
munications power than ever before. In 1983, the biggest media merger to date two separate companies in 2013, one
was a $340 million deal involving the Gannett Company, the newspaper chain focusing on entertainment and the other
on publishing, both are still
that bought Combined Communications Corporation, whose assets included bill- independently in the top tier of media
boards, newspapers, and broadcast stations. In 1996, Disney’s acquisition of conglomerates based on company value.
 52 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Capital Cities/ABC cost $19 billion. In 2001, AOL’s acquisition of Time Warner
dwarfed even this deal at $160 billion.
Although we have not seen deals of this size in the 2000s and 2010s, acquisi-
tions typically continue to occur in the billions of dollars. These include cable pro-
vider Comcast’s acquisition of NBCUniversal from parent company General
Electric for $30 billion in 2009 and completed in 2013; Google’s purchase of You-
Tube in October 2006 for $1.6 billion; and the McClatchy newspaper chain pur-
chase of thirty-two Knight-Ridder newspapers in March 2006 for $4.5 billion.
These large companies, Bagdikian contends, have built a communications
cartel within the United States, a group of independent businesses that collabo-
rate to regulate production, pricing, and marketing of goods. This cartel controls
industrial products such as gasoline, refrigerators, or clothing. But also at stake
are the symbols—the words and images—that define and shape the culture and
political agenda of the country. In other words, a cable provider such as Comcast,
which in many markets is the sole provider, now also controls the content from its
NBCUniversal media properties. Bagdikian writes,
Aided by the digital revolution and the acquisition of subsidiaries that operate
at every step in the mass communications process, from the creation of content
to its delivery into the home, the communications cartel has exercised stun-
ning influence over national legislation and government agencies, an influence
whose scope and power would have been considered scandalous or illegal twenty
years ago.
Bagdikian further notes that 99 percent of the daily newspapers in the United
States are the only daily in their cities. Similarly, all but a few of the nation’s cable
systems are monopolies in their cities. Most of the country’s commercial radio sta-
tions are part of national ownership groups, and just a half-dozen formats (e.g., all
news, rock, hip-hop, adult contemporary, oldies, easy listening) define program-
ming. The major commercial television networks and their local affiliates carry
programs of essentially the same type all across the country. Looked at from this
perspective, the media do not offer the diversity in content that one would expect,
even as the number of TV or radio channels increase.
media oligopoly This system is called a media oligopoly, a marketplace in which media own-
A marketplace in which media ership and diversity are severely limited and the actions of any single media group
ownership and diversity are affect its competitors substantially, including determining the content and price
severely limited and the actions of of media products for both consumers and advertisers.
any single media group affect its Nine diversified media giants dominate the media worldwide (see foldout sec-
competitors substantially, including
determining the content and price
tion at the back of this book). Many of these international conglomerates are
of media products for both themselves part of a larger company comprising nonmedia business interests or
consumers and advertisers. contain in their financial portfolio significant nonmedia commercial properties
and investments. They include a wide range of media or channels of distribution.
Note that three of the nine started as computer or technology companies and that
Google didn’t even exist until late 1998.
Each of these nine companies is responsible for much of what we see, hear, or
read in traditional media or interact with on the Web. Of course, these are not the
only media companies in the world: McChesney identifies a “second tier” of about
fifty large media companies operating at the national or international level, each
doing more than $1 billion of business a year. Any of these second-tier companies,
in and of themselves, can be considered a huge media power with an array of busi-
ness interests, although their revenues pale in comparison to the big nine.
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 53

Becoming literate about the concentration of media ownership and consolida-

tion of media companies into ever-larger companies does not entail simply learn-
ing the inside scoop on who owns what. As Bagdikian, McChesney, and other
scholars have indicated, the power that these media wield has serious political,
societal, and cultural repercussions. If much of the media we consume comes from
a handful of large conglomerates, it raises questions about the role that media bias, media bias
how information may be skewed toward a particular viewpoint, might play in A real or perceived viewpoint held
forming our views of politics, society, and culture. by journalists and news
organizations that slants news
coverage unfairly, contrary to
professional journalism’s stated
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider your level of media diversity by listing the types of goals of balanced coverage and
shows you watch, material you read, and music you listen to. Trace three different media in objectivity.
this list back to their corporate parents. Classify your tastes into genres, and compare with
someone else to assess the diversity of your media consumption.

Media Bias
Both the left and the right claim that the media, especially the news, are biased
against them; and both sides can cite various examples in the media, in scholarly
studies, and in popular books that supposedly prove their points. If the media
make neither side happy, then they must be doing something right, some might
say. Still, this rather glib response to an apparent paradox circumvents the very
real issue of media bias and how to recognize it.
Professional journalism has a strong culture of what used to be called “objec-
tivity” but is now referred to as “fairness and balance,” or the professional duty
to cover an issue so that all sides are presented accurately and justly. This also

Daytime TV shows such as The Talk can sometimes introduce formerly taboo or controversial
social subjects to the public’s attention.
54 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

means that professional news reporting should not reveal a journalist’s personal
views.
We tend to think of the news as objective—a belief supported by its media
grammar, particularly the camera angles, lighting, distance between the subject
and interviewer, sound, and intercut scenes that all affect our perceptions. The
“objective point of view” in television news interviews treats the viewer as an ob-
server. Typically, the camera is kept still, with shots over the shoulder of the jour-
nalist interviewing a subject. Prior to the interview, the journalist instructs the
subject never to look directly into the camera, a privilege reserved for the news
anchor or field reporter, who often summarizes or concludes her report in this
manner that establishes eye contact with the audience. This grammar encourages
the viewer to see significant differences between subject and reporter, specifically,
the latter’s greater authority and objectivity.
Any notion of objectivity or even balance in news coverage has been chal-
lenged for a number of reasons. Many question its very possibility. This becomes
especially problematic with news stories that feature various groups who may not
self-identify the same way they are identified by news organizations. A framing
bias could affect a journalist’s choice of terms, defining someone as a “terrorist”
rather than “rebel,” for example. Because most news is about some type of conflict
and because conflicts often involve a disagreement over basic facts or even defini-
tions of terms, news organizations often get caught in semantic battles.
Another criticism of the balanced approach is that in striving for balance,
news organizations can simply become stenographers for opposing sides, duti-
fully reporting what each side says but never providing any context for readers or
viewers, thus depriving the audience of relevant information. According to this
view, news organizations would serve the public better if they provided more
openly partisan commentary and critique on news events rather than trying to
pretend they are above the fray and simply reporting from a fair and balanced
perspective.
Finally, some question whether balance, even if it were attainable, is always
even a worthy goal. W. Lance Bennett in News: The Politics of Illusion argues that
giving various positions equal consideration in a debate can confer on them equal
legitimacy when this may not be the case, leaving readers and audiences confused
about whose views are more credible. (Who knows? After all, both sides had equal
airtime.) Many believe, for example, that challenging knowable and empirical re-
alties on purely political grounds only muddies the waters of what should remain
a scientific debate.12
Media scholars on the left claim that the media are not biased to favor liberals
but actually skew toward promoting conservative or at least corporate-friendly
ideologies. Eric Alterman, author of What Liberal Media? The Truth About Bias and
the News, argues that the constant refrain from conservative commentators about
the media’s liberal bias has made many media outlets present more conservative
views than they would have otherwise. When representatives of the political left
are enlisted to provide an opposing perspective, they are often much closer to the
center than some equally qualified experts who may be more liberal, thus shifting
the debate to the political right.
Media scholars also cite many examples of pro-business and pro-government
bias in news coverage, regardless of the political party in office. Some were highly
critical of the complacency of news organizations during George W. Bush’s
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 55

ETHICS IN MEDIA
When Media Report Rape Allegations
Bill Cosby is a widely known media figure and comedian who
in 2014 at age 77 was planning to make a career comeback.
Cosby had been a popular entertainer and media celebrity
since at least the 1960s with his successful TV series, I, Spy; his
children’s animated series, Fat Albert; and in the 1980s, The
Cosby Show.
Then, just as Netflix was planning a comedy special com-
memorating his 77th birthday and NBC television network had
scheduled a new Cosby pilot project, reports began circulat-
ing in the media and social media about allegations that Cosby
had sexually assaulted women many years before. Although
the cases never went to trial, with a number being settled qui-
etly out of court, rumors remained in the air. Then, in autumn
of 2014, a video by emerging comedian Hannibal Burress refer- A firestorm of criticism in the media has engulfed Bill Cosby,
ring to the rape allegations against Cosby went viral.13 allegations that may recast the legacy of one of America’s most
venerable comics. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: Conduct a
After that, the story snowballed in the mainstream
Google search on the topic of sexual assault or rape and Bill Cosby.
media and beyond, especially once an Associated Press video Watch the Hannibal Burress viral video that catapulted long-heard
interview showed Cosby refusing to address the allegations rumors into the limelight. Do these reports unfairly damage the
and even asking the reporter not to show any portion of the reputation of a leading black man? Or do they finally give voice to
interview where he had been asked to comment.14 Cosby’s women victimized by a rich and powerful celebrity? Should the
media report on allegations that the legal system has not vetted?
scheduled appearances were canceled on a variety of pro-
grams from David Letterman’s Late Show to Queen Latifah’s
daytime talk variety series. The cable network TV Land even
axed reruns of the esteemed The Cosby Show. lawyer, however, Cosby maintains that the charges are base-
Dozens of women have, as of this writing, come forward less and that the media are irresponsible to repeat such false
to renew their allegations of sexual assault. Through his accusations.

administration as Republican leaders made their case to invade Iraq, which turned
out to have neither weapons of mass destruction, as the administration claimed,
nor a role in the Al Qaeda attacks on September 11. They also point to coverage of
the financial crisis in 2008 that left fundamental issues leading to the crisis largely
unquestioned. If media organizations truly had a liberal bias, they say, then there
would have been greater critical reporting on such events and more discussion
about reforms rather than the considerable parroting of political and corporate
elites that took place with few proposals for systemic changes.
Media bias occurs not only in news stories, however. Entertainment media
play an important role in propagating stereotypes and demonizing certain behav-
iors. They can also normalize people and activities too. Popular daytime talk shows
featuring formerly taboo subjects, ranging from transgender children to domestic
violence, can help make discussion of such issues more acceptable, which can in
turn lead to these subjects appearing on television shows or dramas, thus becom-
ing even further embedded in our popular culture landscape.
56 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Similarly, advertising can play a role in propagating certain stereotypes or in

promoting cultural norms, which has drawn criticism from some groups. In 2013,
a Cheerios ad depicting an interracial couple with their child generated thousands
of complaints and negative comments in social media from those who considered
the portrayal of a black husband and a white wife offensive. Children, on the other
hand, saw nothing wrong with the commercial when asked.15
Understanding how media bias may affect our thinking and common-
sense assumptions about the world is an important aspect of media literacy.
Next, we will discuss how to develop media-literacy skills that improve our
critical thinking.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: For one day, note how many Facebook posts you see express-
ing conservative political views, how many presenting liberal views, and how many deal-
ing with pop culture or entertainment. How might the results influence your views of the
world and news?

Developing Critical Media-Literacy Skills

One assumption underlying criticisms of media bias and media effects is that the
public is largely passive and accepts unquestioningly the media it consumes. How-
ever, audience research has shown that audiences can be quite active in interpret-
ing and using media. Media-literacy skills help us become more engaged and aware
media consumers and producers as we learn to think critically about what we re-
ceive and transmit.
We have looked at basic media-literacy skills in the form of understanding
media framing and bias, as well as the role of media grammars. More advanced
critical media-literacy skills help us question our fundamental assumptions about
media and think about it in alternative ways.
Here, we provide a brief guide on how to think critically about media you en-
counter. These skills can be applied in varying degrees with any media, ranging
from advertisements to movies, news, and even video games.
1. What is the purpose of the media content? Is the purpose to persuade,
inform, or entertain? How might the media be working across these func-
tions, perhaps in hidden ways? For example, an advertisement’s main pur-
pose may be to persuade you to buy a product, but it may also entertain and
inform while doing so. A news story may be presented as primarily inform-
ative, but the nature of the story may also persuade audiences to adopt a
new position or confirm their existing assumptions about the world.
2. Consider the source of the media. Is the news story coming from a
media organization known for its political views on either the left or the
right? If the source is not a well-known media company but a blogger, ex-
amine the types of organizations the blogger links to for a sense of his or
her likely political views. Most websites and blogs link to other sites whose
views reflect their own.
3. Examine framing of media content. How might the choice of words
affect how media consumers perceive the information? How could
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 57

alternative words possibly change the overall impression of what was writ-
ten? In news stories, who is interviewed, who is treated as an expert and
what organizations do they work for, and how are they framed within the
stories? Who is quoted earliest in the story, and who is quoted more often?
4. What stereotypes are presented? It takes practice to question stereo-
types that appear so frequently they seem natural. One way to challenge
your thinking about portrayals of other groups in the media is to consider
what you would think if you or your group were portrayed that way.
Would you agree with that representation or stereotype? Would you be
offended?
5. Question the media ecosystem. Identify and question stereotypes as
reflected in the media environment or community of channels both online
and off (i.e., the media ecosystem). Think about whom the stereotypes help
and whom they harm. Is a group or organization profiting in some way
from promoting harmful stereotypes, and does the stereotyped group
have the same access to media as the dominant group? If not, why not?

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
Dos and Don’ts When Evaluating Online Information
The Internet is full of hoaxes, cranks, scams, and cons. The up- • Question the name of the organization that owns the
to-the-minute, 24/7 nature of news online and via social website. Lobbying groups and other organizations
media and its low-cost distribution make the Web an ideal trying to push a specific agenda will often adopt names
place for misinformation to spread quickly because facts that mask their true goals or cast them in a euphemistic
cannot always be quickly verified. Adding to the confusion light, or they will create front groups to hide behind.
are hacking attacks, such as the 2013 cyberattack on The SourceWatch, a project of the Center for Media and De-
New York Times’s website that prevented many users from ac- mocracy, is one good website for learning more about
cessing the site.16 The cyberattack was carried out by the the names behind the organizations that appear in the
Syrian Electronic Army, which also attacked Twitter, disabling news.
the social media outlet and posting false information. • Do not immediately trust information that lacks a date
How do you know when you are being fed a line when somewhere on the page. Information that may have
online? been accurate when first posted may well be out of
date when you visit the site.
• Check the About Us section of a website to get back-
• Cautiously consider information you read from discus-
ground information on who runs it. Do the site’s opera-
sion groups, chat rooms, blogs, and tweets, even if the
tors identify their mission, their principles, and their
person posting claims to be an expert on the subject.
sponsors, or do they seem evasive and unclear?
Try to confirm the information with another source, and
• Scan the sites they link to on a Useful Links page. Most web-
examine the speaker’s academic or professional creden-
sites link to others who share their views or similar beliefs.
tials through a quick Google search. As the famous New
• Compare the information on the website with similar
Yorker cartoon of a dog sitting at a computer talking to
stories on other websites, both from branded news
another dog said, “On the Internet, nobody knows
names and from smaller sites. If a well-known or re-
you’re a dog.” In the Internet age, that dog could be just
spected group has made an important and relevant
about anywhere or anyone in the world.
announcement, the organization’s website should post
that information as well.
58 PART 1 >> THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE www.oup.com/us/pavlik

What kind of media might the stereotyped group produce if it had equal
access to media production and distribution?
6. Make the media. Learning media production skills beyond writing is in-
valuable for media literacy as well as for the job market, especially for com-
munications professions. Reconstructing a commercial, a music video, or
even a news program from an alternative perspective is an excellent way to
challenge your assumptions about the presentation of media and their
messages.

MEDIA CAREERS

Careers in the media are in transition as jobs evolve and new occupations emerge.
According to Alissa Quart, senior editor at The Atavist, one of the most important
new media career paths is in the area of social justice. These journalists contribute
to media literacy by researching and writing on the often complex topics of crimi-
nal justice, income inequality, and race, gender, and class. Reporting on these sen-
sitive matters requires both a good sense of societal concerns and strong critical
thinking skills. Leading media organizations such as The New York Times have re-
cently hired inequality editors and reporters, and more such positions are in the
offing around the nation and the world.

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

Media literacy is not a goal to reach but an ongoing process; skills can always be
improved to become a better mass-media consumer, user, and participant. Media
literacy involves thinking critically about the media and questioning how differ-
ent media organizations may be biased in of their selection of stories, their cover-
age of stories, and even their choice of whom to quote in interviews or invite to
speak in panel discussions.
Entertainment media also have biases and can propagate ethnic and gender
stereotypes. We may be unaware of the commercial forces that shape the content,
largely because we see the end product and not the processes behind the scenes
that created the media product.
Consider how commercial forces may not always have the best interests of the
public at heart, even when media companies claim they are serving the public or
simply giving people what they want. Digital and social media present both an op-
portunity and a threat for the media and communication industries.
Longstanding corporations, institutions, and entire industries are being
turned upside down by the digital revolution. Businesses built on analog technolo-
gies of production and distribution are trying to figure out how to adapt in the
digital age. New efficiencies of creating and delivering content in a digital, net-
worked environment are emerging throughout the world. Long-held, highly
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 59

profitable business models based on analog technology are less viable in a digital
marketplace. Changes in our media environment also create a greater need for
media literacy, especially in the digital realm.
The problem of dealing with the enormous amounts of information available
to us, information overload, affects everything from government agencies information overload
being able to act rapidly on intelligence they have gathered to workers being able The difficulties associated with
to share relevant knowledge within companies. managing and making sense of the
Some say information overload has also affected the quality of students’ work vast amounts of information
and even their basic understanding of how to research and synthesize informa- available to us.
tion to create new ideas. Some college students submit research papers that are
simply cut-and-paste pastiches of material taken from different websites—
sometimes without even changing original font styles. Even students who realize
that this is not actually the correct way to write a paper can have a hard time dis-
cerning trustworthy sources of information on the Web.
Some people claim that the constant interruptions typically seen in the work-
place have hampered productivity and creativity, with tasks taking longer to com-
plete than in the past and workers feeling less able to concentrate for the extended
periods required to tackle complex problems. Email is a major culprit in informa-
tion overload, but the rise of social media has no doubt contributed to today’s
frequent interruptions.
Nevertheless, the new digital world means new business opportunities. It
means opening new markets formerly restricted by political, economic, and geo-
graphic boundaries. It means new storytelling formats that bring true interactiv-
ity to media. Whether these fresh opportunities will enhance media diversity
remains to be seen. The continued concentration of media ownership suggests
that the big media companies threatened by the digital shift are starting to regain
control of the media environment.
The rise of user-generated content and social media directly challenges tradi- Critics contend that Apple deliberately
tional media companies who commanded the public’s attention throughout most deleted songs from users’ iPods if they
of the twentieth century. The ways the public is creating media, often on nonmar- had been downloaded from
competitors’ services.
ket principles and simply for the joy of sharing and interacting with others, belie
the notion that the public is as happy with its mainstream media content as media
conglomerates would have us believe.
As some people are discovering, profits do not necessarily have to proceed
from the sale of packaged media products such as bestselling books. Seth Godin, a
noted author on Internet advertising and marketing, makes his books freely avail-
able for download on the Internet. What would appear to be the fast track to the
poorhouse is Godin’s successful strategy to get his books in the hands of many
influential people, including business leaders and conference organizers, who then
invite him (and pay him well) to speak at events and conferences.
Companies sustain their efforts to keep the public satiated with (and paying
for) a never-ending stream of media content that maintains the primarily one-
way flow of content from media producer to audience. Scholars such as McChesney
doubt the Internet will become a transformational communication technology
that can improve democracy and better engage citizens. Whether this occurs or
not will depend largely on how media literate the public becomes and how well we
develop our moral reasoning and ethical thinking to create the kind of society we
want to live in, not just have to live in.
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MEDIA MATTERS TESTING YOUR MEDIA LITERACY

You may consider yourself media literate and technologically savvy because you have grown up surrounded by
traditional and digital media. But media literacy entails much more than being able to tweet or recalling all the
movies in which your favorite actor has appeared. See what you know and what you can find out to determine
some of what media literacy involves.

1. Consider a current popular movie that you 4. In what ways may an advertiser influence the
have seen. Discuss some of its ethnic, news, if at all?
religious, gender, or other stereotypes, 5. Do you consider information from a blog or tweet
and consider why they appear. Do they have or via a mobile device more or less trustworthy
any consequences for the groups than material found on an organization’s website?
stereotyped? Why do you think so? How do you decide what
2. Working in a small group, describe your information to trust online?
favorite genre of music (e.g., hip-hop, rock, 6. Do a Web search for the top ten movies of
country) without using the name of the the past year, and note what genres they fall
genre, the titles of any songs, or the names into (e.g., action, thriller, romantic comedy).
of popular artists. Do not hum or imitate the Why do you think some genres seem more
music style. See who can figure out the popular than others?
genre first. Why do you think it was so hard 7. Would you sign a petition in support of tort
for you to explain without explicitly naming reform that limits the amount people can
the genre, the songs, or the artists? sue companies via frivolous lawsuits? What
3. What visual elements do you normally associate about a petition against the Corporate
with television news? Compare your list with Immunity Act, which would prevent litigants
that of your classmates, and then discuss how from fully recovering the damages inflicted
and why you think these visual elements came on them by corporate wrongdoing? What is
to define the format called “news.” the difference between these two?

FURTHER READING

Media Literacy, 6th ed. W. James Potter (2012) Sage Publications.

Approaches to Media Literacy: A Handbook, 2nd ed. Art Silverblatt, Jane Ferry, Barbara Finan (2009)
M. E. Sharpe.
Digital and Media Literacy: Connecting Culture and Classroom. Renee Hobbs (2011) Corwin Press.
The New Media Monopoly. Ben H. Bagdikian (2004) Beacon Press.
The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas. Robert W. McChesney (2008)
Monthly Review Press.
Digital Disconnect: How Capitalism Is Turning the Internet Against Democracy. Robert McChesney
(2013) The New Press.
The Problem of the Media: U.S. Communication Politics in the Twenty-First Century. Robert
McChesney (2004) Monthly Review Press.
 CHAPTER 2 >> MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE 61

Jamming the Media: A Citizen’s Guide to Reclaiming the Tools of Communication. Gareth Branwyn
(1997) Chronicle Books.
Citizen Muckraking: How to Investigate and Right Wrongs in Your Community. The Center for Public
Integrity (2000) Common Courage Media.
The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism. Thomas
Frank (1997) University of Chicago Press.
Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. Henry Jenkins (2008) NYU Press.
New Media, Old Media: A History and Theory Reader. Wendy Hui Kyong Chun, Thomas Keenan
(2007) Taylor & Francis.
The Filter Bubble: How the New Personalized Web Is Changing What We Read and How We Think. Eli
Pariser (2012) Penguin Books.
The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom. Yochai Benkler
(2007) Yale University Press.
Bodies in Code: Interfaces with Digital Media. Mark Hansen (2007) Routledge.
News: The Politics of Illusion. Lance Bennett (2012) Longman.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

64 Functions of Print Media

65 Distinctive Functions
of Books
66 History of Books
to Today
71 Current Book-Industry
Issues
72 Sales and Readership
of Books
74 Outlook for Books
75 Distinctive Functions
of Newspapers
76 History of Newspapers
to Today
79 Current Newspaper-
Industry Issues
81 Sales and Readership
of Newspapers
86 Outlook for Newspapers
87 Distinctive Functions
of Magazines
89 History of Magazines
to Today
90 Current Magazine-
Industry Issues
90 Sales and Readership
of Magazines
91 Outlook for Magazines
 3

Print Media
BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS,
AND MAGAZINES

A
Justice Department announcement in April 2012 had several of the LEARNING OBJECTIVES
biggest book publishers shaking in their boots—and others shaking
their heads. >> Describe the general functions
A government antitrust suit accused Apple and five major publishers of print media, and distinguish
of colluding to set 2010 prices of ebooks so no publisher could undercut Apple. between books, newspapers,
When Amazon’s Kindle was practically the sole ebook reader, ebooks typically cost and magazines.
$9.99, a price that jumped to $14.99 after Apple’s iPad, which could also perform >> Trace the historical
the same function, debuted. The publishers—HarperCollins, Hachette, Macmillan, development of print media.
Penguin, and Simon & Schuster—settled with the government, while Apple has con- >> Explain current business issues
tinued to fight the suit. In July 2014, however, without admitting wrongdoing, Apple affecting the industries for
agreed to settle a class-action lawsuit from states and consumers with a payout of each print medium.
up to $400 million dollars, subject to further appeals.1 >> Outline the financial model for
Amazon controls about 67 percent of the ebook market worldwide.2 An already each print medium, including
tense relationship with publishers soured further when Amazon, formerly a retailer sales, circulation, readership,
and distribution as well as the
of ebooks, entered the publishing business and became a direct competitor. The
transition to digital business
government suit claims that publishers worked clandestinely with Apple to promote models.
non-Kindle ebooks to break Amazon’s near monopoly on ebooks through its Kindle
>> Identify forces—including
reader.
political, cultural, economic,
Ironically, the antitrust suit actually strengthens Amazon’s position, replacing a technological—likely to affect
perceived monopoly with an actual one. A commanding position in ebooks allows the future of the print media.
Amazon to absorb losses on sales as it attracts more Kindle buyers and locks in the
market. Yet supporters of the book-publishing industry, including many bookstore
owners, are not persuaded that Amazon’s monopoly is good in the long run, as
competition provides incentive for such a company to continue to innovate and to
maintain low prices.
At the heart of the matter here is a classic confrontation between a traditional
business model—in this case, book publishing—and a bold new competitor that
wants to encourage reading while adapting to new distribution methods and pric-
ing models.

63
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Print media are arguably facing some of the biggest challenges from digital media,
ranging from declines in advertising revenues to changing patterns of reading
among the public. Print will continue, however, to play an important role in the
media landscape—even when text is read in electronic form.
Representing the beginning of mass communication, print media originated
in the typographical era of the Middle Ages. Mass forms of mechanical printing
and typography contributed to sweeping social transformation in Europe, includ-
ing mass literacy and the Renaissance. Adapting to such technological change
challenged society—a recurring problem encountered by subsequent ages. In
1962, noted communication theorist Marshall McLuhan claimed the following
about electronic media in The Gutenberg Galaxy, an observation that applies equally
to the digital age: “We are today as far into the electric age as the Elizabethans had
advanced into the typographical and mechanical age. And we are experiencing the
same confusions and indecisions which they had felt when living simultaneously
in two contrasted forms of society and experience.”
McLuhan, among others, argues that the medium of the printed word has
even changed the way we think. Reading lets us ponder. We can reread and rethink
passages of written text, developing responses in ways simply unavailable with
the spoken word. If, as scholars claim, the print format promotes critical-thinking
skills and refined, logical arguments, it raises questions regarding the effects on
our abilities to think logically and critically as we read less and consume more
audio or video digital media.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Do the Internet and the digital media age constitute a media
revolution as far-reaching as that brought on by the printing press? Identify some societal
and technological similarities and differences between now and the mid-1400s to support
your argument.

Functions of Print Media

Print media, in the form of books, newspapers, and magazines, serve many overlap-
ping social functions. Among the most important are cultural transmission from
generation to generation, the diffusion of ideas and knowledge, and entertainment.

TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE
Media, in all their forms, teach us the language, values, and traditions of a culture.
Although not the sole means of transmitting culture, books, newspapers, and
magazines convey what society considers right or wrong, acceptable or unaccepta-
ble. Reading often introduces immigrants and children to societal rules and
norms. Ancient religious texts such as the Bible, the Koran, or the Torah have suc-
cessfully imparted cultural mores and values for centuries.

DIFFUSION OF IDEAS AND KNOWLEDGE

Education in particular transmits culture, and books are central to lifelong formal
and informal education. Textbooks and other works of nonfiction impart everything
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 65

from philosophical theory to psychological self-help, teaching us not only how to do

things but also how to understand and appreciate the arts, literature, history, con-
temporary society, and the social and natural sciences.
Newspapers and magazines inform us of and interpret the latest events so
that we can make sense of the world. Here we read about recent foreign events as
well as new discoveries, fashions, and trends. Special-interest magazines feature
particular fields or hobbies, knowledge that helps us connect with others who
share our interests.

ENTERTAINMENT
Sometimes we read for specific knowledge; sometimes we read for the
sheer joy of it. The printed page can offer escape or diversion, allowing
us to travel to exotic places or distant planets where we encounter fan-
tastic creatures and memorable people. Popular books often become
the basis for films or cable series, such as Game of Thrones. A film ver-
sion of a favorite novel may disappoint, though, because the locations
and characters fail to resemble what we originally imagined.
Comic books and picture books, providing young readers with
some of their first adventures in reading, are designed to entertain.
Short stories, nonfiction magazine articles, and books can both engage
and inform, however. As their literacy skills develop, children advance
to early reader books such as The Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss, chapter
books such as Charlotte’s Web by E.B. White, young-adult (YA) fiction
such as To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, and nonfiction such as The
Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank.
Accessing the thoughts of the ancients through their texts may
allow us to find commonalities across centuries. Great literature can
elevate our senses and make us feel new emotions as characters come An enduring source of entertainment for young and
to life. Readers who may not otherwise know or care about our legal old alike, some books subsequently become the basis
for feature films. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS:
system or our military intelligence can, nevertheless, learn much from
Think of movies you may have seen after reading the
legal thrillers such as An Innocent Client by Scott Pratt in the Joe Dillard book. Were you pleased or disappointed with the film
series or military action stories such as Tom Clancy: Support and Defend version? Why was this the case?
by Mark Greaney, who is continuing the popular Jack Ryan series
started by author Tom Clancy.
Still, some recent studies indicate a drop in this activity, with only 67 percent of
Americans sixteen and older reporting that they read paper books, down from
72 percent in 2011. Meanwhile, ebook reading is growing rapidly, with almost half of
readers under thirty saying they had read an e-book in the previous twelve months.3

Distinctive Functions of Books

Even before books existed in the form that we know today, compiling comprehen-
sive knowledge in a single document was considered a vital, even sacred, endeavor.
Historically, religious texts have shaped beliefs and worldviews so profoundly that
wars continue to erupt over conflicting doctrine.
Staged book burnings attest to the social and cultural significance of books
throughout history and right up to today. Consider, for example, the violent pro-
tests in Afghanistan after members of a Florida church burned copies of the
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Koran, the Muslim holy book, in March 2011. Some groups

have burned books they believe corrupt children, including
those widely considered classics. Texts have been banned for
sexual content or political messages critical of the government.
Although more common in the early-to-mid-twentieth century,
this still occurs, as when Lebanon banned the controversial
2003 novel The Da Vinci Code.
Textbooks, although intended primarily to impart objective
knowledge, can express values through omission as much as in-
clusion. Whether high school science textbooks should discuss
both evolution and creationism is still a subject of heated debate
in the United States. China and Korea censure Japanese history
textbooks that either ignore or euphemize Japan’s World War II
Islamic State militants have sought to purge cities they’ve military atrocities. Purported cultural values of books written
invaded in Iraq and Syria of books, antiquities, and other
artifacts that do not conform to their extremist interpretations
to entertain can also stir controversy. The Harry Potter book
of Islam. series by J. K. Rowling has been criticized for not featuring
stronger female characters in central roles and even for promot-
ing witchcraft.
These examples demonstrate the book’s enduring cultural relevance and au-
thority in the digital age. Newspapers and magazines neither present the same
sense of established knowledge and compiled wisdom nor allow for the unfolding
of long or complex stories. The growing popularity of e-readers attests to the im-
portant role that books still play in our lives.

History of Books to Today

Since the Sumerians of 3500  pressed marks into wet clay tablets, creating
what some scholars consider the first book form, authors have been recording tex-
tual narratives. By 2500 , writers in western Asia were using animal skins as
codex scrolls, a more portable form than clay tablets. The ancient Egyptians wrote the
Manuscript book of individually Book of the Dead in 1800  on papyrus. Between the first century  and the
bound pages. sixth century , the codex, a manuscript of bound individual pages, began re-
placing the scroll, establishing the modern book form. Book pub-
lishing continued to evolve through innovation and invention:
block printing in China by 600 ; movable copper-alloy type in
Korea in 1234 ; and the Western world’s first mechanical print-
ing press in Germany in 1455 .

MONASTIC SCRIBES
Until the invention of printing, books had to be laboriously copied
by hand. In the Middle Ages, specially trained monks, or scribes,
copied religious and classical works in monastic writing rooms
called scriptoria. Largely dedicated to promoting the ideas of the
Christian Church, many books in this era were written in beauti-
ful calligraphy and were richly illustrated.
Korean copper-alloy type was the first printing to use metal Early books were published in scroll format and then codexes.
plates, hundreds of years before Gutenberg’s European press. Until paper arrived from China via the Middle East in the later
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 67

Middle Ages, European scribes wrote on parchment or vellum made from treated
hides of goats, sheep, or calves. Because copying and illustrating by hand were
extremely time-consuming, and creating parchment was expensive, books were
generally not widespread before the end of the Middle Ages.

JOHANNES GUTENBERG
The Christian Church grew in Europe along with the need for religious texts. In
1455 , this need inspired Johannes Gutenberg (1400–ca. 1468) to invent print- Johannes Gutenberg
ing with lead, using movable type, and pressing oil-based ink on paper with a con- German printer credited with
verted wine press. creating the first mechanical
Born to an upper-class merchant family in Mainz, Germany, Gutenberg printing press in 1455.
met the silversmith Prokop Waldvogel in Avignon in 1444 who taught the craft
of “artificial writing,” as early printmaking was called. In 1450, Gutenberg
formed a partnership with the wealthy Mainz burgher Johann Fust to complete
his own printing invention and to print the famous Gutenberg Bible, or Gutenberg Bible
“forty-two-line Bible,” whose 1455 publication is considered the beginning of Bible printed by Johannes
mechanical printing.4 Gutenberg in Europe in 1455,
Despite the advent of new printing technology, the handmade tradition con- considered one of the first
tinued. Books were still bound by hand, and illustrators embellished printed pages mechanically printed works.
with drawings and artistic flourishes to match the expectations for handwritten
manuscripts. Combining a printing press with existing bookbinding technology
enabled mass production at a fraction of the time and cost of an equal number of
hand copies. Religious and cultural centers of Europe initially welcomed the print-
ing press with enthusiasm.

The Gutenberg Bible, like most books of the period, had lavish hand-colored illustrations alongside
the printed text.
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BEGINNINGS OF MASS COMMUNICATION

AND MASS LITERACY
Critical to the growth of Renaissance culture, the printing press spread scientific
discoveries and religious beliefs—some of which challenged the authority of the
Catholic Church. Many books copied by scribes, especially scientific works, were
printed in Latin, effectively reducing readership to elites educated in the classics.
Printers rapidly discovered that books and broadsheets printed in local common
languages (the vernacular) found an eager audience as more common people
learned to read. Books had left the quiet monastic scriptoria and entered the bus-
tling commercial world of printmakers and the average person.
Despite this increase in printed materials from the Renaissance onward, lit-
eracy was not universal. Most Europeans and Americans remained illiterate until
the nineteenth century. In colonial America, education was available largely to the
wealthy, who could afford to hire and house private tutors for their children. Text-
Noah Webster is most famous for his books played a crucial role in the increased public education of the early 1800s
dictionary, but he also published a that helped reduce illiteracy among the general population.
grammatical textbook used widely
throughout much of the nineteenth
One of the first textbooks in America, the New England Primer, published ini-
century. tially circa 1690 by Benjamin Harris, introduced children to the English alphabet,
the rudiments of reading, and basic Christian values. In 1783, Noah Webster,
known today for Webster’s Dictionary, wrote A Grammatical Institute of the English
Language, a response to the popular textbooks imported from England that con-
veyed English cultural values. Known popularly as the “Blue Back Speller,” Web-
ster’s textbook provided tutorials on language, religion, morals, and domestic
economy. McGuffey Readers, first published in 1836, became standard reading
books for schoolchildren throughout the nineteenth century.
dime novel Nineteenth-century textbooks, like modern ones, reflect contemporary social
First paperback form whose cost
mores. Issues such as slavery and racism were not challenged. Today, textbook
of ten cents made it accessible even content on topics such as evolution and the Civil War is debated. To appeal to the
to the poor. widest cross section of society, textbooks tend to avoid controversial subjects, em-
bracing perspectives and knowledge generally agreed on within the dominant
group.

CHEAPER AND SMALLER BOOKS

Successful publishing has always been driven by wider distribution and lower pro-
duction costs. The printing press and digital books—and all the trends in
between—appeared as a result of these forces. Wider distribution of a popular
book, usually one that entertains, is one way to make money; lower prices that
make the book affordable for many is another. The dime novel and, later, mass-
market paperbacks, satisfied both these criteria.

Dime Novels
Accessible to even the poor, the dime novel sold for ten cents, as its name sug-
gests. In 1860, Irwin P. Beadle & Company introduced this first paperback book,
which initially featured stories of Indians and nationalistic pioneer tales. Ann S.
Stephens wrote the first dime novel, Malaeska: The Indian Wife of the White Hunter.
Dime novels, relatively affordable
Within a year of publication, Malaeska had sold more than three hundred thou-
paperbacks that first appeared in 1860,
made a range of tales accessible to an sand copies. By the 1870s, dime novels included melodramatic fiction, adventures,
increasingly literate public. detective stories, romances, and rags-to-riches tales.
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 69

Mass-Market Paperbacks
In 1939, Robert de Graff’s company, Pocket Books, introduced mass-market
paperbacks in the United States, a line of plastic-laminated books adorned with
its familiar kangaroo mascot, Gertrude, priced at twenty-five cents and sized
small enough for a back pocket. The paperback revolution stemmed from offering
books in places such as drugstores and supermarkets, a mass-distribution network
alternative to established bookstores.
The post-World War II baby boomers, who became the students of the 1950s
and 60s, were dubbed “the paperback generation.” They were raised on Dr. Benjamin
Spock’s best-selling paperback Dr. Spock’s Baby and Child Care and influenced by
paperbacks such as J. D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye and Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaugh-
terhouse Five.

Print-on-Demand
One interesting development in printing that began in the late 1990s is print-
on-demand (POD). High-quality color laser printing and binding machines can
print a single book in a few minutes at a fraction of the traditional cost with tiny
print runs that can make available and affordable books otherwise difficult or im-
possible to obtain.
POD enables writers to publish using low-cost printers and sell their paper-
backs online or even in some bookstores. The combination of low-cost, digital, and mass-market paperback
online technologies has released a flood of POD and ebooks published by authors Inexpensive, softcover books small
in recent years. In 2013, over 458,000 books were self-published, a 437-percent enough for a back pocket and sold
increase since 2008, with ebook publishing dropping slightly and print books in bookstores, supermarkets,
rising 29 percent over the year before.5 Industry watchers claim that this shows drugstores, and other public places.
how the self-publishing industry is maturing and how printed books are still very
print-on-demand (POD)
relevant for self-published authors. A growing number of POD publishers, such as
Xlibris, Virtual Bookworm, and Lulu Publishing, publish books for as little as Publication of single books or tiny
$400, not including editing or other potential costs for an author. print runs based on customer
demand using largely automated,
In 2002, the Internet Archive (www.archive.org) formed a group dedicated to nontraditional book-printing
digitizing and archiving all kinds of media. In its first year, the Internet Bookmo- methods such as the color laser
bile, a Ford minivan with a computer and a POD printer, toured U.S. cities giving printer.
people access to more than twenty thousand public domain books in its digital

Brewster Kahle, Internet Archive founder, has built a vast digital library of more than 1 million public
domain books, all available for free download to any Internet-connected computer or mobile device.
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archive, all available in minutes and at a fraction of bookstore costs. The Internet
Archive hoped it might prove a cost-effective option for libraries tasked with pur-
suing late books and reshelving them.

Ebooks
Ebooks offer various advantages over printed books, permitting us not only to
read text but also to make electronic annotations and bookmarks and to search
via an interactive table of contents or by keyword. In the late 1990s, major pub-
lishers, preparing for a surge in consumer demand, experimented with the
online sale and distribution of ebooks. Despite a slowdown in the growth of
self- published ebooks, mainstream publishers are still betting on the growth of
the ebook market.

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Global Ebook Marketplace
While the American public has been hungry for ebooks e-reader prices decline. In the United Kingdom, the
since 2008, the digital appetite has been smaller interna- 2010 arrival of the Amazon Kindle unleashed pent-up
tionally, where only some 20 percent of ebook sales demand. Within nine months, ebooks were outselling
occur. In European countries such as Germany, Spain, hardcover print. In 2011, Amazon introduced the Kindle
France, and Sweden, ebooks accounted for just 1 percent to Germany, France, Spain, and Italy. Apple reported in
of total book sales in 2011. Two years later, according to 2010 that sales of its Italian iBooks skyrocketed from 150
Statista.com, the ebook market share in Europe rose to to 1,000 copies a day within the first four days on sale.
4.5 percent, with a projection of 21 percent by 2017. In By 2013, demand had increased with the simultane-
other parts of the world less economically developed ous release of most new ebook titles in multiple lan-
and less literate, including much of Latin America, Asia, guages. In addition, geographical licensing restrictions
and Africa, ebook sales have been virtually nonexistent. had relaxed while navigating ebook copyright law—a
Yet some organizations, such as O’Reilly Media, complex dance among authors, agents, publishers and
report that ebooks are poised to take off globally. In distributors—had become easier.
Europe, sales of the Amazon Kindle have been rising as Ebook cost has dampened international growth,
however. Outside the United States, the average price in
2010 of a newly published ebook was $14, plus taxes,
compared to an American sticker price of $7.72. And in
the potentially huge market in China, with one-sixth of
the world’s population, ebooks have been an especially
tough sell. Many Chinese read on their phone using
“online literature” platforms such as Cloudary where
user-generated content dominates. Moreover, digital
publishing, like publishing in general, is controlled by
the government, which has entered the market
cautiously.
Nevertheless, as these various and diverse chal-
lenges are met, the global demand for ebooks is ex-
pected to rise dramatically, particularly in Japan, South
Digital e-readers enable ebooks and other content to be Korea, and China, with sales of nearly a billion total
displayed in a variety of languages and alphabets. ebooks expected by 2016 in those three countries.6
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 71

The 2007 launch of Amazon’s Kindle ebook reader was heralded as the latest
technological breakthrough, a potential tipping point toward digital. Older Kindle
models with 4 GB of memory can store up to 3,500 titles, according to Amazon;
whereas the Kindle Fire, with 8 GB, can store 7,000 titles—along with allowing
movie viewing, listening to music, and playing games. Penguin Random House,
Simon & Schuster, HarperCollins, and other major publishers have embraced
ebook readers such as the Kindle, the Sony Reader, and Barnes & Noble’s Nook,
making many more titles available digitally. Free sample chapters and other mar-
keting techniques have promoted growth, as have improvements in hardware,
such as screen clarity and greater storage. Popular tablets, including the iPad and
Kindle Fire, have also expanded the market, blurring the distinction between an
exclusively ebook reader and a multifunctional entertainment device that includes
ebook functions.

Current Book-Industry Issues

In 2013, the book-publishing industry’s annual worldwide value was $151 billion,
the largest sector among media entertainment and publishing industries.7 U.S. net
revenues were $27.01 billion, essentially showing no growth from 2012.8 Despite
an enormous global market, tremendous consolidation of worldwide industry
ownership has impacted the diversity of book titles and perspectives.
At least three significant trends affect book publishing. First, industry merg-
ers and consolidation enable publishers to increase profit margins by reducing op-
erating costs associated with warehousing, marketing, and sales. Increased size
also means more leverage with dominant retail giants Barnes & Noble and
Amazon.com in negotiations that include obtaining prominent display locations
in bookstores and on the Web.
Traditional publishing companies, however, increasingly see Amazon as a
competitor: partly because of its dominance in the independent publishing and
ebook sectors, with 65 percent of the ebook trade, and partly because it insists on
setting ebook prices lower than what traditional publishers would like to charge
for some titles. Conflicts between publishers and Amazon arose because they
could not agree on the percentage of sales that a distributor like Amazon should
get; and Amazon’s creation of a subscription model for ebooks, Kindle Unlimited,
also challenged traditional methods of book sales (and authors’ royalties, leading
to many complaints among authors).
Second, the book-publishing industry is intertwined with global media and
the entertainment industry. Increasingly, profits for the biggest publishers are de-
rived from technology products and services, such as electronic databases and
educational testing. Some books are published and subsequently adapted or li-
censed for film or TV and other entertainment sectors, such as video games.
Third, the emergence of online booksellers, ebooks, and on-demand printing
is transforming sales and distribution, growth that renders an uncertain future
for traditional brick-and-mortar bookstores and even the power of traditional
publishers to set prices. Amazon.com, bn.com, and others are capturing a rising
percentage of total book sales, even as they dominate ebook sales. Mega-bookstores
such as Borders and warehouse shopping outlets selling discounted books were
thought to have the needed economies of scale to compete with online enterprises.
Yet in July 2011, Borders, the second biggest bookstore chain in the United States,
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closed all its stores after filing for bankruptcy several months earlier. Independent
bookstores are also suffering. Even large ones like Portland-based Powell’s have
laid off employees, one of many changes implemented to cope with consumer
change.
Based on annual revenue in 2013, Thomson Reuters, after acquiring news
giant Reuters and selling its textbook division in 2007, is now third to Pearson,
after second-ranked Reed Elsevier. This is a clear example of the way mergers and
digital media are affecting the publishing industry, for Thomson earns the major-
ity of its revenue from electronic databases and not printed books or journals.
Thomson Reuters maintains headquarters in New York, but its parent corporation
is actually in Canada.
McGraw-Hill Education is the top-ranked U.S. company, ranking tenth in the
world in 2013, followed by Scholastic in eleventh place, and Wiley in twelfth. Only
seven of the top fifty-six book publishers worldwide have their parent company
headquartered in the United States, although several have joint Canadian/U.S. or
European/U.S. ownership.9 Overseas companies (Bertelsmann, based in Germany,
and Pearson, based in England) jointly own familiar publishers such as Random
House and Penguin, which merged in 2013.10

Sales and Readership of Books

For more than twenty years, the patterns of book sales have been unsteady. The
industry has grown slightly overall, but total revenue has varied by a few

Book Publishing Products and Services

FIGURE 31
Segmentation
7.5%
Children’s and
juveniles book

18.2%
28.5%
Professional, technical
Textbooks
and scholarly books

18.6%
Adult trade books
27.2%
Other books and services
Total $29.0 bn
Source: IBISWorld.com, 2015
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 73

FIGURE 32 Book Publishing Industry Revenue Growth, 2009–2014

(in billions of dollars)
1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

-2.5

-3.0

-3.5

-4.0
$29,980.0 $30,399 $29,183 $29,623.6 $28,673.3 $29,008.3

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Source: IBISWorld.com, 2015

percentage points every year, and different categories sell well or poorly depend-
ing on the year.
Categories are the most important concept in book sales. Each has different
markets and different strategies for reaching their audiences, and each is affected
differently by economic and other factors. For example, during the most recent
recession, sales of trade books, or books intended for
general readership, fell because people had less dis-
posable income. On the other hand, professional,
technical, and scholarly books rose as a category, as
businesspeople bought books to educate themselves
rather than going to more expensive business semi-
nars. Textbooks make up the largest portion of the
publishing industry in terms of sales, followed by
the category Other Books and Services, which in-
cludes religious texts and general reference works
(about 10.6  percent), and other services, including
digital publishing and design services for independ-
ent authors (16.6 percent). Figure 3-1 shows the dif-
ferent categories used by the book-publishing
industry that make up its $29 billion in net revenues
in 2014.
As Figure 3-2 shows, a slight downward trend has
generally characterized revenue growth in the publish-
ing industry, despite the increase in self-publishing Ebooks have proven especially popular among youth.
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sales (which are not included in these statistics except for any rev-
enues generated by publishers from their various support services
to authors). Publishers actively seek potential bestsellers, as a
single best-selling title can have dramatic effects on a publisher’s
revenues for the year. For example, the Fifty Shades of Grey tril-
ogy in 2012 contributed to a 75 percent rise in operating revenue
for publisher Random House, and a 22.5 percent increase in
global revenue.11

Outlook for Books

The recession hurt the industry, and the growth of digital
media has affected few enterprises as greatly as book publish-
ing. Ebooks, accounting for only about 1 percent of total book
sales in 2008 and then 22 percent in 2012, surpassed sales of
hardcover books early in 2012—and ebooks had been outsell-
ing mass-market paperbacks on Amazon eighteen months
before that.12 Ebook sales, $859 million in 2012, are predicted
to exceed $9.7 billion by 2016.13
Another area of tremendous growth has been audiobooks,
both downloaded and physical. In 2013, for the second year in a
Books like Suzanne Collins’s The Hunger Games trilogy not only row, titles published in this format more than doubled from the
have proven hugely popular reading among the YA set but
have also led to major motion pictures.
previous year, up from 16,309 to 35,713. Industry retail sales
are estimated at $1.3 billion, with digital downloads accounting
for 62 percent of net sales.14
Even as ebook sales increase, publishers seek new ways to generate more
revenue more quickly. One growing avenue of revenue is services such as design
and technology support to independent authors. What price consumers are will-
ing to pay for ebooks remains a question, with different publishers trying differ-
ent pricing structures such as offering older titles at deep discounts, around
$2.99, and newer titles around $12.99 or more. In March 2011, HarperCollins
Publishing announced that library patrons could check out an ebook only
twenty-six times before the library must repurchase it. The disagreements be-
tween online sellers such as Amazon and the publishing industry are being
closely watched, as the results could have dramatic effects on pricing of ebooks
and greatly affect the publishing industry.
Reflecting remarkable media convergence are some series of books authored
by women around the world that have captured immense YA readership and have
been blockbuster movies or major television series. These include Stephenie Mey-
er’s supernatural Twilight series and Suzanne Collins’s Hunger Games trilogy.
Famed for her Harry Potter series, J. K. Rowling has also written an adult novel,
The Casual Vacancy, which premiered as a BBC TV miniseries in 2015.15,16

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider the “wish list” of books you would like to read over
the summer or during break perhaps—what made you choose those books for your list?
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 75

Distinctive Functions of Newspapers

Portable and inexpensive, newspapers consist largely of words, photos, and graph-
ics printed either daily or weekly on lightweight paper stock. Printing and distri-
bution account for roughly 65 percent of production costs; the actual creation of
the news, including reporters’ salaries, accounts for only about 35 percent. “News”
papers also consist largely of advertising, roughly 60 percent in the typical daily
U.S. format.
The most important function of modern newspapers is surveillance—informing
the public of important events—yet they also have correlation and entertainment
functions. Opening and section front pages are typically all news, the most signifi-
cant of which is placed “above the fold” on the top half of the page. As newspapers
tend to serve communities defined by geographic, political, cultural, or economic
borders, sections are generally organized by geography, including local, national,
and international news; and topic, including business, culture, health, science,
sports, and technology.

LOCAL NEWSPAPERS
The vast majority of U.S. newspapers serve local geographic communities (usually
city based but with zoned suburb editions), monitoring their government, law en-
forcement, business, religion, education, arts, and other institutions. Some news,
typically the product of larger news services such as the Associated Press and Reu-
ters, is regional, national, or international. Local papers provide a legal record of
the community’s public communications, running obituaries and various an-
nouncements. Important in the local economic infrastructure, they also carry ex-
tensive advertising for community products, services, and businesses.

NATIONAL NEWSPAPERS
A few newspapers have emerged as truly national, with readership throughout the
country. The New York Times, USA Today, and The Wall Street Journal, for example,
each offer their own distinctive brand of news. The New York Times, the “paper of
record” in the United States, also known as the “Old Gray Lady,” offers especially
strong coverage of international events and issues. The Wall Street Journal, bought
by Rupert Murdoch’s News Corp. in 2007, is the nation’s leading newspaper cover-
ing business and finance. Many working in these industries also consider the Jour-
nal a must-read.
In 1982, newspaper mogul Al Neuharth launched USA Today, a strong mix of
general-interest news featuring colorful graphics and easy-to-read sections, an
overall design inspired by television. Prior to its launch, most newspapers were
drab and filled with long columns of text. USA Today took ten years to become
profitable; but in the meantime, it transformed the look and feel of most newspa-
pers in the United States and many around the world.
Even more significant was its new economic model. Using then-new satellite
communication technology, content was sent electronically to printing and distri-
bution centers throughout the country, a cheaper method that permitted nation-
wide distribution for a daily paper, subsequently adopted by The New York Times
and The Wall Street Journal.
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FIGURE 33 Top 10 U.S. Newspapers by Circulation, in millions, 2014

Digital subscriptions

3255K 2294K 2149K 681K 673K 581K 477K 456K 443K 436K
2.3M 1.7M 1.6M 600K 530K 520K 500K 460K 430K 410K
Source: Cision.com, June 2014 (http://www.cision.com/us/2014/06/top-10-us-daily-newspapers/)

Despite the relatively large circulation of the Wall Street Jour-

nal and USA Today, their circulation numbers are dwarfed by those
of the world’s largest dailies in Japan, the Yomiuri Shimbun (over
10 million), the Asahi Shimbun (8 million), and the Nikkei Keizai
Shimbun (over 3 million). The coverage of the Nikkei Keizai Shimbun
resembles that of the Wall Street Journal.
About 75 percent of the top 100 best-selling papers are in
Asia, including the largest English-language newspaper, the Times
of India (4 million). In the United Kingdom, the three top dailies
are all sensationalist tabloids: The Sun (2 million), The Daily Mail
(1.8 million), and the Daily Mirror (1 million). Each of these papers
has seen steady declines in their circulations since 2008 when
they had circulations of 3.2  million, 2.3 million, and 1.5 million,
Japan’s Yomiuri Shimbun has the largest circulation of any
respectively. Most newspapers are seeing print circulations dimin-
newspaper in the world. ish as readers go increasingly online.

History of Newspapers to Today

News pamphlets or brochures, precursors to newspapers, were printed in Germany
in the 1400s. From the early 1600s, newspapers or news sheets were printed in
Germany, Holland, and England. As printers often faced government censors and
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 77

even imprisonment, few publications had regular schedules. The first English-
language newspaper published in what is today the United States was Publick Oc-
currences, Both Foreign and Domestick. Although it was published only once—on
September 25, 1690, in Boston—more newspapers followed. The American colo-
nial press took two forms: commercial papers and political papers.

THE COMMERCIAL PRESS AND THE PARTISAN PRESS

Merchants published the commercial papers. The Boston Daily Advertiser and the
Daily Mercantile Advertiser, for example, reported on ship arrivals, departures, and
cargo as well as weather and other items of commercial interest.
After independence and prior to the 1830s, most U.S. newspapers were affili-
ated with a political party or platform. Political parties sponsored The Federal Re-
publican and Daily Gazette, for instance, which featured articles by often anonymous
political figures. The partisan press, as it was called, did not subscribe to the
modern principle of unbiased and impartial coverage and frequently and liberally
borrowed news from other newspapers without attributing sources. Publick Occurrences, although published
only once, is considered the first
newspaper in colonial America.

COLONIAL READERSHIP AND FINANCES

A subscription to either a commercial or a political paper cost eight to ten dollars
per year or about six cents an issue. This was beyond the reach of the average
worker, who made just eighty-five cents a day. Readership was largely limited to
those who supported the political position of the paper and to society’s well-
educated, landowning, and affluent groups. By 1750, most colonists who could read
had access to a newspaper, although the elite generally remained the literate class.

THE GOLDEN AGE OF NEWSPAPERS

In the 1830s, technological developments began to transform newspapers, usher-
ing in a golden age of newspapers in America that lasted until about 1930, when
radio began to dominate.
Prior to the 1830s, printing presses, powered by hand (and briefly by horses),
could print only two hundred to six hundred one-sided sheets per hour, severely
limiting circulation. But in the 1830s, the development of steam-powered presses
producing up to four thousand sheets per hour on both sides made mass-scale
printing possible.
Seizing the opportunity, publisher Benjamin Day launched the New York Sun Benjamin Day
on September 3, 1833. Instead of traditional subscriptions, newsboys in the Publisher of the New York Sun who
streets sold the daily newspaper and its sensationalized stories for only one cent. originated the penny press in 1833
The penny press truly offered news for the masses, reaching a circulation of eight by offering his paper on the streets
thousand almost immediately and thirty thousand within three years, enormous for a penny.
success that astounded contemporary publishers. As with Gutenberg’s printing
penny press
press some four centuries earlier, news was no longer only for the political or com-
mercial elite but for everyone. Newspapers that sold for a penny,
A new marketing function also emerged with the penny press, which attracted making them accessible to
everyone. Supported by advertising
large audiences and, consequently, businesses hoping to reach mass markets. The rather than subscriptions, they tried
newspaper price did not cover printing and distribution costs, but the penny press to attract as large an audience as
began advertising medicines, entertainment, and jobs as well as items on which possible.
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the commercial and partisan press frowned, such as theater, lotteries, and abor-
tionists. Advertising became the primary revenue source in the modern business
model.
Newspapers proliferated in the Golden Age, feeding the appetite for news in
large eastern cities such as New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. Between 1870 and
1900, the U.S. population doubled, the urban population tripled, and the number
of daily newspapers quadrupled. The 1880 U.S. Census counted 11,314 newspa-
pers. Metropolitan newspapers sprouted throughout the nation, helmed by inno-
vators whose names still resonate such as James Gordon Bennett, Horace Greeley,
Joseph Pulitzer, William Randolph Hearst, and E. W. Scripps.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Some journalism scholars are calling for newspapers to return
to an era of partisan coverage, or to at least abandon the focus on objectivity that newspa-
pers promoted throughout most of the twentieth century. Would you favor this type of
coverage? Why or why not?

TIMELINE H IS TO R Y  A N D PR E  H IS TO R Y  O F N E W SPA PE R S

1513 1690
Earliest known English- First newspaper
language news sheet published in
and first illustration in a 1620 1665 what is now the
200 BCE news sheet—Trewe First English-language First issue of the Oxford United States, in 1721
Tipao gazettes Encountre. newspaper—The new tydings out Gazette published at Boston—Publick First independent
distributed among Occurrences, Both
Chinese officials.
748 CE of Italie, published in Amsterdam. Oxford, England, offering
Foreign and
newspaper in North
First printed first use of double America, the New
newspaper— columns in a news Domestick. England Courant
200 BCE

Beijing, China. publication. Considered

the first true newspaper.

1638 1702 1704

1609 First printing press arrives First daily North America’s first regular
First regularly published newspaper in what later became the newspaper—the newspaper—the Boston
1502 in Europe (Germany)—Avisa United States— 1666 Daily Courant, News-Letter.
Zeitung Relation oder Zeitung. Cambridge, The Oxford Gazette published in
(“newspaper”) Massachusetts. becomes the London.
published in London Gazette
59 BCE Germany. and is published
Julius Caesar continuously for
orders publication more than
of first daily news 300 years.
sheet, Acta Diurna
(Daily Events)—
Rome.
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 79

Current Newspaper-Industry Issues

Newspaper
After World War II, the urban society that had supported the penny press shifted Preservation Act of 1970
to a more suburban population that spent considerable time commuting by auto-
Created in 1970 to preserve a
mobile and relied more on radio, TV, and eventually the Internet. Tired suburban diversity of editorial opinion in
commuters preferred television for both news and entertainment in the evenings, communities where only two
driving afternoon papers into decline. Eventually, one paper or a morning and competing, or independently
evening edition supplanted two or more competing dailies. owned, daily newspapers exist.
The Newspaper Preservation Act of 1970 was intended to preserve diverse
editorial opinion in communities where only two competing, or independently joint operating
arrangement (JOA)
owned, daily newspapers exist. The two papers are ostensibly competitors but can
sometimes be owned by the same company or work under a joint operating Legal agreement permitting
arrangement, or JOA, provided for by the Act. A JOA is a legal agreement that newspapers in the same market
or city to merge their business
permits newspapers in the same market to merge their business operations yet operations for economic reasons
maintain separate editorial operations. Today, nine cities in the United States are while maintaining independent
served by two or more major daily newspapers operating under a JOA, with eleven editorial operations.

1880s-1900s
“Yellow journalism”:
competition between 2011
papers leads to flashy U.S. newspapers gain
and often inaccurate $1 in digital
stories, like today’s advertising revenue
tabloid journalism. for each $7 they lose 2013
in print revenue. Jeff Bezos, founder of
1982 Amazon, buys The
Washington Post for
1977 USA Today founded;
typeset in regional $250 million, ending
Toronto Globe and eighty years of family
Mail offers public plants by satellite
1784 commands. ownership by the
First daily newspaper in the
access to 2005 Graham family.
newspaper text The New York Times acquires
United States—the

2013
database. About.com, a leading online
Pennsylvania Packet.
site of consumer information,
for $410 million.

1764
The Hartford Courant 1830s
established, the First steam-powered rotary
oldest continuously press makes mass distribution 1995
published newspaper possible; prints on both sides of Metro, distributed
in the United States. paper, 4,000 sheets per hour. free to commuters 2012
Prior hand presses printed just in Stockholm, The Pew Research
Center’s Project for
200 sheets per hour. 1971 Sweden, launches 2008 Excellence in Journalism
Newspapers switch a worldwide The New York Times Company,
newspaper chain. reports there are about
from hot metal Tribune Company, Gannett, 1,350 U.S. English-
letterpress to offset and Hearst Corporation language daily
printing. announce creation of newspapers, down from
quadrantONE, an online sales roughly 1,400 in 2007.
organization for national
advertisers.
80 PART 2 >> MASSCOMMUNICATION FORMATS www.oup.com/us/pavlik

cities served by different newspapers under common ownership. Critics argue,

however, that JOAs essentially permit monopolies.
Modern newspapers are still changing significantly, particularly with regard
to the news and advertising content. Even leading newspapers are more likely to
pander to popular taste to maintain circulation numbers. Departing from the edi-
torial tradition (established after the penny press days) of selecting newsworthy
topics regardless of general appeal, many newspapers are deferring to marketing
polls and focus groups when setting standards for content, tone, and layout. To cut
costs, many newspapers have closed international news bureaus and even state-
house news bureaus, relying instead on wire service news. Brightly colored photos
and graphics like those pioneered in USA Today can, if properly executed, actually
aid and enhance reading. Done poorly, however, they can trivialize the news and
even confuse or mislead.
Newspapers have been experimenting with the electronic delivery of news to
consumers since the late 1970s when newspapers such as the Globe and Mail
(Toronto) allowed public access to their news databases. Yet most early efforts
were not very successful in the days before widely available personal computers or
Internet access. Reading text on computer screens was also very tiring.
Many newspapers view the Internet as a threat to their business model for
subscriptions and advertising. Some have opted to reduce the days per week they
print. Others, such as The Christian Science Monitor and the Seattle Post-Intelligencer,
have eliminated paper format altogether. Most adaptations involve some combi-
nation of an expanded online presence and greater interactivity, including user-
generated content, which begins to blur the traditional line between reporter and
reader.

NEWSPAPER CHAINS
Another successful business model has relied on the newspaper chain. Tradition-
ally, U.S. newspapers were owned by families, individuals, or political parties gen-
erally residing in the communities their newspapers served. In the twentieth
century, both in the United States and globally, ownership became increasingly
concentrated; and most newspapers today are part of a group (“chains”) owned by
a privately held or publicly traded company.
The newspaper business has historically been among the most lucrative enter-
prises, earning double the profit margins of other industry sectors. Profit margins
in the 1990s were often in the range of 20 percent of gross revenues. Newspapers
became a desirable target for investors. Large newspaper chains have successfully
bought up smaller independent local or regional newspapers that faced shrinking
audiences and advertising revenue as well as rising costs for newsprint and other
necessary resources. Profit margins have narrowed drastically for newspapers, no
longer making them investment targets. Some major papers, such as the tabloid
New York Daily News, lose millions of dollars each year as they search for buyers.

Benefits of Chains
Chain resources are one of the benefits for smaller, struggling newspapers. This
can be especially important in communities where a single advertiser accounts for
considerable advertising revenue, a situation that may compromise the rigor of
reporting on this company. Chains also offer shared resources for news gathering,
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 81

especially when covering regional, national, or international stories—much as

newspapers have benefited from a working relationship with the Associated Press.

Problems with Chains

Chains, especially those publicly owned and traded, can pressure local newspapers
for higher profits. One common cost-cutting strategy is eliminating reporters and
filling the news hole with wire service copy or material from the chain’s other
papers.
Chain-owned newspapers can weaken the connection between the local media
and the local community. As cheaper wire service or chain-produced content
squeezes out local reporting, people are forced to look elsewhere for local news.
This sets up a spiral of decline—as readership drops, so do advertising profits,
forcing more cost cuts either through fewer pages or reduced staff, making the
paper even less relevant to readers.

LEADING NEWSPAPER CHAINS

From the beginning of the twenty-first century, an accelerated pace of chain merg-
ers and sales transformed the business landscape. In 2006, for example, The
McClatchy Company, the eighth-largest chain in the United States, paid $4.5 bil-
lion to buy Knight Ridder, the second-largest newspaper chain at the time, well
known in the industry for its innovative expertise with new technologies. The in-
dustry continues to change dramatically with seemingly monthly acquisitions and
mergers. In 2015, Apollo Global, a management company, was working toward
purchasing Digital First Media, which only a year ago bought up Media News
Group; and Gannett was poised to acquire ten of the newspapers currently in the
Digital First Media portfolio once the Apollo deal went through. (See Figure 3-4.)

DECLINING NUMBER OF DAILY NEWSPAPERS

Since 1940, the total number of daily newspapers has dropped more than 21 per-
cent, with about 1,350 dailies in the United States in 2013. In 2000, the number
of morning dailies first exceeded, and has continued to exceed, the number of
evening papers. Since 1940, the number of evening papers has decreased 51 per-
cent, whereas the number of morning papers has increased over 100 percent, dou-
bling since 1980 to 862 daily, with 525 afternoon daily papers in 2009. The number
of Sunday papers has increased 65 percent since 1940, reaching a high of 917 in
2005 but falling to 900 by 2011.17

Sales and Readership of Newspapers

The printing press, newsprint, ink, press operators, delivery trucks and drivers,
and maintenance of subscriber databases as well as various other non-news-
related production and distribution costs make up roughly two-thirds of the overall
cost of publishing a newspaper. That activities other than producing news account
for most of the cost presents a considerable opportunity for digital newspapers.
Still, newspapers are having trouble adapting to the digital era. Readership,
circulation, and advertising were continuing to diminish even before digital
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FIGURE 34 Major Newspaper Chains in the United States

LEE ENTERPRISES (Davenport, IA) TRIBUNE MEDIA COMPANY (Chicago, IL)

A publicly traded company, Lee Enterprises owns some fifty daily newspapers In 2014 Tribune Publishing was spun off from the Tribune Company
in twenty-two states predominantly in mid-sized communities of the midwest to focus its print and companion digital properties in one company
and west. Based in Davenport, Iowa, Lee also publishes 300 weekly, and its television and companion digital operations in another,
classified, and specialty publications such as the Southern Business Journal. Tribune Media, which owns forty-two TV stations. A top-five
News properties include the following: Sioux City Journal, Arizona Daily Star newspaper chain, the Tribune is one of the largest and oldest
(Tucson), St. Louis Post Dispatch, Billings Gazette, The Bismarck Tribune, continuous newspaper organizations in existence, incorporated in
Lincoln Journal Star, Wisconsin State Journal (Madison), and the Albany- 1847 with the founding of the Chicago Tribune.
Democratic Herald (OR). News properties include the following: Chicago Tribune, Baltimore
Website: lee.net Sun, Los Angeles Times, U-T San Diego, Orlando Sentinel, and
Hartford Courant.
Website: tribune.com

THE MCCLATCHY COMPANY (Sacramento, CA) BH MEDIA GROUP (Omaha, NE)

A publicly traded company, McClatchy is devoted almost solely to the newspaper BH Media is a public Berkshire Hathaway company, the Warren Buffett-controlled
publishing industry in the United States. Acquiring Knight Ridder in 2006, it then conglomerate, ranked fifth largest in the world and first in the United States. Owning
sold the Minneapolis Star Tribune, the Anchorage Daily News, and others, more than seventy newspapers and other titles across ten states throughout the
focusing on ownership in areas of fast growth. It owns twenty-nine daily south, midwest, and plains states, BH Media aggressively continues the purchase of
newspapers in twenty-eight markets and a number of non-daily and online many small community weekly publications in these areas.
ventures. News properties include the following: Omaha World-Herald, Richmond Times-
News properties include the following: The Sacramento Bee, Fort Worth Dispatch, Tulsa World, Winston-Salem Journal, and The Roanoke Times.
Star-Telegram, Miami Herald, El Nuevo Herald, Idaho Statesman (Boise, ID), The Website: bhmginc.com
Wichita Eagle, The Kansas City Star, The News & Observer (Raleigh, NC), The
Charlotte Observer, and The Olympian (Olympia, WA).
Website: mcclatchy.com
CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 83

ADVANCE PUBLICATIONS (Staten Island, NY)

Advance Publications is a private, family-controlled company, led by chairman and CEO Samuel
I. “Si” Newhouse Jr., whose father founded the business in 1922. Advance owns thirty
newspapers in some twenty-five cities from New York to Oregon, along with Condé Nast
Publications, which operates twenty different print and digital magazines, including Vanity Fair,
Vogue, Golf Digest, and The New Yorker. Advance Digital oversees a dozen local portal Internet
news sites driven by its newspaper holdings.
News properties include the following: The Plain Dealer (Cleveland), Times (Trenton), The
Star-Ledger (Newark), The Times-Picayune (New Orleans), The Birmingham News, The
Huntsville Times, and The Oregonian (Portland).
Website: advance.net

THE NEW YORK TIMES COMPANY (New York, NY)

Although publicly traded, The New York Times Company has been controlled by the Sulzberger
family since the death of Adolph Ochs, Times owner and publisher since 1896, his position
being assumed in 1935 by his son-in-law, Arthur Hays Sulzberger. Focusing on its New York
brand, in 2013 it sold the New England Media group, including the sale of The Boston Globe to
John W. Henry, owner of the Boston Red Sox. The New York Times newspaper ranks third in
the United States in daily circulation and readership.
News properties include the following: International New York Times, The New York Times
Syndicate and News Service.
Website: nytco.com

THE HEARST CORPORATION (New York, NY)

Derived from the trust of famed publisher William Randolph Hearst, the Hearst Corporation is
a private company set to dissolve only after all family members alive in 1951 at Hearst’s
death have passed on. The multimedia company features a diverse set of interests that
includes ESPN, A&E Networks, and twenty-nine television stations, as well as fifteen daily
newspapers, thirty-four weeklies, and hundreds of magazines worldwide, including
Cosmopolitan, Esquire, Good Housekeeping, and Popular Mechanics.
News properties include the following: Houston Chronicle, San Francisco Chronicle, Albany
Times Union, and San Antonio Express-News.
Website: hearst.com

NEWS CORPORATION (New York, NY)

News Corporation is traded publicly but has a dual share structure permitting control by Rupert
Murdoch, who also has substantial newspaper holdings in the United Kingdom and his native
Australia. Its flagship U.S. newspaper, The Wall Street Journal, is among the top three
newspapers in terms of daily circulation. The many services of Dow Jones and of Harper-
Collins Publishers also form part of News Corps holdings.
News properties include the following: New York Post, The Times (UK), The Sun (UK), The Daily
Telegraph (Australia), and Barron’s.
Website: newscorp.com

DIGITAL FIRST MEDIA (New York, NY)

The second-largest newspaper chain in 2012, MediaNews Group was in 2013
subsumed along with Twenty-First Century Media by Digital First Media—managed
by Aldon Global Capital, a hedge fund sponsor with holdings in many of the larger
newspaper chains. To complicate matters further, in 2015 Digital First was in the
process of being sold to Apollo Global Management, which in turn was poised to sell
off certain newspapers to Gannett.
New properties include the following: San Jose Mercury News, The Denver Post,
Pioneer Press (St. Paul), Oakland Tribune, Press-Telegram (Long Beach), and New
Haven Register.
Website: digitalfirstmedia.com

GANNETT (McLean, VA)

Gannett, a publicly traded corporation, publishes daily newspapers in more than eighty communi-
ties across the United States and eighteen in the United Kingdom. By some measures, the most
read daily newspaper nationally, USA Today, in combination with the others, makes Gannett the
largest newspaper chain in the United States. Gannett also owns or services forty-six television
stations in twenty-two states and D.C.
News properties include the following: Arizona Republic (Phoenix), Detroit Free Press, The
Indianapolis Star, The Courier-Journal (Louisville), The Cincinnati Inquirer, The Tennessean
(Nashville), The Des Moines Register, Reno Gazette Journal, and Statesman Journal (Salem, OR).
Website: gannett.com
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media. Shrinking circulation has made newspapers less

appealing to advertisers, who have gone online—although
not necessarily to the online newspaper.
One notable difference here is that the online news-
paper sites compete directly with the leading national
broadcast and cable television news. In fact, with growing
calls for converged newsrooms and wider broadband
access among the general public, newspaper websites in-
creasingly feature audio, video, and multimedia.
Online newspaper sites also face direct competition on
a number of other online fronts such as blogs, news aggre-
gators such as Google News and Reddit, international news
such as Al Jazeera, social media, and citizen journalism.
Citizen journalism is often criticized for failing to meet professional A field that has exploded with the growth of digital media,
standards. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: In what instances do
you think that this criticism is justified? Identify two or three news
citizen journalism broadens the scope of news content, in-
stories that might have been told very differently or not at all had creases the diversity of voices in the public sphere, captures
citizen journalists not documented events. How can you tell if this type compelling stories as they often unexpectedly unfold in
of reporting is legitimate or not?
real time, and reveals images that might otherwise have re-
mained hidden. Despite its many benefits, trained journal-
citizen journalism ists often view this particular brand of competition with skepticism for its lack of
The gathering and sharing of news professional standards, most notably on the dimensions of veracity and objectivity.
and information by public citizens,
particularly via mobile and social
media, sometimes via traditional CIRCULATION AND READERSHIP
media.
Newspaper readership (number or percentage who read a newspaper) is larger
readership than circulation (number of copies sold or distributed) because of “pass-along
Number or percentage of readership,” readers who read the same copy. A growing U.S. population makes it
newspaper readers. appear that the number of newspaper readers has not decreased greatly. As a per-
centage, however, diminished readership and time spent reading are evident.
circulation
Young readers are fewer than those between thirty-five and sixty-five. Yet despite
Number of newspaper copies sold this sharp decline in recent years, statistics indicate that the young are reading
or distributed. news online or on mobile devices in higher numbers than they were, with digital
content often published by daily-newspaper parent organizations.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider your campus newspaper. How often do you read it,
and do you actively seek it out when it is published? How would you get information on
the school and events if you did not have the campus paper?

ADVERTISING
Advertising generates close to two-thirds of U.S. newspaper revenue, with the rest
from subscriptions. In other countries such as Japan, subscription prices are
higher, and the revenue split is closer to 50–50. Since 2006, advertising revenue
has fallen 48 percent, 26 percent in 2009, but only 6.3 percent in 2010. Online ad
revenues, which grew quickly before 2008 and then declined slightly between
2008 and 2010, still fell far short of making up for the lost print ad revenues.
Figure 3-5 shows that while print ad revenues have declined by more than half
since 2003, online ad revenues have more than doubled—even though online ad
revenues are still less than 18 percent that of print ad revenues.
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 85

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
Freesheets: Riding the Rails of Newspapers’ Future?
It looked like a crazy idea, even back in 1995. At a time when
newspapers were already struggling with rising costs and
budget crises and just starting to understand the threat of the
World Wide Web, Pelle Tornberg launched a free daily news-
paper in Stockholm for subway commuters.
Designed to be read in fifteen minutes, the Metro was a
colorful tabloid, with short articles on a variety of topics. Its
target audience was an elusive yet lucrative readership for
advertisers—the young, affluent, and urban—precisely the de-
mographic that had largely stopped reading newspapers.
Now there are 210 free newspapers in fifty countries,
with a total worldwide circulation of 40 million. The Metro
chain of freesheets has expanded throughout Europe, Latin
America, and Asia and into New York, Boston, and Philadel-
phia. They are now in a hundred cities in twenty countries
and publish in eighteen languages.18
Free newspapers remain the fastest-growing segment compounded by those about recycling that, they argue, uses
of newspapers worldwide, although growth has slowed in harmful chemicals. The worldwide Metro chain claims to be
some key markets. The New York Metro and its competitor, the largest newspaper in the world. As tablet use rises, how-
amNewYork, have been struggling to attain the kind of popu- ever, freesheet readers may transfer to paid-circulation news-
larity seen in Europe. Even there, however, freesheets have papers; and the question remains whether reading freesheets
had to close down in some cities. will instill a lifetime habit of reading newspapers online or
Freesheets have shown themselves to be sustainable offline. The impact of electronic paper, or paper-thin flexible
and popular, although environmentalists still protest this displays, now seen in Samsung’s flexible OLED phone, may
proliferation of printed paper, their concerns about trees prove even more transformative.

FIGURE 35 Print Versus Online Ad Revenue (2003–2012) (in millions of dollars)
YEAR PRINT ONLINE TOTAL

2003 $44,939 $1,216 $46,155

2004 $46,703 $1,541 $48,244

2005 $47,408 $2,027 $49,435

2006 $46,611 $2,664 $49,275

2007 $42,209 $3,166 $45,375

2008 $34,740 $3,109 $37,848

2009 $24,821 $2,743 $27,564

2010 $22,795 $3,042 $25,838

2011 $20,692 $3,249 $23,941

2012 $18,931 $3,370 $22,314

Source: Newspaper Association of America

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As Figure 3-6 shows, advertising in all three main categories for newspapers—
retail, national, and classifieds—has been down sharply since 2005. Sites such as
Craigslist and eBay and services such as Groupon have siphoned away classifieds ads,
down 75 percent since 2005, traditionally a large portion of newspaper advertising
revenue. Job recruitment has fallen the greatest: Newspapers received revenues
from recruitment classifieds of $8.7 billion in 2000 but only $760 million in 2011.

FIGURE 36 Newspaper Print Ad Revenue Declines

(in billions of dollars)
Retail National Classified
$25

$20

$15

$10

$5

$0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Source: Newspaper Association of America

Publishers generally believe that online advertising could continue to grow

but will likely not be enough to support publications as print advertising did. Con-
sequently, they are still exploring revenue options, especially the digital paywall
in which readers must pay after receiving a certain number of stories for free. Al-
though this seems to be working for big-name newspapers such as the New York
Times, smaller newspapers that compete with hyperlocal citizen journalism sites
for local readers’ attention may have less success with this option.

Outlook for Newspapers

“The rumors of my death have been greatly exaggerated,” once quipped Mark
Twain, after reading his own obituary in a local newspaper. Can the same be said
for newspapers?
We consider six major trends in light of this question. First, more newspaper
executives are outsiders, with little appreciation or understanding of the indus-
try’s unique aspects. Second, digital subscription models progress slowly. Willing-
ness to pay for digital subscriptions is often promoted through bundling with
other incentives, such as receiving a Sunday paper or offering some stories for
free. Third, understanding and measuring audiences has become increasingly crit-
ical in an online world where social media have made clicks or page views less rel-
evant than they were only a few years ago. Fourth, local coverage is increasingly
important (although staff reductions have made it harder to provide), some of
which occurs on citizen journalism sites or with bloggers. Still, this coverage is
typically not nearly as extensive as that of professional reporters covering local
beats. Fifth, smaller but more numerous revenue streams need to be developed as
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 87

MEDIA PIONEERS
Ruben Salazar
On August 29, 1970, while riots stemming from a Chicano local jail, whose deplor-
civil rights march raged in the chaotic streets, tear gas able conditions he had
launched by a Los Angeles County Sheriff flooded the Silver experienced firsthand
Dollar Cafe and sent its occupants rushing out the back after feigning public
door—all except one unable to react, having been killed drunkenness to get ar-
instantly by the direct impact of the tear-gas projectile. The rested. Subsequently,
victim was 42-year-old Ruben Salazar, a name unfamiliar to Salazar worked for the Los
many Americans but a man who would soon become a Angeles Times as a foreign
martyr to many Chicanos. No charges were filed after a correspondent in Viet
formal inquest, yet lingering questions about the circum- Nam and in the Dominican Republic and as bureau chief in
stances of his death continue to enhance the Salazar Mexico City. Salazar’s later domestic reporting and columns
mystique. exposed the many social injustices that Mexican Americans
In a distinguished career cut tragically short, the most confronted in Los Angeles, such as inferior political repre-
prominent Latino journalist of his day interviewed Robert F. sentation, education, employment, and housing—a mission
Kennedy, Richard Nixon, Dwight D. Eisenhower, and Cesar he also pursued as news director of KMEX, a Los Angeles
Chavez, among other luminaries. Salazar, whose children Spanish-language TV station.19
were raised to speak only English at his Anglo wife’s request, A stamp issued by the U.S. Postal Service in 2008 com-
did not set out to become an activist, much less an icon in memorates this activist journalist’s pioneering achieve-
the burgeoning Chicano movement. A Man in the Middle, the ments. Ruben Salazar, in an era that had yet to appreciate or
apt title of a 2014 PBS documentary, Ruben was born to a even invoke the value of diversity, embodied it in his relent-
conservative family of immigrants from Juarez and grew up less and principled pursuit of the complexities of profes-
in El Paso, where he majored in journalism at the University sional and personal truths. An independent observer, a
of Texas while working as a reporter and editor for the col- critical thinker, and a man of the people, he offered this met-
lege newspaper. aphor on the dual cultural identity that informed his work:
Still, his early reporting revealed signs of the muckraking “The international bridge that connected Juarez and El Paso
for which he would later be known. One of his first articles symbolized the division of my life. No matter which way I
for the El Paso Herald, for example, described the notorious crossed this bridge, I could not leave either side behind.”20

alternatives to traditional advertising and subscription-based models. Sixth, after

the government bailout of the U.S. auto industry, advertising increased across all
media channels. Relaxed restrictions on political advertising also greatly helped
newspapers and other media.
Today’s 24/7 news cycles mean newspapers must constantly update content.
Other changes to meet audience needs may include interpreting or analyzing news
events and more interactive multimedia; but these efforts could bring them into
direct competition with news magazines, both print and digital, and make con-
cepts like a weekly or even a daily newspaper obsolete.

Distinctive Functions of Magazines

Three factors clearly distinguish magazines from newspapers. First, magazines
typically feature longer treatment of topics. Magazines gained popularity in the
1800s with serial novels, released one chapter at a time over many issues, or
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excellent short stories. Charles Dickens, author of A Tale of Two Cities, A Christmas
Carol, and Oliver Twist, published many of his classics first as serials. Edgar Allan
Poe also published most of his stories first in magazines. The circulation of Lady’s
and Gentleman’s Magazine jumped from five thousand to twenty-five thousand
the year Poe started writing for it, publishing Murders in the Rue Morgue, consid-
ered the first modern detective story, in the April 1841 issue. Many contempo-
rary writers introduce their books with chapters or other excerpts in print or
online magazines, or they create books from a series of magazine articles. Samuel
Huntington’s influential The Clash of Civilizations began as a 1993 magazine
article.
Second, magazines are published at regular but less frequent intervals, most
typically monthly, although weeklies and quarterlies are also common. Thus, this
less time-sensitive writing tends to be more in-depth, analytical, interpretative,
and creative.
Third, magazines have typically been published on higher-quality paper
stock intended to be kept considerably longer than dailies. This paper is usually
eight and a half by eleven inches. Certain magazine publishers, however, have
reduced their size by a quarter or half inch, saving money on printing costs while
maintaining advertising and subscription fees. Other magazines, such as Rolling
Stone and ESPN Magazine, print on larger stock that stands out on crowded
shelves.
A magazine tends to have a defined audience, without which attracting adver-
tisers may pose a problem. (Look and Life, two general-interest magazines of the
mid-twentieth century, are notable exceptions.) Magazines serve several impor-
tant functions for their respective audiences and society, especially surveillance,
correlation, entertainment, and marketing. Surveillance, the most basic function,
is ordered by subject matter rather than geographic area. (Travel or regional-
interest magazines are notable exceptions.) Most magazines cover specific topics
such as science, health, or sports; some treat highly specialized topics such as doll
collecting, harness racing, or scuba diving. Other magazines, such as People and
Entertainment Weekly, aim largely or exclusively to entertain.
Many magazines have national, regional, or even international readership
and distribution. The longer news stories found in major publications, such as The
Economist and Time, can provide greater detail than newspaper articles. Higher-
quality magazine paper can support exceptional photography and illustrations
well suited to covering fashion, nature, entertainment, and science.
Almost all magazines serve a vital marketing function for a broad cross sec-
tion of goods and services. Readers often spend more time perusing ads than read-
ing content, especially with fashion magazines such as Vogue, Glamour, and GQ.
These feature not only the latest designer news but also the hottest ads. Most
magazines have developed tablet editions, sometimes adding audio and video con-
tent. Specific audiences are increasingly targeted by iPad magazines, such as Cos-
mopolitan for Latinas and Uptown, aimed at African Americans.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Identify and describe which magazines you typically read,
why you read them, and how you read them (print, digital, or some combination of both).
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 89

History of Magazines to Today

The early histories of magazines and newspapers are interwoven. Their tech-
nological, business (i.e., advertising), and journalistic/entertainment func-
tions overlapped, and both helped spur the development of modern mass
media. Not until 1731 did the first English-language periodical use “magazine”
in its title: The Gentleman’s Magazine, published in London. Benjamin Franklin
published Poor Richard’s Almanack in 1732, a predecessor of the modern maga-
zine. In 1741 in Philadelphia, the first magazine was published in North
America, the American Magazine, or A Monthly View of the Political State of the
British Colonies. In 1811, the first newsweekly magazine, Niles’ Weekly Register,
was published.
In the nineteenth century, magazines helped a young America define itself
and reach a nationwide audience. Newspapers were primarily metropolitan or
local, while some magazines spoke to a national audience. Magazines such as
Harper’s Weekly also took the lead in developing sports journalism in the 1800s,
reporting on, for example, the Schuylkill regatta in September 1876. Frank Leslie In the later nineteenth century, national
founded a variety of periodicals in this era, including one of the first influential magazines helped the growing United
States establish a common sense of
newsweeklies, Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, launched in 1855. In 1871, he identity and culture.
hired Miriam Florence Folline as editor of Frank Leslie’s Lady’s Journal. Frank’s
business went bankrupt in 1877; but after he died, in 1880, Miriam, whom he had
married in 1874, took it over and skillfully restored its financial health. One of the
wealthiest and most powerful women in journalism, she bequeathed some $2 mil-
lion to the cause of women’s suffrage.
In 1888, National Geographic, founded by the National Geographic Society, de-
buted, and it introduced color plates in 1906. Time Inc., founded by Henry Luce,
bought humor and general-interest Life magazine in 1936 and made it into a
weekly news magazine with a large format and excellent photography that pro-
duced many iconic images of the mid-twentieth century. Weekly publication
ceased in 1972 due to dwindling circulation, but different iterations followed: a
themed news magazine; a monthly news magazine; a Sunday newspaper supple-
ment; and finally, in 2009, a website featuring many of its famous images. Focus-
ing on its cable and film interests, Time Warner announced in 2013 it would spin
off Time Inc. into a separate, publicly owned company. It currently owns several
magazines, including Time, Sports Illustrated, and Fortune.
Just as the efforts of nineteenth-century newspaper publishers laid the foun-
dation for posterity, so did the influential work of a number of important magazine
journalists from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Among the
most important were the muckrakers, dubbed so by a disapproving President muckrakers
Theodore Roosevelt because they pioneered investigative reporting of corrupt Journalists, particularly magazine
practices in government and business. “Muck” was the polite term for the manure, journalists, who conduct
mud, and straw mixture found in stables. Notable muckrakers included Ida investigative reporting on major
Minerva Tarbell, Joseph Lincoln Steffens, and Upton Sinclair (author of The Jungle). corporations and government; they
were dubbed muckrakers in the
Lengthy investigations meant muckrakers often reported for magazines rather early twentieth century for the
than newspapers. Muckraking investigative journalism served as a foundation for “muck” they uncovered.
much of the long-form, investigative reporting seen today in a variety of leading
news media, particularly quality public service digital initiatives such as
ProPublica.
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Current Magazine-Industry Issues

In the 1940s and 1950s, television quickly drew national advertisers seeking large
audiences. Consequently, general-interest magazines such as Life and Look saw
their business base dissolve.
Magazine publishers, who had to adapt to survive, stopped publishing
general-interest magazines in favor of specialized magazines on almost every con-
ceivable topic, a move that attracted advertisers who wished to target specific au-
diences. Nearly eighteen thousand specialized magazines are now available in
print, online, and on mobile devices.
Entrepreneur John H. Johnson recognized the unmet media needs of African
Americans, founding Ebony magazine in 1945. His hometown high school in
Arkansas City, Arkansas, was “whites only,” so Johnson’s family moved to Chicago,
where he got his formal high school education. His mother funded his business by
pawning her household furniture and giving her son $500 to start Ebony, which
now has a circulation of more than 1.2 million. Johnson became a leading cross-
media owner in the United States, with a book publishing company, a nationally
syndicated television program, and two radio stations.21 One of the first African
Americans to appear on the Forbes 400 List, Johnson had an estate valued at
$500 million on his death.
Magazines specialize in several major topic areas. In fact, Bacon’s annual di-
rectory of magazines lists 225 market classifications. Ten of the most important,
at least in terms of circulation, are news, fashion, women (with at least three major
subgroups: middle-aged and older women, women under thirty-five, and teenage
girls), families (especially aimed at parents of children under age twelve), sports
(with some general interest but many specialized by sport), ethnic, medical/
health, political, farm (Farm Journal alone has a circulation of 815,000), and life-
styles (type of home, region, cooking, etc.).

Sales and Readership of Magazines

Contemporary magazines, like all media, are increasingly subject to ownership
consolidation and media concentration. The magazine industry did not suffer the
same steep drops in circulation and advertising seen with newspapers during the
recession. Nevertheless, it did suffer; and the recession claimed some notable vic-
tims, such as U.S. News & World Report, which stopped publishing in 2010 and
went entirely online except for its college- and hospital-ranking issues. Newsweek
also changed dramatically between 2007 and 2010, cutting staff and revising
format to accommodate a revenue decline of 38 percent. Eventually, the
Washington Post Company sold Newsweek to Tina Brown’s The Daily Beast; and on
January 4, 2013, it became a digital-only publication. In August 2013, it was sold
to IBT Media.
Despite established magazines going to online-only editions, hundreds of new
magazine titles are published every year. Most do not survive more than two
years. The leading circulation magazines reflect general trends. Even the top print
magazines, which target specific audiences and cover specialized subjects in depth
and with quality, are not immune. Those with the largest circulation appeal to
large and growing audience segments, such as aging baby boomers who are more
likely to read a print format than younger people. However, young people are also
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 91

TABLE 31 Top Ten U.S. Paid-Circulation Magazines*

RANK PUBLICATION CIRCULATION

1 22,837,736

2 22,183,316

3 7,639,661

4 7,099,452

5 4,315,330

6 4,015,728

7 3,572,348

8 3,510,533

9 3,393,573

10 3,288,335

*Data as of June 30, 2014

Source: Alliance for Audited Media, 2014

proving to be avid magazine readers (although often in digital-only form), with

90 percent of college students saying they had read a magazine in the last month.22
Table 3-1 compares the top ten paid-circulation magazines in the United
States in 1972 and 2014. The positions of both AARP The Magazine and AARP Bul-
letin, publications of the American Association of Retired Persons, reflect the fact
that America’s population is aging. In 1972, most of the magazines were either
women’s or general interest with subscriptions. In 2014, the top two magazines,
both sent as AARP membership perks, have circulations far greater than the rest.
After years of slow but steady declines, the magazine industry is finally start-
ing to see some growth, thanks to increased advertising and readership in digital
editions, a trend the industry predicts will continue. This prediction is supported
by specific magazine data in Table 3-2 that shows digital magazine sales, both
subscriptions and single copies, are growing and, in many cases, vastly exceed
newsstand sales.

Outlook for Magazines

The rise in popularity of tablets and other portable devices with relatively large
screens and high resolution has helped increase reading activity, including longer-
form content, compared to the laptop or PC era. Paragraph Shorts, an iPad app
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TABLE 32 Digital Issues a Significant Portion of Magazine Sales

Average digital issue circulation for subscription and single copy sales

2011 2012 2013 2014

SUBS NEWSSTAND SUBS NEWSSTAND SUBS NEWSSTAND SUBS NEWSSTAND

The Atlantic 2,360 592 6,122 661 9,788 468 10,266 713

The Week N/A N/A 2,602 42 2,626 161 3,327 28

The New Yorker 27,372 1,953 51,157 799 73,802 8,837 80,153 9,956

The Economist 5,321 85 5,944 181 8,674 145 7,351 69

Time N/A N/A N/A N/A 44,938 5,259 49,191 16,001

The Nation 9,205 58 14,720 129 25,928 121 27,941 63

National Review 5,918 4,012 14,764 459 11,561 163 10,338 113

Fortune N/A N/A N/A N/A 9,107 4,821 11,666 9,105

The New Republic N/A N/A 3,374 110 6,788 170 7,992 118

Rolling Stone 15,190 519 19,976 674 24,121 2,349 28,913 23,506

Vanity Fair 11,171 7,132 43,351 3,604 60,820 18,018 62,746 17,530

New York Magazine 786 304 2,848 296 5,200 6,939 19,463 26,112

Bloomberg Business Week 18,334 171 36,911 53 37,423 727 54,004 2,725

Wired 17,629 10,076 73,066 3,423 86,178 16,843 75,369 20,870

Source: Alliance for Audited Media, AAM Audits and Publisher Statements. “News Use Across Social Media Platforms,” Pew Research Center, Washington,
DC (April, 2015) http://www.journalism.org/2015/04/29/news-magazines-fact-sheet/.
Note: National Review, Bloomberg and New York Magazine 12-month audits come out in June. 2011 data for Bloomberg Business Week, National Review,
and New York Magazine are from the 6-month publisher’s statements ending in December 2011. 2012 data for The New Republic are for 3 months
ending December 2012; before 2012, The New Republic was not audited by AAM. Newsweek hasn’t been audited since August 2013 and did not report
digital replica copies for any of the years before. Forbes does not break out digital issues in AAM’s statements.

launched in 2013, features short stories from publications around the world such
as The Paris Review, The New Yorker, and The Guardian; and notables such as Ira Glass
of PRI’s (Public Radio International) This American Life narrate audio stories.
Although long-form narratives typically seen in magazines such as The New
Yorker and the Atlantic Monthly must compete with a range of other content, in-
cluding video or audio content, there appears to be a market for these types of
stories, even if in primarily digital form.
Full-color pages and high-quality, glossy paper make print magazines both
expensive to produce and environmentally unfriendly, even with recycled paper
and vegetable inks. Visually enticing and readable magazine pages may also be
their saving grace, though, as tablets improve and more magazines go digital. For
now, high-quality print is still more readable than text on a similarly sized tablet
screen, although the differences are rapidly narrowing, and digital offers multi-
media and interactivity. Magazine ads, print or digital, can be works of graphic
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 93

art, and the portability and relatively low cost of a

magazine do not make consumers feel like they are
making a major investment.
Certain magazines can also serve an important
social function. Publicly reading the New Yorker im-
parts a very different impression of the reader than
Popular Hot Rodding or Guns & Ammo. In fact, maga-
zines considered prestigious can operate as subtle
social markers simply by being displayed on the coffee
table in the home or office, even if the magazine is
never actually read.
It seems the public is willing to pay for an online
subscription to a magazine perceived as the voice of
authority in a specialized area. Consumer Reports
Online, one of the few subscription success stories in
the online-magazine world, has over 3 million sub-
scribers who can access archived articles and reviews.23
Enhancing this product is the Consumer Reports
Mobile iPad app that allows subscribers to consult an Because of their highly visual nature, magazines are well suited
for the tablet format.
authoritative source while out shopping.
The type of magazine content we see today may
not change much, but the way in which we see it will.
Despite several pressures, magazines continue to maintain some important ad-
vantages over newspapers as relevant print-based products. In the long term,
however, print magazines will likely lose their relative importance, whereas better
tablet screens, such as Apple’s iPad high-resolution retina display, give magazines
a new lease on life and a digital home.

MEDIA CAREERS

The title of book editor seems self-explanatory, but these professionals do much
more than just edit (although they do that, too). Book editors are responsible for
reading unpublished manuscripts submitted by authors and determining which
ones may be most successful on the market. A book editor who successfully finds
and shepherds a bestseller or two through the publishing process is well on the
way to an impressive career in the book publishing industry.
Although one may imagine a successful book editor working in a global pub-
lishing house such as HarperCollins and hobnobbing with famous authors, thou-
sands of smaller publishing companies, including academic and textbook
publishers, offer rewarding careers (if not quite the same fame and glory). Editors
can become knowledgeable about specialized academic areas, working with lead-
ing scholars in their fields to help them publish their books.
Good writing and editing skills are needed, of course, as well as a keen eye for
detail and an understanding of the changing trends in the market. Liberal arts
graduates, by training and interest, often make good editors, as they can draw
from their knowledge on a range of subject matter while employing their critical
thinking and writing skills.
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LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

In a media-saturated world of eye-catching multimedia and flashy graphics, gray,

quiet, dull print seems like it will be less appealing to many. Indeed, some studies
indicate a worrisome decline in reading among adults, especially young people. If
print has improved our ability to think logically and rationally, that raises ques-
tions about how today’s digital media may be affecting our thinking, adversely or
otherwise. However, even with the proliferation of new media options, reading
remains an important activity—some may say it could become even more impor-
tant, especially if media literacy and critical-thinking skills decline.
From an economic perspective, media industries that have relied on printing
on paper are facing grave challenges, not because the content has become irrele-
vant but because the packaging has changed. Just as scrolls eventually gave way to
books and the form of writing also evolved, printed books are beginning to yield
to digital formats that may produce equally revolutionary transformations.
Similarly, newspapers and magazines are facing drastic adjustments. There is
nothing sacred or magical about the form of the modern newspaper (although for
people who grew up reading newspapers it may seem so); and if papers are to sur-
vive, they may need to go digital—as some major newspapers are doing. This
change is not simply one of form: it will alter the nature of the newspaper and
likely even the nature of news itself because it allows print to converge with audio,
video, and multimedia. Whether this reduces the importance of the written word
or how it alters it in our minds remains to be seen.
Print published on paper will never disappear entirely, of course; sailboats did
not disappear with the rise of steamships, nor did horseback riding with the in-
vention of railroads and cars. But the changes that will inevitably occur will trans-
form our society and culture. And the records that will be kept—most likely in
written form, albeit stored digitally—will give future historians a rearview mirror
that will reveal far more about us than we realize today.

MEDIA MATTERS PRINT MEDIA

1. Do you prefer to read your textbooks in ebook 7. Do you subscribe to any magazines? Which
format? Other than cost, do you notice any ones? Do you prefer to read them on a tablet?
difference in how you read texts online 8. If you subscribe to a magazine, print or digital,
compared to in print? describe how you typically read it. For example,
2. Where did you buy your latest book or ebook do you read some sections first and jump
that was not a textbook? around, or do you read it cover to cover? Do you
3. What is the oldest book you own? read it over a month or soon after getting it?
4. When was the last time you read a printed Are your reading patterns different in the print
newspaper? edition versus the digital? Why or why not?
5. Compare the print version of your favorite 9. What do you think the magazines you read
newspaper with its digital version. Which regularly say about yourself as a consumer?
format do you prefer, and why? 10. How do you think the major societal functions
6. What do you feel are the greatest challenges of books, magazines, and newspapers may
facing print media in a digital age? change in the age of digital media?
 CHAPTER 3 >> PRINT MEDIA: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES 95

FURTHER READING
A History of Reading. Alberto Manguel (1997) Penguin.
An Introduction to Book History. David Finkelstein, Alastair McCreely (2005) Routledge.
The Book: A Global History. Michael Suarez, H. R. Woudhuysen (2014) Oxford University Press.
Books: A Living History. Martyn Lyons (2011) J. Paul Getty Museum.
Preserving the Press: How Daily Newspapers Mobilized to Keep Their Readers. Leo Bogart (1991)
Columbia University Press.
-30-: The Collapse of the Great American Newspaper. Charles M. Madigan (ed.) (2007) Ivan R. Dee.
The Vanishing Newspaper: Saving Journalism in the Information Age. Philip Meyer (2004) University
of Missouri Press.
The Death and Life of American Journalism: The Media Revolution That Will Begin the World Again.
Robert McChesney, John Nichols (2010) Nation Books.
The Magazine from Cover to Cover. Sammye Johnson, Patricia Prijatel (2006) Oxford University
Press.
Magazines: A Complete Guide to the Industry. David Sumner, Shirrel Rhoades (2006) Peter Lang.
Pulp Culture: The Art of Fiction Magazines. Frank M. Robinson, Lawrence Davidson (2007) Collec-
tors Press.
Newspaper Online vs. Print Ad Revenue: The 10% Problem. Scott Karp (2007) Publishing 2.0.
The Curse of the Mogul: What’s Wrong with the World’s Leading Media Companies. Jonathan A. Knee,
Bruce Greenwald, Ava Seave (2009) Portfolio.
Just My Type: A Book About Fonts. Simon Garfield (2011) Gotham Books.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

98 The Recording Industry

98 Distinctive Functions of
the Recording Industry
99 History of Recorded
Music
102 The Recording
Industry Today
105 Recording-Industry
Business Model
107 Outlook for the
Recording Industry
109 What Is Broadcasting?
110 Radio
110 Distinctive Functions
of Radio
110 History of Radio
117 The Radio Industry Today
118 Radio Station
Programming
118 Outlook for the Radio
Industry
 4

Audio Media
MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO

T
aylor Swift is an award-winning musical artist whose popularity around LEARNING OBJECTIVES
the United States and the world has made her one of the most suc-
cessful artists of the twenty-first century and kept her at the top of the >> Describe the nature and basic
Billboard charts. She is also at the center of the continuing revolution functions of the recording arts
in the distribution and sales of recorded music. Swift stunned the music indus- (i.e., music).
try on November 3, 2014, when she pulled her entire music catalog from the >> Discuss the history of the
online streaming music service Spotify.1 recording arts.
Swift has never endorsed free music and explained her logic in frank and plain >> Describe how the recording
terms: “Music is art, and art is important and rare. Important, rare things are valuable. industry works.
Valuable things should be paid for.” Some anticipated that Swift’s new album 1989 >> Identify the changes
would see a boost in sales as a result of fans not being able to hear it on Spotify. One digitization, the Internet, and
anonymous music industry source attributes high sales to other factors, however: file-sharing services have
“There are reasons why you can sell 1 million units, but it’s got nothing to do with not brought to the recording-
providing that album to Spotify.” industry business model.
Whatever the causes, predictions for the album’s success, both critical and com- >> Describe the nature and basic
mercial, proved accurate. Not only did her fifth studio album receive industry ac- functions of radio.
claim, it topped iTunes sales charts in over 95 countries on its release and went on >> Discuss the history of radio.
to sell well over 1 million units, 8.6 million albums worldwide as of February 2015. It >> Describe how the radio
became the highest selling release since 2002 and the top-selling album of 2014 in industry works.
the United States. It also made Swift the first artist in music history to have three
albums sell 1 million or more copies in the first week. In 2015, Swift, 25, became the
youngest person to make Forbes’s list of the world’s most powerful women, ranked
at number 64.
In February 2015, she received the International Federation of the Phonographic
Industry (IFPI) Award, recognizing her as the most popular recording artist world-
wide in 2014. Across all music formats including physical sales, downloads, and
streaming, she led Billboard charts that featured artists such as Katy Perry, Beyoncé,
Eric Church, Sam Smith, Ed Sheeran, Coldplay, and One Direction. Swift has managed
to thrive in an industry where sales have long been in decline, and 2014 in general
was no exception to the downward trend.2
97
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Regardless of form or format, listening to music remains a national pastime,

second only to time spent watching television. People get their music via various
media—on the radio through online, broadcast, cable, or satellite transmission, or
on demand through personal mobile devices such as an MP3 player or smart-
phone. Music is often playing in the background as people go about their daily
activities or engage with other media, such as video games or books. Couples often
have “their” song that seems to speak meaningfully to their particular relation-
ship (despite the fact that it was written for mass appeal), and many a teen has
played air guitar in front of the mirror while dreaming of rock stardom.
Music is an essential element of movies and television, an audio cue to what to
expect or feel in particular scenes. The low-pitched, menacing music in Jaws (1975)
whenever the shark was going to strike heightened tension as viewers feared for
its next victim. The theme became so famous that other movies reprised it as
parody, and daily conversation is often similarly peppered with the musical “dun,
Dr. Dre topped the list of musical dun, dun, dun …” to suggest imminent trouble.
money makers in 2014, with
$620 million in earnings, much of it
from Apple’s acquisition of his music
company, Beats. Second on the list is DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Is recorded music more important for teenagers than, say,
Beyoncé, who earned $115 million in people in their forties? Explain your answer.
2014.

The Recording Industry

Similar to other media-entertainment enterprises, a few very large firms (often
subsidiaries of even larger media corporations) control the music industry. Be-
cause record labels do not profit from music that lacks strong mass-market appeal,
styles tend to fit well-established genres, even to the point of being formulaic and
homogeneous. This situation is improving, however, as online music distribution
makes more diverse artists available to fans.

Distinctive Functions
of the Recording Industry
Appealing to just about everyone, young and old alike, recorded music serves a
entertainment variety of functions, primarily entertainment and cultural transmission. Ed-
Providing or being provided with ucation is an important form of cultural transmission. Children, especially, listen
amusement or enjoyment. to recorded music, sometimes the same songs over and over, learning vocabulary,
musical rhythms, and the pleasure of dancing. Musical tastes help people define
cultural transmission themselves as members of a particular social group. Music can transmit culture
The process of passing on culturally
both verbally and visually as fans adopt new expressions and emulate new styles
relevant knowledge, skills, that cross ethnic and socioeconomic boundaries.
attitudes, and values from person Some argue that such cultural transmission has a potential dark side, however,
to person or group to group. a debate that intensified after the 1981 launch of MTV, whose twenty-four-hour
format required scores of videos to fill airtime. Suddenly, how a band looked became
as important as how they sounded. Hair bands became popular in the 1980s,
groups such as Mötley Crüe, whose manes, makeup, and tight pants all played well
on TV. New music channels found a home on cable in the 1990s, including chan-
nels devoted to diverse and specific genres such as heavy metal or country.
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 99

Artists may combine controversial lyrics with provocative video that critics
argue send young, impressionable viewers socially unacceptable messages that may
desensitize them to violence against women, for example, or promote Satanism.
Research indicates that between 40 and 75 percent of music videos do contain
sexual imagery, although it is generally mild and nongraphic. Sexism remains
strong, however. Women are much more likely to be scantily clad, sexually objecti-
fied, and dominated by men.3 With the rise of YouTube and other online video
services, the debate has intensified, as an even broader array of potentially objec-
tionable content is available on demand.
Although MTV, YouTube, or other sources of music video may not always rep-
resent the finest work of this commercial, profit-driven enterprise intended to
entertain, the recording industry also produces music that rises to the level of true
art. Whether the genre is jazz, opera, pop, or hip-hop, countless studio recordings
have earned critical praise for their enduring cultural impact.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: In what ways have MTV and the music video, whether online
or via television, influenced the recording-arts industry and popular music?

History of Recorded Music

The recording arts developed in the 1870s, becoming the first medium of mass
communication not based on print. They predated mass-media cinema at the turn
of the century; and radio, invented in the 1890s, did not develop as a mass medium
until the 1920s. In 1877, Thomas Edison patented his first “talking machine,”
the phonograph, using a tinfoil cylinder to record telephone messages. Edison phonograph
held a monopoly in the recording industry for nine years until telephone pioneer First patented by Thomas Edison in
Alexander Graham Bell and inventor Charles Tainter invented an improved audio- 1877 as a “talking machine,” it used
recording device, the graphophone, which used beeswax rather than tinfoil. a tinfoil cylinder to record voices
The Columbia Phonograph Company soon entered the picture with its own from telephone conversations.
technology, selling recordings on wax cylinders that could be played on coin-
operated machines. The Victor Talking Machine Company also launched the graphophone
gramophone. Developed by inventor Emile Berliner, it used a flat disc rather than An improvement on Thomas
a cylinder to record sound. Edison’s phonograph in recording
audio, it used beeswax to record
Few dramatic changes occurred in music-recording technology over the first
sound rather than tinfoil.
one hundred years. Even the mid-1950s creation of grooved vinyl long-play (LP) Developed by Alexander Graham
albums at 33 rpm (revolutions per minute), allowing playing times of forty to Bell and inventor Charles Tainter.
forty-five minutes rather than the two and a half minutes of the shellac 78 rpm
albums, simply improved existing production processes and sound quality rather gramophone
than revolutionizing them. Developed by inventor Emile
Electromagnetic tapes such as eight-track tapes, and later cassettes, created in Berliner, it used a flat disc rather
1965, actually provided poorer sound quality than LPs, but consumers were will- than a cylinder to record sound.
ing to trade audio quality for portability. Compact discs, developed in 1980, were
the first conveyor of digitally recorded songs and the first real technological break-
through in the recording arts since Edison’s time. Not only can digital technology
improve the sound quality of older recordings by removing unwanted noise such as
pops and hisses, but it also allows for easy creation of “duets” by live and dead sing-
ers, such as the song “Unforgettable” by Nat King Cole and his daughter Natalie.
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FROM TIN PAN ALLEY TO HOLLYWOOD

The history of recorded music involves both technology and artistry, physical
changes in the material recording as well as cultural changes in the genre of music
likely to be recorded. In the early days, much of the popular music in America was
created in New York’s historic Tin Pan Alley, an area in Manhattan on West
Twenty-eighth Street between Broadway and Sixth Avenue, where music publish-
ers had located close to theaters and vaudeville houses. Before record players
became widespread, sheet music of songs heard in these venues was played at
home. Existing for seventy years until roughly 1950, when radio and television
became more important music promoters, Tin Pan Alley eventually became a ge-
neric reference to the music-publishing business that hired composers and lyri-
cists on a permanent basis to write popular songs.
From George and Ira Gershwin to Cole Porter, many great composers were as-
sociated with the early days of Tin Pan Alley. Perhaps the artist most synonymous
It was a technological challenge to with the time is Irving Berlin, who achieved stardom in 1911 when his song
record sound on devices that would be “Alexander’s Ragtime Band” became an international hit. He went on to pen such
easy for the public to use.
classics as “Blue Skies,” “God Bless America,” “White Christmas,” and “There’s No
Business Like Show Business.”
As Hollywood developed and motion pictures with sound emerged in the late
1920s and early 1930s, a recording industry also emerged in Los Angeles. The
growth of musical recording and radio in the first half of the twentieth century
enabled musicians and fans to hear many musical forms. A diverse array of black,
Latino, Native American, Asian, and white artists created songs with audience
crossover appeal that laid the foundation for much of popular music today, includ-
ing rap and other formats.

ROOTS OF ROCK AND ROLL

The roots of rock and roll lie in a blend of musical forms, including blues vocaliza-
tions; gospel musical structures; urban rhythm and blues (R&B) instrumentals;
and white western and “hillbilly” strains, or rockabilly. In the late 1940s and early
1950s, a combination of country artists, such as Hank Williams and Tennessee
Ernie Ford, and R&B artists, such as T-Bone Walker, Fats Domino, B. B. King, Ruth
Brown, and Muddy Waters, helped shape the character of
early rock and roll.
From 1954 to 1959, rock and roll took off. Bill Haley
and His Comets (western swing crossover), Ray Charles
(gospel/R&B), Elvis Presley (rockabilly), Chuck Berry (R&B),
Buddy Holly (rockabilly), and Ritchie Valens (Chicano rock)
led the way. Popular rock vocal groups included the Platters,
the Penguins, and Dion and the Belmonts as well as teen
idols such as Frankie Avalon and Brenda Lee. Although
much of the music owed its original inspiration to black art-
ists, most of the commercially successful rock stars of the
day were white.
This changed when Detroit’s Berry Gordy Jr. started
Motown Record Company in Motor City, Detroit, his home-
The dog Nipper “listening to his master’s voice” is a widely recognized town and a city with a historically large black population.
symbol of what started as the Victor Talking Machine Company. Gordy was yet another black musician who had barely
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 101

R&B performers Diana Ross & the Supremes were the most
commercially successful Motown act and one of the most
Irving Berlin was a noted composer of many of popular American vocal groups of all time, boasting twelve
the twentieth century’s most popular songs. number-one pop singles on the Billboard Hot 100.

profited from his successful songwriting. With $700 borrowed from

his sister and a makeshift studio in the basement, Gordy signed a kid
off the street named Smokey Robinson and his backup singers, the
Miracles, and started producing their music. The group quickly re-
leased a string of hits, and other successes followed when Gordy
signed Diana Ross & the Supremes, Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, the
Jackson Five (with Michael Jackson), and many more talented black
artists. By 1983, Motown was the largest black-owned company in
the United States, with annual revenues of $104 million. Some thirty
years after founding Motown, Gordy sold it to MCA Records in 1988.
In the 1960s, rock evolved to include Motown, as well as soul,
“girl groups,” surf rock, and folk. In addition to wielding musical in-
fluence, certain popular musicians also had great social and cultural
impact, influencing trends and tastes, clothing and hairstyles. Folk The Who, who announced their 1982 tour would be their
artists such as Bob Dylan wrote songs that became anthems for last, has continued to sell out arenas all over the world,
with their 2014/2015 tour commemorating their 50th
social movements and shaped public opinion about the war in Viet- anniversary as a band.
nam, the environment, and civil rights. Reflecting his broad social
influence and consummate artistry, in 1997, Dylan was nominated
for a Nobel Prize in Literature.

REDEFINING ROCK
“The British invasion” redefined rock in the mid to late 1960s, with breakout
groups such as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and the Who heightening its energy
and popularity. Experimentation with drugs increased among youth in general
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and rock musicians in particular. Some new strains emerged in rock,

including psychedelic, jazz, and early heavy metal forms. A number of
these early bands and artists, some of whom have even hit seventy,
are still touring, much to the delight of legions of old and new fans
alike, willing to pay top dollar for this opportunity. These living—and
still performing—legends include groups who prematurely an-
nounced farewell tours decades ago.
In the 1970s, music moved from being socially conscious and ex-
perimental to highly produced and flamboyant. Glam rock bands
flaunted dramatic makeup on stage, and sometimes off, as KISS did
for many years. Disco appeared for a brief time in the mid-1970s,
when punk also started, the latter being a response to the perceived
overcommercialization of popular music. The 1980s saw the rise of
heavy metal music, while pop bands such as Culture Club and Wham!
sang blithely of love and infatuation. Rap left the urban streets for the
mainstream in the late 1980s and early 1990s; while Seattle bands
such as Nirvana, Soundgarden, and Alice in Chains developed a dark
sound dubbed alternative or progressive rock.
Musical genres continue to transform and splinter as they wax
and wane in popularity. Even older genres, such as swing, sometimes
enjoy a short resurgence. Mainstream country music has come to
Rapper and entrepreneur Jay Z became the biggest artist sound more like country rock, for example, and some songs appear as
to launch an album with an app, giving him the best crossover hits on both pop and country charts.
opening-week sales of his career. In an unprecedented
deal, Samsung purchased 1 million copies of Magna Carta
Holy Grail for customers to download for free. This digital
distribution method generated a new revenue stream
along with a new set of problems, including piracy, server
The Recording Industry Today
overload, and intrusive requests to access information on
users’ phones. On the corporate side of recording, a handful of companies controlled
the industry by 1909. Geoffrey P. Hull notes that although these com-
panies experienced major changes, a three-way corporate oligarchy
dominated the music industry until the 1950s, when a variety of notable industry-
wide changes set in. These included greater competition due to the growth of rock
and roll and diverse new recording labels such as Motown.
Like other media companies, record labels have been consolidating. In 1998,
major labels there were six major labels, and in 2004 only five, including Bertelsmann Music
Universal Music Group, Sony Music, Group (BMG) and EMI. In 2008, Sony Music absorbed BMG; and in 2012, Univer-
and Warner Music Group—the sal Music Group acquired EMI. Now once again, three companies have oligarchical
three biggest recording-arts control, each a subsidiary of a larger media empire: Sony Music Entertainment,
companies, which control much of Warner Music Group, and Universal Music Group (UMG; see Table 4-1). UMG
the music industry partly through
their powerful distribution
alone controls more than 25 percent of the worldwide market for recorded music.
channels and ability to market Independent labels—ranging from small local companies producing and dis-
music to mass audiences. tributing the music of only one or two artists to large labels such as Disney—have
the majority of music titles, estimated at about 66 percent by SoundScan and the
independent labels Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), yet only about 20 percent of
Small companies that produce and the sales.
distribute records. Not part of the Similar to book publishing, the vast majority of releases sell less than 5,000
three major-label corporations, copies per year, with only a handful of recordings, numbering in the hundreds,
they include those producing only
selling more than 250,000 a year. Yet these few, largely releases by major labels,
one or two albums a year as well as
larger independents such as Disney. account for over half the total sales volume. How do they manage to produce so
many of the big hits? Some say they reap the rewards of producing and marketing
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 103

TABLE 41 The Major Record Labels and Their Main Subsidiary Labels
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MEDIA PIONEERS
Amanda Palmer
When alternative rocker Amanda Palmer took a
hiatus from the punk-cabaret duo The Dresden
Dolls and decided to make her first solo album her
way, she turned her back on her record label and
turned instead, with open heart and empty hands,
to her fans. The request? A relatively modest
$100,000 to be raised on Kickstarter, one of several
digital crowdfunding platforms employed by a
growing number of artists. The response? An over-
whelming $1.2 million—contributions from nearly
25,000 of the faithful, generated in a matter of
weeks in 2012.
Depending on the amount of their pledge, fans
would receive recordings in various formats or re-
lated artwork perhaps. And the most financially
committed, many of whom met through Twitter or
Facebook to pool together the requisite $5,000,
could enjoy a private concert and house party with
Amanda herself.6
Despite her newfound status as a Kickstarter
sensation, a subsequent request directed at a dif-
ferent audience failed miserably. She quickly fell
from Internet grace after attempting to recruit local
musicians via her blog to play with her and her
touring band The Grand Theft Orchestra for beer,
hugs, and high fives. More controversy ensued the
following year about a poem she wrote for alleged
Boston Marathon bomber Dzhokhar Tsarnaev,
deemed the worst poem ever composed in the
English language by Gawker.com.7
Reactions to Palmer tend toward the extreme: a
vibrant visionary to fans, an entitled egotist to crit-
ics. Regardless, her provocative and unapologetic
resume in the art of asking, the title of a recent TED
talk that she elaborated into a book, remains pio-
neering and eclectic. After graduating from
Wesleyan College, she spent five years as a busker
in Boston’s Harvard Square, a living statue called the instantly for anything anywhere”—a couch to sleep on, a
Eight-Foot Bride. Appreciative passersby would drop money piano to practice on, a home-cooked meal to savor back-
in her hat, an activity that Palmer likens to fan funding of stage. And she waxed similarly effusive about the Internet
digitally recorded music through services like Kickstarter. in general as a means of connecting intimately and sharing
In both cases, audiences need to step forward and provide freely: “Celebrity is about a lot of people loving you from
direct support for artists they value. a distance, but the Internet and the content that we're
Not surprisingly, given her philosophy and business freely able to share on it are taking us back. It’s about a
model, Palmer is vocal about the “magic” of Twitter, which, few people loving you up close and about those people
as she observed in her TED talk, allowed her to “ask being enough.”8
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 105

the best music from the best artists. Others say even marginal music from the
major labels will dominate sales because of superior marketing.
Nevertheless, revenues have declined steeply since 2001, the beginning of the
digital piracy era. In 2000, worldwide recorded music revenues were $36.9 billion.
By 2013, global music sales were $15 billion (including synch revenues, payment
for use of a song in another soundtrack, such as a commercial or TV show), down
more than 55 percent, according to the IFPI, a London-based organization that
represents the interests of the recording industry worldwide. The industry has
struggled to stem the flood of free versions or mash-ups of songs found on file-
sharing services, and the RIAA and IFPI claim that file-sharing services encourag-
ing illegal downloads are to blame for the decline in sales. Other observers say the
picture is more complex than that.
First, just under half (49 percent) of music sales globally in 2013 were still CDs,
$7.3 billion of the total $15 billion, with worldwide revenues dropping 4 percent
from 2012. CD sales declined 12 percent, or $1.9 billion, between 2010 and 2011
and hit a new low in 2014, down 20 percent from 2013.4 Yet consumers are increas-
ingly willing to buy songs online via iTunes and other services, and digital sales
(online subscriptions and downloads) increased 8 percent, to a total of $7.7 billion
in 2013, according to IFPI. Digital sales worldwide were almost half the total music
sales; and in the United States, 51 percent of music sales were digital in 2013, up
about half since 2009. Moreover, the purchase of entire digital albums, not just
individual songs, was up more than 20 percent in the United States since 2010.5
More encouraging news for the music industry is the fact that global revenues
from streaming and subscription services increased 51 percent in 2013, topping
$1 billion for the first time. As CD sales drop, major retail chains such as Best Buy
and Wal-Mart, where 65 percent of all CD sales occur, give them less floor display
space. The waters are further muddied by exclusive distribution deals with major
chains like Wal-Mart. In 2008, AC/DC’s Black Ice, sold exclusively at Wal-Mart,
was the fifth-highest-selling album of the year. Although sales of independent re-
leases have also grown dramatically with the Internet and digital distribution,
they continue to be low relative to most major labels, whose marketing resources
and business model give them the competitive edge.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: How many songs in your music library have you downloaded
for free? How much would you have spent if you’d purchased each song for ninety-nine
cents? How many downloaded songs from new artists persuaded you to purchase that
artist’s CD or to buy digital song or album downloads?

Recording-Industry Business Model

Throughout much of the twentieth century, the basic business model in the re-
corded-music industry involved creation, promotion, and distribution. These three
main activities have not changed fundamentally, although some of their compo-
nents have been altered in the digital age.

CREATION
Acting as gatekeepers, the major record labels sign talent and subsequently sup-
port these artists in the creation and recording of music. Because of their financial
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investment in the process, they have historically reaped the greatest financial re-
wards, with most artists receiving royalties of only around 10 percent of gross, or
overall, sales.
Being signed to a major label does not mean that a struggling band has finally
made it: Most releases sell fewer than 5,000 copies annually; only a handful sell
more than 250,000. Of these sales numbers, 10 percent, about $2 per album sold,
is not much income for a band.9 For every Adele selling millions of albums, there
are thousands of artists who sell only a few thousand indie or major-label albums
and who never get airplay.10

PROMOTION
Promoting artists and their music is crucial to commercial success. Artists perform
in concerts, for which additional royalties are received; but music gains exposure
largely through radio, television, film, and, increasingly, video games, commer-
cials, and mobile phone ringtones. In the past three decades, music videos have
also been important.
Major labels get considerably more airtime than indies on radio, a primary
promotional vehicle. Record labels traditionally provide radio and television pro-
grammers with free copies of recorded music and music videos in exchange for
getting them played on their stations and channels. Unscrupulous programmers
payola
or disc jockeys in major markets have sometimes received cash, gifts, or other
Cash or gifts given to radio disc secret payments—payola—in return for increased airplay. Payola was very big in
jockeys by record labels in the 1950s until the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) ruled it unfairly stifled com-
exchange for greater airplay of the
label’s artists or most recent songs.
petition from smaller labels with fewer financial resources.
After several scandals in the 1950s, Payola, or “pay for play,” reduces diversity on the air and is punishable
the practice is now illegal. today with fines or even imprisonment. Record labels have circumvented such re-
strictions, enforced by the Federal Communications Commission, by having art-
ists give radio interviews in exchange for promotion, holding special events in
certain markets, and giving away tickets or backstage passes in conjunction with
the radio station.

DISTRIBUTION
Although recording formats have varied, the method of distribution has remained
essentially unchanged. Record labels make copies from a master version and send
the albums, tapes, or CDs to local retail outlets for sale to consumers. Online
stores such as Amazon act much like their physical counterparts. Unfettered,
however, by concerns about store display space, they can stock more CDs than
long tail retail stores, including CDs that are less popular. Long tail marketing and distri-
The principle that selling a few of
bution allow businesses to succeed by selling a greater variety of items but fewer
many types of items can be as or of each.
more profitable than selling many Another aspect of digital media and the Internet has been changing distribu-
copies of a few items, a practice tion much more radically. Consumers no longer have to buy a physical product.
that works especially well for online
sellers such as Amazon and Netflix.
They simply download songs either through a subscription service or à la carte.
Not only can the general public easily copy and distribute music, they can also
create flawless copies with no loss in sound quality. Using widely available software,
they can personalize content with mash-ups of multiple songs. These develop-
ments are affecting industry business models for music distribution profoundly.
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 107

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Think of two songs that you particularly like from two different
genres. Now imagine making a mash-up creatively combining elements of the two songs.
What commercial potential might your new mash-up have, if any?

PRICING STRUCTURE
The pricing structure for recorded music is, of course, key in determining income
for the label, the artist, and others in the distribution chain. In the 1970s, when
vinyl LPs were the standard, list price (the consumer price) was about $6 (about
$26 in 2012 dollars). In the 1980s, the compact disc was introduced, and CDs as a
percentage of album sales gradually increased from just 22 percent in 1988 to
91 percent in 2001. List prices for CDs were about $19 in the early 1980s (about
$39 in 2012 dollars), with wholesale prices about $12. Online album prices are Music lovers around the world are
somewhat lower, with typical prices for albums sold on iTunes at about $10 and using software like MiniMash to mix
even less on Amazon.com. their own tunes from two or more
songs by other artists.
Over time, as production volume increased, production cost decreased; conse-
quently, wholesale prices fell to about $10, with list prices at about $15 or often
less with promotional discounts. Today, manufacturing costs for record labels are
about $1 per CD, with artist and producer royalties about $2 per album (roughly
10–20 percent of the list price) and distributor charges about $1.50. Marketing
costs (roughly 50¢) tend to be quite low because radio stations and music televi-
sion provide most of the promotion for free. Thus, a label typically has a gross
profit of $5 per CD sold. This admittedly simplified model still serves to illustrate
how immensely the industry profits.

Outlook for the Recording Industry

In 2015, Nielsen SoundScan and Billboard announced that music sales had decreased
more than 10 percent between 2013 and 2014, continuing a steady decline since the
early 2000s.11 Instead, most artists generate the largest share of their revenues from
touring and online streaming services. Once thought obsolete, vinyl sales also saw a
slight uptick in 2014, but they make up only 3.5 percent of total recorded music sales.
Revenue growth from streaming services is sustainable, some good news that sug-
gests digital media, the bane of the music industry, may also be a boon.

DIGITAL RIGHTS MANAGEMENT AND ILLEGAL FILE SHARING

Critics argue that the music industry and major record labels have only them-
selves to blame for the general decline in music sales. Rather than embracing early
on the potential of digital technologies and the Internet for generating new kinds
of revenue streams, they resisted change in a number of ways that proved futile. digital rights
Security of copyrighted material remains a prime concern for record labels. management (DRM)
Their past initiatives in digital rights management (DRM), such as limiting
digital copies of purchased music, have been viewed as heavy handed. Most DRM Technologies that let copyright
owners control the level of access
efforts with physical media like CDs have also proved unsuccessful because secu- or use allowed for a copyrighted
rity codes have been quickly hacked. By 2009, none of the major record labels used work, such as limiting the number
DRM on their CDs, claiming the associated costs exceeded the gains. of times a song can be copied.
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DRM is far more common with online music, although not all online sellers
use it. For downloaded music, DRM restricts either the types of devices that can
play the downloaded song or the length of time the song can be played, or it limits
access in some other way, such as requiring an ongoing subscription, as with Rdio.
Generally, music services offering DRM versions of songs online have lower price
points than non-DRM songs, which do not restrict formats or copying files be-
tween devices.
Since 2001, the recording industry has sued various file-sharing services and
Internet service providers (ISPs), successfully shutting down and eventually bank-
rupting music file-sharing pioneer Napster. The RIAA even sued several thousand
individuals for sharing files. Bad publicity ultimately made this practice untena-
ble, though, and at the end of 2008, it opted to pressure the ISPs to cut those users
off from the Internet rather than sue them individually.
Many ISPs have blocked access to file-sharing services because of the threat of
lawsuits and the heavy load such sharing imposes, slowing down the networks
even for users not sharing files. Universities, with their fast Internet connections
and music-loving young masses, have been prime targets of the RIAA, which has
pushed for special ethics education for new students to discourage the illegal file
sharing of copyrighted works.
The recording industry has also been more aggressive in pursuing file-sharing
services themselves. In late 2010, a four-year RIAA court case concluded with a
federal judge shutting down popular file-sharing service LimeWire, with 50 mil-
lion users monthly, after which BearShare, another file-sharing service, saw a
sharp rise in users. As soon as one service closes, people apparently just seek out
other existing or new services. Some proposed legislation, such
as requiring digital security devices, supports industry efforts.
Manufacturers, however, are resisting such directives, as are
The EFF is a not-for-profit organization that focuses on issues of groups such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), an ad-
privacy and developments in communications technologies. vocate for citizen or consumer rights.

NEW BUSINESS MODELS EMERGING

The music industry needs to develop new ways to sell music
that match consumer interests and patterns of media use.
To that end, two main business models seem to be emerging:
downloads and subscription services.
Downloading music is hardly a recent activity. Not until
the advent of Apple’s iTunes in 2003, however, did the music
industry finally succeed in getting consumers to pay for their
downloads. Many in the recording industry, artists included,
worried that à la carte song downloads would mean the death
of the album, concerns that have proven to be largely valid. In
the United States in 2013, there were 1.26 billion sales of indi-
vidual songs online, seven times the volume of online album
sales, which totaled just 118 million, according to data from
Nielsen SoundScan. Added content such as behind-the-scenes
footage, exclusive interviews, and games makes downloading
Giving consumers more choice in how they get their music has an entire album appealing, but not sufficiently so for many
been a difficult adjustment for the major record labels. consumers to justify the higher price of entire collections of
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 109

songs. Although small compared to song and album downloads, downloaded ring- freemium
tones demonstrate how songs may be popular in a variety of formats, including Subscriptions that provide some
those that normally would never have been considered mass media. content for free but require a
Subscription services, having grown remarkably in recent years, offer great monthly subscription to take
potential for new types of revenue streams. Many subscriptions operate on a advantage of all the site has to
offer.
freemium model: some content is free, but a monthly subscription is required to
take advantage of all the site has to offer. Different versions of the freemium
model are currently being tested, such as advertising-supported content for the
free service but no ads for the premium service. Other ways to distinguish the
paid tier from the free tier include access to special content or songs that can be
downloaded to other devices.
In North America, recent growth has made Slacker Radio and Pandora two of
the biggest music-streaming and subscription services. Pandora has more than
75  million registered users, up from 25 million in 2008, and claims 500,000
paying subscribers. Sweden-based Spotify, launched in 2008 and the second most
popular digital music service in Europe after iTunes, was available in the United
States in July 2011, expanding the field of music-subscription competitors. Its
revenues topped $1 billion in 2013. Also in 2013, Apple entered the field with its
own streaming music service. As the names and functions of these services sug-
gest, the lines have blurred between Internet radio and online music subscription
services, making it hard to identify exactly where radio ends and downloading or
streaming songs begins.
The recording industry is looking at working directly with ISPs, some of which Pharrell Williams’s “Happy” was the
offer their own branded music-subscription services to customers. They are also number one streamed song worldwide
considering partnerships with mobile operators that will facilitate getting songs in 2014.
and music content from mobile devices.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: What advice would you offer a record-label executive for cre-
ating a successful business model in the digital age?

What Is Broadcasting? Streaming music service Spotify in 2014

had 50 million subscribers worldwide
The term “broadcasting” originally referred to the practice of planting seeds by who streamed more than 8 billion
hours of music.
casting them broadly in a field rather than depositing them one at a time. In the
early days of broadcasting as we have come to know it, wireless communications,
initially only radio, provided point-to-point communication where telegraph lines
were impractical or unreliable. Its main purpose was ship-to-ship or ship-to-shore
communications for quick emergency transmissions. Subsequently, radio technol-
ogy was developed to broadcast wireless messages widely to multiple locations.
Dozens of years later, television allowed for the broadcasting of moving pictures
as well as audio via wireless technology.
broadcast
Broadcast technology works essentially the same way in both radio and tel-
evision. A transmitter sends messages over a part of the electromagnetic spec- Originally a reference to casting
seeds widely in a field that was
trum to a receiver or antenna that translates the message to the radio or TV. The subsequently applied to the
receiving device then decodes the audio or visual electromagnetic waves so that fledgling electronic medium of
they can be heard or seen. radio and later television.
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Radio
Radio, the most widely available medium of mass communication
around the world, is also the most heavily used medium in the United
States: People listen to radio on average over 2.5 hours per day, al-
though different types of research present disparate findings. For
example, compared to observational studies, self-reports of radio
usage tend to underreport radio listening greatly, likely because
radio is often playing in the background while people do other things,
even while they consume other media such as reading a book or
going online.
Early radios were often built to fit in
with other living room furniture.
At least 99 percent of all U.S. households have at least one radio
receiver, similar to most industrialized countries. Even developing
nations have relatively high radio penetration. Radio is less expen-
sive to produce, transmit, and receive than television; radio receivers are highly
portable—even wearable—and radio doesn’t require literacy to understand.
amplitude There are basically three types of radio broadcasting: amplitude modulation (AM),
modulation (AM) frequency modulation (FM), and satellite. Yet satellite radio, like so-called
Radio carrier signal modified by Internet radio, employs an entirely different method of delivering audio pro-
variations in wave amplitude. gramming than traditional AM and FM radio. Both are “broadcast” in the sense
that they reach mass audiences, but satellite’s delivery makes it more akin to
frequency airplane audio programming than true broadcasting. Low-powered radio, often
modulation (FM) in the FM format, also varies from the general terrestrial broadcast formats.
Radio carrier signal modified by Less expensive to transmit, it has enabled many highly localized community
variations in wave length/ radio stations to operate around the United States and internationally.
frequency.

Distinctive Functions of Radio

Around the world, radio is a medium of news and entertainment. The low cost of
both radio receivers and broadcasting has made it a particularly important and
ubiquitous medium of mass communication in the developing world. Even in
remote rural areas, it disseminates important information, such as agricultural
instructions for easy, cheap, and rapid farming. Radio is also used globally as an
emergency broadcast system for events such as severe storms, natural disasters,
and military conflict, largely because of its portability and flexible power source.
Radio receivers can operate easily for long periods on battery power alone.
In industrialized societies, radio has a broad array of functions, perhaps more
diverse than any other of the traditional analog media. Talk radio provides infor-
mation, debate, and even limited audience interactivity with listeners who call in.
News programming offers breaking news as well as traffic and weather reports,
school closings, and more. The broadcasting of recorded music for entertainment,
the mainstay of commercial radio, benefits the public, artists, and the recording
industry.

History of Radio
Radio boasts a remarkable history. Technically, economically, and programmati-
cally, it has changed considerably since its early development, and it continues to
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 111

ETHICS IN MEDIA
Mashed-Up and Mixed-Up Musical Ethics
The aptly named “Blurred Lines” illustrates the
challenges of ethics in media in the digital age. In
1977, legendary artist Marvin Gaye produced a
sensational hit called “Got to Give It Up,” a song
that has remained familiar and popular over the
years.
Four decades later, recording artist Robin
Thicke produced the contemporary hit “Blurred
Lines,” which critics contend is little more than a
digital rip-off of Gaye’s masterpiece.12 Thicke’s
song entered the musical charts in the summer of
2013 and quickly rose to the top of national and
global markets, where it stayed for six weeks, sell-
ing more than six million copies and helping cata-
pult Thicke to international fame.
Marvin Gaye died in 1984, tragically shot by
his father in an apparent argument. His family now
claims that Thicke essentially took the melody
from Gaye’s original hit and remixed it into the
melody of “Blurred Lines.”13 Thicke has since ad-
mitted that he was high on drugs and alcohol
when the new song was coproduced with interna-
tional musical sensation Pharrell Williams and “T.I.”
Clifford Harris Jr. Thicke claims he cannot remem-
ber cowriting the hit and does not believe he
would even have been capable of contributing to
its creation. He also admits lying to the media at
the time of the song’s release about his part in
writing the song.
Thicke and his musical partners also filed suit,
defending their claim to having created “Blurred
Lines” without stealing from Gaye’s previous hit.
They acknowledge a resemblance between the
tunes, but claim the contemporary hit is tribute to
Gaye, not theft. In March 2015, a jury disagreed,
awarding the Marvin Gaye estate $7.3 million of
the $25 million they sought in damages. for both songs. Listen to “Blurred Lines” and “Got to Give It
See if you agree with this view that the 2013 hit is a Up” and compare the melodies and the beat of each song.
largely derivative mash-up of Gaye’s classic song. Log onto What is your conclusion? Does Thicke owe more than an apol-
YouTube, Vimeo, or another online music service and search ogy to the Gaye family?

evolve in the digital age. The following discussion reviews the development of
radio from its early days in the late nineteenth century to the early twenty-first
century.
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Heinrich Hertz WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY

Demonstrated the existence of Many inventors and scientists around the world were experimenting with radio
radio waves in 1885, setting the technology around the same time. In 1884, German Heinrich Hertz began work-
stage for the development of
modern wireless communications.
ing with electromagnetic waves, and in 1885, he demonstrated the existence of
The measurement unit of radio waves. The measurement unit of electromagnetic frequencies was named for
electromagnetic frequencies Hertz, whose work set the stage for the development of modern wireless commu-
was named for Hertz. nications, both fixed and mobile, a portion of which Americans have come to
know as radio.
Another scientist experimenting with radio technology was African
American Granville T. Woods, who in 1887 invented railway telegraphy
that allowed messages to be sent between moving trains and a railroad sta-
tion. This invention decreased railway collisions and alerted engineers to ob-
structions ahead on tracks.14
In 1899, Italian Guglielmo Marconi invented radio telegraphy. What
he dubbed “the wireless,” as it came to be called in much of the English-
speaking world, made real-time audio transmission possible. Although
transmitted in the form of Morse code dots and dashes without a wired con-
nection, it might be deemed the first real radio transmission.
Kentucky farmer Nathan B. Stubblefield, called by some the real inventor
of radio, created and demonstrated in 1892 a wireless communications
device that could even transmit voice and music over a short distance, about
five hundred feet. Stubblefield made his invention available to the Wireless
Telephone Company, which proved to be a fraud. Because he never patented
Guglielmo Marconi invented radio telegraphy, his device, he failed to reap the commercial rewards, dying tragically of star-
or the wireless telegraph, in 1899. vation in 1928, alone and penniless on the dirt floor of a shack.15

Granville T. Woods EXPLORING RADIO’S EARLY POTENTIAL

Inventor of railway telegraphy in The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), recognizing radio’s potential, fi-
1887, a type of wireless nanced Canadian Reginald A. Fessenden’s early research for gathering reports and
communication that allowed distributing them broadly. In 1901, Fessenden obtained a U.S. patent for his new
moving trains to communicate
with each other and with stations, radio transmitter with a high-speed electrical alternator that produced “continu-
greatly reducing the number ous waves.” His design is the basis for today’s AM radio. In 1912, the USDA started
of railway collisions. transmitting weather reports by radio in telegraphic code.

Guglielmo Marconi
Italian inventor and creator VOICE TRANSMISSION
of radio telegraphy, or wireless In 1906, Swedish-born inventor Ernst Alexanderson was among the first to build
transmission, in 1899.
a high-frequency, continuous-wave machine capable of broadcasting the human
Lee de Forest
voice and other sounds. An early radio station broadcast featuring a person’s voice
and a violin solo used his invention.
Considered the father of radio Although Italian Marconi and Canadian Fessenden did much of the early in-
broadcasting because of his
invention that permitted reliable
venting work, American Lee de Forest developed a unique voice transmitter that
voice transmissions for both point- proved reliable for both point-to-point radio communication and broadcasting;
to-point communication and and by 1907, de Forest’s company was supplying the U.S. Navy’s Great White Fleet
broadcasting. with arc radiotelephones for its pioneering around-the-world voyage. This feat
helped establish de Forest as the father of radio, although, in reality, radio had at
least three men who could claim that title.
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 113

RADIO BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER WWI

Despite its evident practical uses, radio required improved technology to become
a mass medium. With considerable financial support and direction from the U.S.
military, research on the vacuum tube helped produce a reliable radio transmitter
and receiver by about 1915. Using the perfected vacuum tube radio transmitter, de
Forest’s “Highbridge Station” 2XG introduced nightly broadcasts, a so-called wire-
less newspaper for amateur radio operators.
All this activity ceased when the United States entered World War I in April
1917. At this point, the U.S. government either took over or completely shut down
all radio stations. For the duration of the war, private citizens could not legally
own or operate a radio transmitter or receiver without special permission. The mil-
itary continued to conduct research on radio technology and lifted radio restric-
tions when the war ended in late 1918. Regular commercial radio broadcasts

TIMELINE M I L E S TO N E S I N E A R LY R A D I O T E C H N O LO G Y D E V E LO PM E N T

1901
Reginald A. Fessenden
obtains a U.S. patent for
his new radio
transmitter engineered
to use a high-speed
electrical alternator to
produce “continuous
waves.” It will be the
1887

1907
basis for amplitude
Granville T. Woods invents
1893 modulation, or AM
Nicola Tesla
1864 railway telegraphy, which
demonstrates a
(medium-wave), radio.
James Clerk Maxwell predicts the allows messages to be sent
wireless
existence of electromagnetic or between moving trains.
communications
1839

radio waves that use the conducting

device.
layer in Earth’s atmosphere (i.e.,
electric waves can travel through
the air).

1892 1899 1907

Marchese Lee de Forest develops a reliable
Nathan B. Stubblefield creates Guglielmo transmission technology for radio
1885 and demonstrates a wireless Marconi invents 1906 broadcasting of the human voice,
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz communications device that can radio Ernst Alexanderson for both point-to-point
demonstrates the existence transmit voice and music. telegraphy, builds a working communication and broadcasts of
of radio waves based on which he calls high-frequency, entertainment and news.
1839 Maxwell’s prediction. “the wireless.” continuous-wave
Carl Friedrich Gauss machine capable of
proposes the Earth’s transmitting a radio
atmosphere contains a broadcast of the
conducting layer. human voice and
other sounds.
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began in 1920 when AM station KDKA of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, reported re-

sults of the Harding–Cox presidential election.

WIDESPREAD PUBLIC ADOPTION OF RADIO

In the United States in the early 1920s, roughly 6,000 amateur radio stations and
4,600 commercial stations run for profit had licenses. There were also some ama-
teur enthusiasts who could be likened to computer geeks in the early days of per-
sonal computers and the Internet; but for most of the public, radio was still a
novelty with limited application.
However, a sporting event on July 2, 1921, would help establish radio as a major
medium of mass communication. People across the country were keenly interested
in the heavyweight boxing title fight between champion Jack Dempsey and chal-
lenger Georges Carpentier. Radio networks did not yet exist, so only one station, a
temporary long-wave station, WJY, broadcast the bout live, with technical support
from the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), which, as a radio receiver manufac-
turer, wanted every American household to have a radio set (or two).
Broadcast organizers telegraphed a transcript of the commentary to pioneer-
ing station KDKA in Pittsburgh. It then broadcast the fight with a slight delay.
With relatively few personal radio receivers, most listeners gathered in halls where
local organizers, including volunteer amateur radio operators, set up receivers and
charged admission to offset costs.
The evident breakthrough and promise of the new communications technol-
ogy generated much media commentary, helping propel radio to mass-communi-
cation status. A broadcasting boom began after the Dempsey–Carpentier fight,
with hundreds of radio stations springing up across the country, similar to the
proliferation of Web servers in the mid- to late 1990s. Radio receivers were selling
as fast as RCA and others could manufacture them. American Telephone and Tel-
egraph Company (AT&T) began implementing programming for a national radio
network in 1922 with flagship station WEAF in New York City, which quickly set
the standard for the entire industry.

FM RADIO, EDWIN HOWARD ARMSTRONG, AND DAVID SARNOFF

In 1934, an important innovation in radio transmission technology occurred
Edwin Howard Armstrong when Columbia University engineering professor Edwin Howard Armstrong
Columbia University engineering
(1890–1954) invented FM radio (and later, stereo FM radio) with his colleague
professor who invented FM radio John Bose. Armstrong completed his first field test on June 9, 1934, sending an
transmission. organ recital via both AM and FM from an RCA tower on top of the Empire State
Building to the home of a trusted old friend on Long Island. The FM organ came
through loud and clear. The AM version had much more static.
David Sarnoff Armstrong and David Sarnoff (1891–1971), head of RCA, had started out as
Head of RCA, he promoted the
friends, who both recognized the great potential of radio broadcasting. But FM
development of television as a radio threatened to destroy the RCA empire built on the mass sales of AM radios,
mass medium yet blocked the or “radio music boxes.” Once Sarnoff realized the magnitude of the invention, he
development of FM radio for years blocked Armstrong by ordering RCA engineers to ask for more tests, lobbying
because RCA produced and sold
AM radio receivers.
federal regulators to deny Armstrong a license to test his invention, and even
trying to obtain his patent. Armstrong responded as best he could, filing suit
against RCA and many other radio companies infringing on the Armstrong FM
radio patent.
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 115

Tragically, in 1954, Armstrong, who had never enjoyed commercial success in

his life, committed suicide after long-running legal battles left him virtually pen-
niless and his marriage broke up. Ironically, his many lawsuits were settled shortly
after his death, leaving a fortune to his widow and the Armstrong Foundation. The
story of Armstrong’s invention and Sarnoff’s machinations to protect the RCA
business model mirrors some Internet developments in which legal wrangling or
threatened business interests have prevented better technologies from prevailing.
For most of the first half of the twentieth century, AM radio listenership far
exceeded FM. In the late 1970s, this shifted, and today FM listenership and sta-
tions are in the vast majority. FM radio ascended for a number of reasons, among
them the inclusion of an FM dial in most car radios, changes in programming, and
regulatory changes, combined with the fact that FM has less static.

CREATING A VIABLE BUSINESS MODEL FOR RADIO

Just as with the Internet, the question of how to make radio broadcasting a viable
business would prove complex and controversial. Experiments with commercial
sponsorship through the mid-1920s drew outspoken criticism of advertising on
public airwaves. The controversy was exemplified in the May 1924 issue of Radio
Edwin Howard Armstrong, inventor
Broadcast magazine, which sponsored a $500 contest for the best essay on “Who Is
of FM radio, spent much of the latter
to Pay for Broadcasting—and How?” part of his life battling companies that
Eventually, a confluence of commercial interests, government decisions tried to squash FM radio because it
(sometimes influenced by commercial interests), and lack of coordination among threatened business models based on
AM radio.
advocates of publicly supported broadcasting made privately owned stations with
on-air advertising the standard business model that continues to this day. Conse-
quently, the engine that drives profits is audience size, especially among key de-
mographic groups attractive to advertisers.
Radio Act of 1927

THE RISE OF RADIO NETWORKS An act of Congress that created the

Federal Radio Commission,
During the 1920s, the first commercial broadcasting networks were formed, intended to regulate the largely
initially as radio networks—affiliated radio stations in multiple cities all chaotic airwaves and based on the
broadcasting a common core set of programming—and later as national television principle that companies had a civic
duty to use airwaves, a limited
networks. Prior to the passage of the Radio Act of 1927 and the creation public good, responsibly.
of the Federal Radio Commission (FRC), the predecessor to the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC), broadcasting was lively but haphazard. Federal Radio
Numerous competing stations on the same or nearby frequencies often caused Commission (FRC)
reception interference. Few regulations regarding transmitter power meant
Formed by the Radio Act of 1927,
stronger signals could drown out weaker local transmitters. The FRC revoked the commission, the precursor to
thousands of radio broadcast licenses and instituted a system that favored fewer the FCC, created a policy that
high-power stations over smaller but more numerous local low-power stations. favored fewer high-power radio
This policy benefited large commercial companies over educational, religious, and broadcasting stations rather than
more numerous low-power
small private broadcasters. stations.
The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) was founded in 1926 when Sarnoff
of RCA purchased New York station WEAF (now WNBC) from AT&T for $1 mil- Federal Communications
lion. That same year, NBC bought WJZ (licensed to Newark, New Jersey, but trans- Commission (FCC)
mitting in New York) from Westinghouse and thus created the first network.
Established in 1934, the principal
CBS (Columbia Broadcasting Station) became the second network, first as the communications regulatory body
United Independent Broadcasters in 1927; and then, after going on the air with a at the federal level in the United
partner, the Columbia Phonograph and Records Company; and finally becoming the States.
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CONVERGENCE CULTURE
NPR and PRI: America’s Public Radio Networks
National Public Radio (NPR) debuted on April 19, 1971, with Companion, to some 900 affiliate stations in the United States,
live coverage of the Senate Vietnam hearings; and a month Puerto Rico, and Guam and via SiriusXM satellite radio. PRI’s
later, it broadcast All Things Considered. A not-for-profit mem- international programs include The World, produced in col-
bership organization, NPR produces and distributes news, laboration with the BBC World Service and WGBH Radio
cultural, and informational programs, linking the nation’s Boston.17
noncommercial radio stations into a national network. It Public radio distinguishes itself from commercial radio in
broadcasts about one hundred hours of original program- a number of ways, including more extensive, impartial, and
ming each week, heard on more than 900 public radio sta- original audio news, especially long-form audio reporting as
tions nationwide by an audience of 25 million.16 NPR.org heard on Morning Edition and All Things Considered. NPR also
reaches about 19 million visitors a month on its various digital offers extensive programming in classical and folk music, jazz,
platforms. and opera, featuring a variety of live transmissions of the per-
Public Radio International (PRI), established in 1983, pro- forming arts from theaters and concert halls. Evening pro-
duces and distributes additional public radio programming, grams include those that introduce listeners to classical music
such as Marketplace and Garrison Keillor’s A Prairie Home as well as to international musicians and unique musical styles.

Columbia Broadcasting System. In 1928, cigar maker Sam Paley bought CBS for
$400,000, installing son William as head and moving network headquarters from
Philadelphia to New York. Under William’s longtime leadership, and later under that
of his corporate heir, Frank Stanton, CBS maintained the number one position, de-
scribing itself as the Tiffany Network—although it was also called Black Rock, a ref-
erence in part to the black marble façade of its midtown Manhattan headquarters.
By 1935, fifty-eight of sixty-two stations nationwide were part of either the
NBC or the CBS network. Not until the 1940s did ABC, a third commercial net-
work, emerge.

CONSOLIDATION IN RADIO STATION OWNERSHIP

Throughout most of the twentieth century, radio ownership in the United States
was relatively diverse. This was partly a result of federal laws preventing any one
person or organization from owning more than twenty FM stations and twenty
AM stations nationwide. Regulatory changes in 1992 and the passage of the Tele-
communications Act in 1996 resulted in new FCC rules that eliminated such re-
strictions, although an owner must still be a U.S. citizen. Former FCC duopoly
rules prohibited sole ownership, operation, or control of more than two AM and
two FM stations in the largest markets. The combined audience share of the co-
owned stations was also limited to 25 percent, with even further restrictions for
smaller markets. Now the FCC permits a single entity to own substantially more
in the same service market.
This shift in regulatory policy produced a trend in the 1990s and early twenty-
first century toward increasing consolidation. Since the passage of the act, more than
4,400 radio stations have changed ownership, and the radio industry has become
more of an oligopoly. For most of the first fifty years of radio broadcasting, radio was
a small business; and owners, even if affiliated with a national network, were
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 117

longtime residents of their station’s town. Although this is still the case in many
smaller towns, most stations in big cities have become part of a larger corporate
entity.
Increasingly, groups now control eight or more stations in a single market, and
the most powerful media groups own most of the large, highly profitable stations.
Some support consolidation for a number of reasons, including increased effi-
ciency; more economical, centralized production; larger budgets that permit
greater programming experimentation and development; and better manage-
ment. But critics argue that remote group ownership typically means less sensitiv-
ity to local concerns.
In the past few years, however, certain radio groups have been deconsolidat-
ing and selling some of their vast holdings. iHeartMedia, formerly named Clear
Channel, sold almost half of its 1,200 radio stations and all of its 51 television
stations since 2007, partly because of its intent to become a privately held com-
pany and partly because of FCC regulations. Despite these sales, iHeartMedia’s
stations and markets exceed that of the total number of the next three radio
groups combined. In 2008, Cumulus Media, the second-largest radio group in
2011 in number of AM and FM stations owned, also went private. Although the
move away from consolidation may seem like a good thing for the industry, the
shift from publicly traded companies to privately held firms may also mean more
business decisions based purely on the bottom line without consideration of the
public role of radio stations.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Two major movements have shaped the development of

radio: the shift early on from small, independent stations to large-scale, powerful com-
mercial stations and the later shift from terrestrial radio stations to online personal radio
stations. Identify some consequences of these changes, and explain which you personally
consider most important.

The Radio Industry Today

Declining American radio revenues every year since 2006 has shown a reversal, with
a 5.4 percent rebound in 2010 and another 1.2 percent increase in 2011 to $14.1 bil-
lion, according to BIA/Kelsey, a group that tracks and advises the radio industry.
BIA/Kelsey projects over-the-air revenues for radio will reach $14.5 billion in 2014
and nearly $16 billion by 2018.18 In addition, online radio revenues are also growing,
and BIA/Kelsey expects them to be nearly $1 billion by 2018. The turnaround was in
part due to a rise in digital revenues, which industry experts believe will continue to
grow in the coming years. Today, there are approximately 10,000 commercial and
2,500 noncommercial radio stations in the United States, the latter group including
NPR affiliates and college, community, and religious stations.
All U.S. stations are assigned call letters designating the station and their geo-
graphic location east or west of the Mississippi River. Stations east of the Missis-
sippi have W as their first call letter, and stations to the west, K, although some
exceptions exist for call letters assigned before boundaries were determined, such
as KDKA in Pittsburgh. Under an international agreement issued at the London
International Radiotelegraphic Conference in 1912, different countries were
awarded different letters. The United States received KDA through KZZ.
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Radio Station Programming

Radio grew in its early years to become a dominant medium of mass communica-
tion. Large audiences assembled to listen to individual programs during much of
the first half of the twentieth century. But the rise of television in the years fol-
lowing World War II provided serious competition, a new media landscape to
which radio, like magazines, adapted by specializing.
This specialization takes a number of forms, including program formats, the
time of day for certain formats, and especially audience demographics. In radio, a
day is broken up into different time segments called “dayparts.” The 6 a.m. to
daypart 10 a.m. daypart, for example, is when most people listen to the radio as they get
ready for work or school or during their commute. Accordingly, the programming
A segment of time radio and
television program planners use to emphasizes frequent news, traffic, and weather reports as well as some of the
determine their primary audience more outspoken talk radio shows such as Imus in the Morning.
during that time of day or night. Radio stations are organized by programming into dozens of formats that
draw varied audiences.19 Contemporary-hit radio, for example, attracts a much
different audience than the country format—by far the most popular in the
United States, with 2,014 stations, as Table 4-2 shows. The fastest growing format
is Spanish language.
To reduce operating costs, more and more stations are relying on computer-
ized automated systems that use remote DJs and set music. DJs ostensibly chat-
tering and choosing songs in a local studio may never have even visited the city
from where they are ostensibly broadcasting. Automated programming can cause
problems during times of emergency. In 2002, for example, a train carrying am-
monia derailed in Minot, North Dakota. Emergency services were in disarray, and
power was out in many places. Yet, as there was no actual staff at the six Clear
Channel radio stations (out of nine stations in the city), regular programming was
not preempted with evacuation or safety information for concerned residents.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: List the techniques your favorite radio station uses to distin-
guish its music format and the station itself. Consider things such as sound effects, promos,
and DJ style. Now find a station of a similar genre elsewhere in the country (via the Inter-
net). Listen to it, and identify similarities and differences.

Outlook for the Radio Industry

Industry experts remain cautiously optimistic and predict slight growth in the
future, thanks in part to an expected increase in digital revenues that, although
large, will remain a fraction of overall revenues. Terrestrial radio stations will con-
tinue to exist and promote music, despite the rising popularity of music subscrip-
tion services and downloadable music. Sales of stations to the top radio groups
have been relatively steady in recent years, and further consolidation will likely
continue. Radio groups are also buying music subscription services, such as
iHeartMedia’s 2011 acquisition of Thumbplay, which was not even a year old.
Slacker, Pandora, Spotify, and the like often promote their services as per-
sonal radio stations. Users can create and save their own playlists in “My Stations”
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 119

TABLE 42 Most Popular Radio Programming Genres

NUMBER OF STATIONS
Genre (United States)
Country 2,014

News/Talk/Information 1,497

Spanish 827

Sports 711

Classic Hits 665

Adult Contemporary 603

Oldies 77

CHR Top 40 575

Classic Rock 484

Hot Adult Contemporary 422

Religion 345

Source: “Leading radio formats in the United States in February 2013, by number of stations” Statista
website, accessed November 26, 2014, http://www.statista.com/statistics/252230/top-radio-formats-in-
the-us-by-number-of-stations/

or “Channels,” names meant to evoke radio, whether on the desktop, mobile, or

wearable device. Their on-demand nature, which actually makes them more like
personalized audio programming than what has traditionally been considered
radio, highlights the blurring of online music subscription services, downloadable
audio, and traditional radio.
Podcasting and satellite radio are also affecting our perceptions of what con-
stitutes radio. Most radio stations have websites where they promote their shows,
provide extra content as podcasts, and let users listen live to shows. Proponents
hype satellite as the future of radio while skeptics dismiss it as having an unsus-
tainable business model.
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PODCASTING
Increasing in popularity from 2004, podcasts are not identical to other down-
loaded or streaming formats. Although they are downloaded in one respect, the
technology that interfaces with the user’s computer differs from a direct file
download. Podcasts are often episodic or belong to a series of related content, such
as a news program or an investigative report. They are also easy to get and down-
load, much like RSS (Rich Site Summary) feeds do with blogs, sending subscribers
new content automatically.
Podcasts permit more flexible content delivery. Listening at the actual time of
a certain report is no longer required, nor is visiting a website to download an
audio file. Users can simply subscribe to receive podcasts and listen at their con-
venience on their computer or mobile device. Podcasts have proved popular not
only for talk-based radio, such as NPR features, but also for sports and music.
Harkening back to radio’s earliest days, several companies in recent years are spe-
cializing in podcasting farm news, information on weather, commodity prices,
and other news of agricultural interest. Easy and inexpensive to produce, podcasts
could allow local radio news to be heard once again in communities where distant
radio conglomerates now own stations.
Among the most popular podcasts to date is Serial, which debuted in
2014. 20 Produced by the creators of the public radio program This American Life,
Serial offers a series of episodes that examine via in-depth reporting a true
story told in audio narrative form. The first series, which reexamined the 1999
murder of a Maryland teen, generated a large following of more than 40 million
people.21

SATELLITE RADIO
More akin to audio programming than to traditional broadcast radio, satellite
radio uses digital signals broadcast from a satellite, beaming the same program-
ming across a much wider territory than its terrestrial cousin. With up to sev-
enty channels of CD-quality music in a variety of formats, and dozens of
third-party news, sports, talk, and old-time radio programs (most of them com-
mercial free as a subscription-based service), satellite radio has won a loyal audi-
ence of 24  million subscribers in the United States. And
as  with cable television, its subscription system entails
fewer content restrictions.
Sirius Satellite Radio, which started out as CD Radio in
the early 1990s, launched its satellites in 2000 and began
broadcasting in 2002. When XM Satellite Radio launched
soon after, the two companies competed vigorously in of-
fering exclusive access to various sports channels, hosted
music channels, and noted talk-radio hosts. In 2004, shock
jock Howard Stern signed an exclusive five-year, $500 mil-
lion contract with Sirius. Some media observers claimed
this was a game changer that greatly enhanced the status of
satellite radio. Others saw it as reminiscent of the wasteful
spending of the dot-com boom of the late 1990s and argued
Radio shock jock Howard Stern’s move to satellite radio was hailed by that Stern would essentially disappear from the public eye
some and criticized by others. (or ear) because of the smaller satellite radio audience.
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 121

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Trusting in the Power of the Airwaves
Radio has proven to be a very important information important it is for those from developed nations not to
source in developing countries, where spotty electricity take for granted certain cultural assumptions about
service, government regulations, low education, and media and how they are used. For example, an award-
scant incomes have kept most people from owning a winning print advertising campaign about disease pre-
television, let alone a computer and Internet connec- vention in the United States or Europe may not be
tion. Radios, however, are nearly ubiquitous, thanks in understood or even seen by wide swaths of the popula-
part to their portability, low cost, and ability to run on tion in a developing country, whereas a radio message
batteries or solar power or by hand cranks. Because could reach many more people who will perceive it as a
radio does not require literacy, it has proven especially reliable source of information.
valuable in communicating with poor, often rural
populations—such as in Southeast Asian, Latin America,
and Africa—as a means of development and distribu-
tion of innovations such as new agricultural techniques
or health advances.
UNESCO, the United Nations Education, Scientific
and Cultural Organization, reports that 95 percent of the
world’s population has access to radio, about double the
percentage that has Internet access.22,23 UNESCO states
that radio plays an especially important role in the de-
veloping world because of its ubiquitous presence, low
cost, and reliability.
The implications of radio’s capabilities are important
for nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and others
working in the developing world, for they highlight how Kenyan women listening to the radio.

In mid-2008, Sirius completed its acquisition of former competitor XM

Satellite Radio and became Sirius XM Radio. The company almost filed for bank-
ruptcy in early 2009—as large debts came due—but Liberty Media, owner of
DirecTV, rescued it at the last minute, acquiring 40  percent ownership in the
process. Sirius XM Radio continues its technological innovation, improving re-
ceivers and providing mobile phone apps, for example.

MEDIA CAREERS

Career paths in radio and the recording industry are among the most rapidly
changing and unsettled in the media industry. Perhaps the most exciting oppor-
tunities involve entrepreneurial approaches. These career paths emphasize both
digital savvy as well as a sense of innovation in how to produce popular audio-
format programming that can appeal to an increasingly mobile and international
marketplace. Listeners typically discover new music on the radio, often online;
but the vast majority in the important demographic of young listeners from age 12
to 24 use YouTube to watch videos and keep up to date with the latest hits.24
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A few serious fans may turn their passion for music into a career as a DJ at a
radio station or nightclub. Disc jockeys who cater special events such as weddings
or fundraisers need to be familiar with various types of music. Others may spe-
cialize in a particular genre. Regardless, DJs need to be sensitive to the musical
tastes of their particular audience because their success depends on the ability to
develop a loyal following of radio listeners or club hoppers. Sometimes disc jock-
eys transition to careers in the record industry, although for most, spinning re-
mains only a part-time gig.

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

Radio is still an evolving medium, with many forms of delivery including tradi-
tional terrestrial broadcasting, online distribution, and satellite transmission via
Sirius XM Radio. Future radio delivery may not lie in the heavens, but it will un-
doubtedly be grounded in certain consumer behaviors and desires readily appar-
ent across all media, especially with music.
Although transmission and hardware will continue to change, radio itself—
or, more accurately, the delivery of audio content to a mass audience—seems des-
tined to remain an important form of mass communication. This is largely because
radio, almost alone among mass media, allows people to engage easily in other
activities while listening. No matter how advanced or portable media technology
becomes, we cannot watch TV or read a book or newspaper while driving safely, for
example. The shift to an on-demand and participatory media environment will
become more significant. Satellite radio has signaled this shift, along with the
various music subscription services or personal radio stations.
Services such as Pandora, Slacker, and Spotify may well represent the future
of radio: a highly personalized system that not only responds to your musical
tastes but uses special algorithms and collaborative filtering to suggest new art-
ists who play similar styles of music. These changes may so drastically alter how
radio stations think of their programming that the term “radio” may technically
become obsolete or come to mean something very different.
Business models or ways of creating, promoting, and distributing music are
still in transition. Although advances in technology improved both the sound
quality and portability of recorded music, basic business policies endured. Innova-
tive musicians are using digital crowdfunding to underwrite their own musical
enterprises, circumventing the traditional record labels.
There are two main schools of thought about the state of the music industry
today, which also apply to other entertainment media such as television and film.
One camp claims that the music industry has only itself to blame for not adapting
earlier to the digital repercussions for established business models. Rather than
initiating bullying lawsuits, record labels should focus on developing alternative
revenue streams, some of which already have growing sales such as digital down-
loads of à la carte songs, music subscription services, and ringtone sales.
The second school of thought explains diminished sales as the consequence of
file sharing, viewed as theft, pure and simple. So although the interest in music
remains as strong as ever, new revenue sources are still far from making up for
losses of recent years, a drop-off that the industry blames on illegal practices that
hurt not only corporations but also artists who rely on royalties to survive.
 CHAPTER 4 >> AUDIO MEDIA: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO 123

MEDIA MATTERS THE REVOLUTION WILL NOT BE TELEVISED; IT WILL BE MASHED UP

1. Have you ever bought a vinyl LP? 7. Why is radio called “the wireless” in other
2. Have you ever bought a song online? English-speaking countries?
3. What media device do you typically use to 8. (T/F) Satellite radio does not have the same
listen to music? restrictions regarding content as broadcast
4. (T/F) Revenue from digital music (mostly radio stations.
downloads and subscriptions) surpassed CD 9. Do you pay to subscribe to one or more music
revenue for the first time in 2012. subscription services such as Pandora, Slacker,
5. Where is the dividing line between radio or Spotify?
stations that have call letters starting with K 10. How much would you be willing to pay per
and those starting with W? month to listen to commercial-free radio?
6. What is the most popular music format for
radio stations?

ANSWERS: 4. True. 5. Mississippi River. 6. Country music. 7. Because it was perceived as a wireless form of telegraphy. 8. True.

FURTHER READING
All You Need to Know About the Music Business, 8th ed. Donald Passman (2012) Hal Leonard Corp.
The Business of Music, 10th ed. William Krasilovsky, Sidney Shemel, John Gross, Jonathan Feinstein
(2007) Billboard Books.
The Future of Music: Manifesto for the Digital Music Revolution. David Kusek, Gerd Leonhard (2008)
Berklee Press.
Appetite for Self-Destruction: The Spectacular Crash of the Record Industry in the Digital Age. Steve
Knopper (2009) Free Press.
The Listener’s Voice: Early Radio and the American Public. Elena Razlogova (2011) University of
Pennsylvania Press.
Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio. Tom Lewis (1993) Harper Perennial Library.
Hello, Everybody! The Dawn of American Radio. Anthony Rudel (2008) Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Sound Business: Newspapers, Radio, and the Politics of New Media. Michael Stamm (2011) University
of Pennsylvania Press.
Censorship: The Threat to Silence Talk Radio. Brian Jennings, Sean Hannity (2009) Threshold Editions.
Something in the Air: Radio, Rock, and the Revolution That Shaped a Generation. Marc Fisher (2007)
Random House.
Right of the Dial: The Rise of Clear Channel and the Fall of Commercial Radio. Alex Foege (2009)
Faber and Faber.
World Radio TV Handbook 2013: The Directory of Global Broadcasting. WRTH editors (Jan. 15, 2013),
WRTH.
Radio Content in the Digital Age: The Evolution of a Sound Medium. Angeliki Gazi, Guy Starkey, Stani-
slaw Jedrzejewski (2011) Intellect/University of Chicago Press.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

126 Photography
127 Movies
128 History of the Movie
Industry
139 Movie Industry Today
142 Marketing and
Distribution for Movies
143 Movie-Industry Business
Model
143 Outlook for the Movie
Industry
144 Television
146 History of Television
153 Television Distribution
154 Television Industry Today
156 Television-Industry
Business Model
157 Outlook for the
Television Industry
 5

Visual Media
PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES,
AND TELEVISION

T
ristan is an undergraduate at Rutgers University. Like many college stu- LEARNING OBJECTIVES
dents, she doesn’t watch much TV in the conventional sense. Between
classes, work, and sorority life, she doesn’t have much time left over; >> Explain the role photography
and she doesn’t have a TV set in her apartment or a cable or fiber TV has played in our visual culture
subscription. That doesn’t mean she misses all her favorite shows, though, like and its continued importance
The Walking Dead and Bob’s Burgers. She uses her mobile device to log on to within mass communication.
any of several mobile video services and watches online and on demand. >> Describe the impact of
Americans love their TV and movies, but how they get that content is changing technological changes on the
dramatically. Whereas broadcast television once dominated the TV viewing land- film and television industries.
scape, cable, fiber, and satellite TV entered the mix in a big way in the latter part of >> Explain how business models
the twentieth century. Online viewing, particularly via mobile digital devices, has and structures have
influenced the film industry.
become the new TV and movie viewing platform of the twenty-first century.
Increasingly, people multitask when interacting with media, texting friends or >> Describe the development of
tweeting while watching, say, American Idol. Soon a show without interactivity will television from its origins to
digital TV.
seem like a relic. In 1953, interactivity meant a child viewer drawing a bridge on wax
paper overlaid on the TV screen, as with CBS’s Winky Dink and You, the first regularly >> Explain the differences
between terrestrial, cable, and
scheduled interactive TV show.
satellite broadcasting and
Television advertisers are also developing new ways to watch us as we watch TV. what they mean for viewers.
Cable and satellite companies record our viewing behavior, information used with
>> Describe the implications of
other demographic data gleaned from our daily transactions to match viewer pro-
the convergence of
files with specific advertisements. In the future, you and a friend may be watching telecommunications
the same program and texting each other about it but receiving different advertise- companies and content
ments. This may feel Big Brother 1984 to you, but television advertisers are simply companies.
trying to do what Internet advertisers have been doing for some time now: target
ads to specific consumer behavior.

125
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Photographs, television, and movies shape our world, with journalism, entertain-
cord-cutters ment, and art highlighting the importance of the visual in our lives. The photo-
Those who have switched from graphic lens has long defined the linear narrative of visual storytelling, and recent
cable or other connections to changes with digitization allow visual media to render and create realities even
Internet-delivered TV. more vividly. The past hundred years of filmmaking still provide the foundation
for digital videographers as they explore working with more portable equipment
cord-nevers and more sophisticated editing tools and effects.
Those who have known only Changes resulting from online consumption of video, film, and television are
mobile or wireless Internet- not yet fully understood, but already for many the Internet is a more significant
delivered TV. source of imagery than is television. Sources of video content online include the
popular YouTube and many similar video-sharing sites. Cord-cutters are increas-
surveillance ingly common among those who once relied on a cable or other connection to get
Primarily the journalism function of their TV, whereas cord-nevers are those who have known only mobile or wireless
mass communication, which Internet-delivered TV.
provides information about
processes, issues, events, and other
developments in society.
Photography
cultural transmission
Long important to mass communications, still images, or photographs, continue
The process of passing on culturally to perform two main functions: surveillance and cultural transmission.
relevant knowledge, skills,
Photos and other images can verify factual claims. Whereas words might provide
attitudes, and values from person
to person or group to group. the narrative, photos confirm its truth, whether it involves a purported plane
crash, an extramarital affair, or a mass grave in a war-torn country. Despite the
possibility of being digitally doctored, photographs are still one of the surest ways
to support facts. They transmit culture by what they show, how they show it, and
which emotions they stir. At a glance, a photograph can tell a story or convey in-
formation quickly while engaging and entertaining.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Have digital film and television made photography less rele-
vant? Why or why not? How do you explain the popularity of the “selfie”?

HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The principles involved in creating photographs had been around hundreds of
Lynsey Addario published a memoir in years before photography was invented. The earliest recorded use of a
2015 that documents her life as a war
photographer, a calling she has
camera obscura—a dark box or room with a small hole that allows an inverted
pursued while pregnant and even after image of an outside scene to be shown on the opposite inner wall—is in the writ-
having being kidnapped—twice. ings of Leonardo da Vinci, who explains how a camera obscura can aid drawing
scenery, moving a sheet of paper around until the scene comes into sharp focus for
camera obscura tracing.
The other important element, understanding how light can affect certain
A dark box or room with a small
hole that allows an inverted image
chemicals, was also known for hundreds of years. Although some scientists could
of an outside scene to be shown on produce photographs with various light-sensitive chemicals, they had no way to
the opposite inner wall. make the images permanent. In June 1827, Joseph Niépce, using an asphalt-like
material that hardened after exposure to light, created a picture, although it was
Louis Daguerre unclear and required eight hours of exposure.1
Inventor of the daguerreotype, an After the death of Niépce, his partner, Frenchman Louis Daguerre, unveiled
early type of photography. in January 1839 the daguerreotype, a method of creating a positive image on a
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 127

metal plate, with a reduced exposure time of thirty minutes or so.2 Advances oc- daguerreotype
curred over the next one hundred and fifty years in exposure time, image quality, Photograph created by exposing a
and color photography. As cameras became more portable and user friendly, their positive image on a metal plate.
popularity increased with the general public. And the Internet and wireless com-
munications made it possible to share photos instantly with friends, family, or the Mathew B. Brady
entire world.
Nineteenth-century photographer
In the early days, when specialized knowledge was still required, Mathew acclaimed for his Civil War images
B. Brady was highly acclaimed for his Civil War photos and portraits of and portraits of famous people.
famous people, many of whom are best known
to us today through his work. Historians have
criticized Brady for sometimes arranging his
subjects, including battlefield corpses, for dra-
matic photocomposition purposes, a practice
considered unethical in modern journalism.
Nevertheless, Brady and other photographers
helped the public see the conflict in the Civil
War through the lens of the press, the first war
documented by means of photography.
Early photography was not limited to jour-
nalism. Notably, Eadweard Muybridge used it
for scientific documentation. His famous photo
series was the first to document how a horse
runs. Such applications help us see things that
the human eye alone cannot. Today, scientific The Civil War was the first war to be documented by means of photography.
images of the heavens and of the microscopic
alike captivate us. Some are even considered visual art.

PHOTOGRAPHIC INDUSTRY TODAY

The photography industry, like the more prominent film and television industries,
has experienced great change. Consider the impact of digital cameras. Only ten
years after film sales peaked in 1999, Kodak announced it would stop making Ko-
dachrome color film. Despite efforts to capitalize on the shift to digital by selling
digital cameras and photo printers, Kodak continued to lose money and declared
bankruptcy in January 2012. Fujifilm, headquartered in Tokyo and the world’s
largest photographic company, has also seen business diminish, but it integrated
digital technology more effectively into its business model and has a range of pop-
ular digital cameras as well as inkjet and laser photo paper.
Today, professional photographers have more powerful cameras than ever
Rolling Stone magazine received heavy
before, and digital cameras allow anyone to take professional-quality pictures criticism over this cover photo of
without manual camera adjustments. Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, convicted and
sentenced to death for setting bombs
that killed three people and injured
scores more at the 2013 Boston Marathon.
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS:
Movies Do aspects of the photograph seem
to glamorize Tsarnaev? If so, which ones?
Still images were to mass media of the mid-nineteenth century what motion pic- Would another photograph, from a
different angle or with a different
tures were to the twentieth. At the end of the nineteenth century, activity could be
expression, provoke the same reaction?
recorded for the first time. More important for the movie industry, technology Do you think reactions would be different
could not only re-create reality but create it. to a cover photo of Tsarnaev on Time or
U.S. News and World Report?
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TIMELINE D E V E LO PM E N T O F PH OTO G R A PH Y

1912
The modern process of
color film is developed
after decades of trying
1878 unsuccessfully to
1860s Eadweard Muybridge’s
create color
Mathew Brady uses innovative use of serial
1839 photographs to photographs sees what the
photography. The
1839

Louis Daguerre and process would be

document the Civil War, human eye cannot: the rapid
Joseph Niépce perfected in the 1930s.
helping bring more movement of a running horse.
develop the
visual news coverage of
daguerreotype, a
war to the public.
method of printing
photographs.

1884 1948
George Eastman, founder of The first instant
the Eastman Kodak Company, camera, the Polaroid
1850s invents roll film, which makes Model 95, starts a
“Pictorial” newspapers begin it more practical for boom in sales of
widely publishing photographs newspapers to publish timely instant cameras by
and other illustrations of news news photos and makes Polaroid.
events and subjects. photography something that
can be done by the general
public.

The primary function of motion pictures is to entertain, with millions enjoy-

ing the sweeping epics, slapstick comedies, romance, action, and adventure of
feature-length films. However, as with much entertainment, cultural transmis-
sion is also important. Many fans and critics alike consider cinema more than
simple entertainment, a serious visual art form comparable to painting, sculp-
ture, or architecture, with a history of important social influence. Still, most com-
mercially produced motion pictures in the United States are intended to make
money, only occasionally rising to the level of serious art.
Some cable television channels are devoted almost exclusively to films—such
as the Independent Film Channel, Turner Classic Movies, American Movie Clas-
sics, Home Box Office, Cinemax, and Showtime—in addition to the frequent (and
repeated) showing of movies on commercial and cable channels such as TNT. This
means films remain part of the entertainment landscape long after leaving theat-
ers. Yet, despite competition from other media, predictions that movie theaters
would close as people stayed home watching television have proved unfounded.
Thomas Alva Edison
His inventions included the electric
light, the phonograph, and the
Kinetoscope. Edison’s lab in Menlo
History of the Movie Industry
Park, New Jersey, had over sixty
scientists and produced as many as
In 1891, Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) created the Kinetoscope, a “peep-
four hundred patent applications a show” precursor to the motion picture viewer. Yet Edison’s failure to patent this
year. technology permitted two French brothers, Louis Lumière (1864–1948) and
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 129

1991
Kodak, after
developing variations
of digital camera
systems throughout 1999
the mid-1980s, The peak of sales of roll film. After 1999,
releases the first sales of roll film drop an estimated 25 to
professional digital 30 percent per year as more consumers
camera system. buy digital cameras.
2013
Oscar-winning director Malik Bendjelloul even used his
iPhone to finish shooting his movie when he ran out of
money for 8 mm film.

1994
The Apple QuickTake 100 camera is the first
consumer-level digital camera that allows
2009
Polaroid announces the end of production of
connection with a home computer system via a 2012

2013
instant-film products, a consequence of the
serial cable. Kodak, Casio, and Sony release similar Smartphone cameras such as those in
emergence of digital imaging.
cameras in subsequent years. the iPhone 5 and the Samsung Galaxy S
III are of such high quality, with
8-megapixel resolution and network
connectivity, that many consumers use
them as their main photographic device.

Auguste Lumière (1862–1954), to patent a more portable camera, film-processing

unit, and projector in 1895, a suitcase-sized single device that allowed shooting in
the morning and footage that could be processed in the afternoon and projected
for an audience in the evening. On December 28, 1895, the Lumières debuted their
process to a paying audience at the Grand Café in Paris, showing a series of ten
15- to 60-second glimpses of real scenes recorded outdoors. Soon the rage all over
France, the Cinématographe was clearly based on Edison’s machine but could show
motion pictures to many simultaneously.3
Failing to recognize their invention’s potential, the Lumières reproduced daily
life rather than telling a story. Louis felt that the novelty of viewing moving
images on a screen that could be seen by walking outside would eventually wear
off. This mindset differed from that of other film pioneers, such as Edison and
Georges Méliès, who saw that film could change reality as well as replicate it.

SILENT ERA: NEW MEDIUM, NEW TECHNOLOGIES, NEW

STORYTELLING
Adding sound to film was not technologically feasible in the beginning. Silent
films could more easily cross language barriers than their “talkie” descendants
because their few words, usually presented as text on the screen, could easily be
translated into the local language.
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ETHICS IN MEDIA
The Photojournalist’s Dilemma: Immersion in Conflict
Vice News has emerged since its launch in December of 2013 Video journalists and photojournalists sometimes
as a pioneering enterprise in reporting the news without the struggle with critical questions such as these, and a core
traditional filter of mainstream media. Vice News reporters part of the answers deal with journalism ethics. The Society
have used wearable technologies such as of Professional Journalists code of
Google Glass and Livestream to deliver video ethics states that a reporter’s first re-
news in real time from around the world to sponsibility is to the truth, a difficult
audiences everywhere. Editors at Vice News objective to achieve when covering
subscribe to a model of journalism called the conflict. This is especially true in war,
“Immersionist” school. Many in the news in- where, as Phillip Knightly observes,
dustry and academy view these methods as truth is the first casualty. Does a photo
the antithesis of traditional news reporting by or a video tell the truth? Can they do
diving deeply into stories and not attempting so, even with an appropriate caption
to provide coverage of a wide array of topics. or narration? What about the rights of
In 2014, Vice News used Google Glass to the subject of the photo or video?
transmit via the Internet real-time video reports via Livestream Perhaps just as important are the ethical consequences
for hours on end. Reporters using Google Glass delivered largely of trauma for the reporter witnessing such atrocities. 5 In
unfiltered footage of protests in Istanbul, Turkey; Montreal, the theater of war, photojournalists and their news organi-
Canada; and Ferguson, Missouri.4 Providing narrative audio to zations have an ethical mandate not only to report the
accompany this raw coverage, these video streams gave view- truth but to recognize and try to minimize harmful health
ers extraordinary depth of reporting on breaking news. consequences. Post-traumatic stress syndrome (PTSD) can
Critics, however, contend that such unfiltered reporting manifest itself in the form of nightmares, flashbacks, and
may fail to provide the critical perspective needed to put judgment errors. PTSD occurs in more than a quarter
events into meaningful context. Reporters, critics claim, need (28.6 percent) of war correspondents, about the same rate
to maintain a certain level of healthy skepticism to avoid as among combat veterans and higher than among police
being manipulated by organizers of events. officers.

Early film storytelling was limited and short (a few minutes). Nevertheless,
filmmakers around the world soon had Cinématographes and experimented with
new ways of visual storytelling, many of which are still used today and taken for
granted in movies.6

Méliès and Griffith

Unlike the Lumières, Frenchman Georges Méliès (1861–1938) used the medium
to conjure and create illusions. He was the first to make objects suddenly appear,
disappear, or change. Among the most memorable was his celluloid transforma-
tion of a carriage into a hearse. Méliès pioneered innovative special effects, includ-
ing the first double exposure (La Caverne maudite, 1898), the first split-screen shot
(Un Homme de tête, 1898), and the first dissolve (Cendrillon, 1899).
Méliès notwithstanding, many silent films were little more than novelties.
But by the 1910s, the medium began to evolve into an important storytelling ve-
hicle. Birth of a Nation, American D. W. Griffith’s 1915 controversial classic, was
the first major full-length film to introduce many innovative cinematic techniques
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 131

such as crosscutting (parallel editing) to portray battle scenes. He often depicted

the action in one set of shots moving from right to left while another moved left
to right.

Murnau, Flaherty, and Eisenstein

Innovation in filming, lighting, editing, and storytelling continued throughout
the silent era. In 1922, German director F. W. Murnau (1888–1931) created Nos-
feratu, an unforgettable adaptation of Bram Stoker’s Dracula tale that helped de-
velop the language of film. Also in 1922, American Robert Flaherty (1884–1951)
directed Nanook of the North, the first great documentary film. This depiction of
the life of an Eskimo whaler is still shown in college anthropology courses. Fla-
herty edited the film in New York after living among the Eskimos for six months
while filming.
Russian filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein (1898–1948) pioneered fast cuts be-
tween scenes, similar to the editing commonly seen in music videos. Until then,
most filmmakers kept the camera stationary, confining scenes to the picture
frame. In 1925, he released Battleship Potemkin, a silent depiction of the 1905
revolt in Odessa by Russian sailors. A famous editing sequence, “The Odessa
Steps,” intercuts shots of trapped townspeople with shots of czarist troops firing
on the crowd, an emotionally charged scene imitated in homage in several films
including Brian De Palma’s (1987) The Untouchables.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Camera-equipped drones are rapidly emerging as important

tools for motion-picture storytellers, with the BBC in 2014 using a camera-equipped drone
to create a documentary and other videographers using this innovative technology. If
these silent film directors had benefitted from access to this new technology, how might
they have used it to tell their stories differently?

SOUND AND COLOR

Although technology had to some degree revolutionized
movies, sound and color were needed to fully recreate what
people saw and heard. By the turn of the nineteenth century,
several alternative but complex and cumbersome methods of
producing color motion pictures had been developed, such as
hand tinting or hand coloring scenes. Around 1920, a system
used a beam splitter with a prism to divide light entering the
lens, capturing the different colors on alternating frames. This
produced the first successful feature-length color films in the
1920s.
Technicolor Motion Picture Corporation, founded in 1922,
became the standard for color motion pictures for the next
three decades. Among the earliest Technicolor films were The
Black Pirate with Douglas Fairbanks in 1925 and Gone with the
Wind and The Wizard of Oz in 1939. Not until the 1950s did
Breaking with the contemporary norm, The Artist in 2011 was both
color films, captured without prisms, beam splitters, or alter- in black and white and silent. It won five Oscars, including Best
nating frames, become more common. Picture.
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Sound was easier. Even the earliest silent movies were not wholly silent. Live
pianists, actors, and even entire orchestras added sound during showings. Actors
sometimes accompanied showings, talking about their roles and answering audi-
ence questions before or afterward. In 1896, a paying audience saw the first sound
film short in Berlin.
In 1927, Al Jolson starred in The Jazz Singer. This first commercially successful
“talkie” was not a sound movie by contemporary standards. It contained little
dialog but had subtitles and recorded music played back, a technology soon re-
placed by the superior sound-on-film systems (i.e., an optical soundtrack). In
1925, the first motion picture to synchronize sound was produced, more as a tech-
nical experiment than as a commercial endeavor.
By 1929, recording and playing back sound synchronously with the image had
become more practicable. Very few silent films were made after this time, with the
notable exceptions being those by Charlie Chaplin in the 1930s and The Artist, a

TIMELINE SE L E C T E D M I L E S TO N E S I N E A R LY M OT I O N PI C T U R E S

1925 1934
Sergei Eisenstein, MGM, motion picture
director. Battleship company; Maureen
Potemkin, a silent O’Sullivan, actress.
film known Tarzan and His Mate
particularly for its reveals a scantily clad
editing sequence Jane and a prolonged
“the Odessa underwater nude scene,
Steps.” contributing to a public
backlash and the strict
1922 1927
enforcement of the Hays
Robert Flaherty, director. morals code in movie
Al Jolson, actor. The Jazz Singer, content.
Nanook of the North, the
1915
1898

the first commercially successful

first great documentary. motion picture with sound.
Louis Daguerre and
Joseph Niépce develop
the daguerreotype, a
method of printing
1934
photographs.

1928
Walt Disney,
1925 animator, voice,
Technicolor Motion director.
1919 Picture Corp.; Disney’s first
Oscar Micheaux, Douglas Fairbanks, animated hit,
1898 director. Birth of Race, actor. The Black Steamboat
Georges Méliès, African American Pirate, among the Willie,
director. First double response to the racial first successful introduced
exposure (La Caverne stereotypes portrayed color major motion Mickey Mouse. 1932
pictures. Walt Disney,
maudite), an advance in Birth of a Nation.
director. Flowers
in special effects.
and Trees, the first
color cartoon.
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 133

2011 French film shot in black and white that won three Academy Awards includ-
ing Best Picture.
Some silent-era stars could not adapt either because of heavy foreign accents
or unappealing voices. Screenwriting and filming changed dramatically, as stories
were written for the spoken word rather than visual effect. Slapstick comedy was
out, and witty one-liners and joke telling were in. Because of cumbersome micro-
phones, cameras also became more stationary; and experimentation with moving
cameras, innovative editing, and interesting camera angles became less common.
Although there were winners and losers with the development of sound, the in-
dustry itself was unfazed by technological change. In the words of Al Jolson, “You
ain’t heard nothin’ yet.”

HOLLYWOOD MOVIE MOGULS

The United States motion picture industry began on the eastern seaboard, espe-
cially New York City, the center of entertainment, with its Broadway and vaude-
ville theaters. Thomas Edison’s laboratories were also nearby, in New Jersey. Soon
after, the powerful movie moguls of the early 1900s created Hollywood, where
better weather permits year-round film production. Actors, producers, and direc-
tors relocated, and a split developed between theater (and, later, television) in
New York and film in Hollywood. Most television shows are now filmed in Holly-
wood studios as well, where the U.S. movie industry is securely based. A number
of regional centers for movie production also exist, including Toronto and Vancou-
ver, Canada. Let’s consider some Hollywood movie moguls active in the first half
of the twentieth century.

Warner Brothers
Born in Poland (except for Jack), the Warner brothers, Albert (1884–1976), Harry
(1881–1958), Jack (1892–1978), and Sam (1887–1927), founded a movie studio in
1923 that left a lasting mark on the industry. In 1903, Harry hocked his family’s
delivery horse to buy a used Edison Kinetoscope projector with which the brothers
created a traveling movie show in Ohio and Pennsylvania. In 1905, they opened a
small theater, then moved into film production and distribution. They launched
“Warner Features” in St. Louis, Missouri, and then Warner Brothers Studio in
California.
Sam Warner’s “canned vaudeville” propelled the studio to a leadership posi-
tion. In 1927, The Jazz Singer launched the new era of motion pictures with sound,
the first of many classics during the powerful studio system, including Captain
Blood (1935) and Casablanca (1942).

Walt Disney
Born in Chicago, Walter Elias Disney (1901–1965) expressed an early interest in
drawing and enrolled in the Kansas City Art Institute in 1915. With forty dol-
lars in his pocket, Walt left Missouri in August 1923 for Los Angeles, where his
older brother, Roy, lived. Combining their meager resources and borrowing
$500, the brothers set up shop in their uncle’s garage and soon began making
animated films.
In 1928, their first hit, Steamboat Willie, introduced Mickey Mouse, who talked
and sang, featuring Walt’s own voice but very little of his own skillful animation.
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Thus, a star that made Disney a household name was born. In 1937, Disney’s
first full-length feature animation, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, broke all
box office records. In the next five years, Disney also produced Pinocchio,
Fantasia, Dumbo, and Bambi. During World War II, most of the Disney facilities
produced special government work, including propaganda films for the armed
services. Walt opened Disneyland in Los Angeles in 1955 and Walt Disney
World in Orlando in 1971.
Always on the technological cutting edge, Disney introduced Technicolor
with the 1932 animation Flowers and Trees. Part of the Silly Symphonies
series, this first color cartoon won Disney his first Oscar. Also a pioneer in
television, he produced his first programs in 1954, including the popular
Mickey Mouse Club, and was among the first to offer color programming with
Walt Disney’s Wonderful World of Color in 1961. Disney won forty-seven Acad-
emy Awards, more than anyone else, and seven Emmys.

Samuel Goldwyn
Walt Disney was a pioneer in animation and Born in Warsaw, Poland, Schmuel Gelbfisz (ca. 1879–1974) died Samuel Gold-
entertainment and a talented animator in his wyn in Los Angeles, having emigrated from England in 1899. He produced
own right.
The Squaw Man in 1914, directed by Cecil B. DeMille, and his production com-
pany became the foundation for Paramount Pictures, eventually built by
Adolph Zukor. In 1916, he joined forces with the Selwyn brothers and cofounded
the Goldwyn Pictures Corporation.
In 1924, his company merged with Louis B. Mayer and Metro Pictures to
become Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Although his “Leo the Lion” trademark endured,
Goldwyn was ousted and created an independent film company, which produced
such classics as Wuthering Heights (1939), The Pride of the Yankees (1942), The Best
Years of Our Lives (1946), Guys and Dolls (1955), and Porgy and Bess (1959).

Marcus Loew
Marcus Loew (1870–1927) ran a nickelodeon theater in the earliest days of movies,
expanding his holdings over the next several years to create Loew’s, a movie chain
of luxurious theaters, and getting involved in making movies as well. In the 1920s,
he merged his Metro Pictures, Samuel Goldwyn’s Goldwyn Picture Corporation, and
Mayer Pictures, creating Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) Pictures. Unlike the other
moguls, he preferred New York, his birthplace, and did not move to Hollywood.

Louis B. Mayer
In 1907, Louis Burt Mayer (1885–1957), perhaps the most famous and feared
movie mogul, renovated a rundown movie theater in Boston that he parlayed into
the largest chain in New England. In 1917, he funded Louis B. Mayer Pictures with
great profits from his showing of Birth of a Nation. He became vice president of
MGM in the 1920s and is credited with creating the Hollywood studio star system.
In 1927, Mayer teamed with Douglas Fairbanks Sr. to form the Academy of Motion
Picture Arts and Sciences.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Could a group of new digital filmmakers revolutionize the in-
dustry and dominate movie production and distribution like the early Hollywood movie
moguls? Why or why not?
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 135

Hollywood Star System

For the first several years, actors’ and actresses’ names did
not even appear in the movie credits. Then shrewd studio
heads cultivated fan interest, creating personas for popular
stars, complete with false histories to market them better, a
practice that continues today to some degree. Paramount
Pictures (1912), Columbia Pictures (1920), Metro-Goldwyn-
Mayer (1924), Warner Brothers (1923), and 20th Century
Fox (1935) all held long-term contracts with star directors
and actors.
During this era, stars were unable to seek their own con-
tracts for individual films but could be loaned to another
studio, often in exchange for other stars. They were also ex-
pected to be highly productive, sometimes starring in five or
six films a year. Warner Brothers’ Humphrey Bogart starred
in forty films between 1934 and 1943. Casablanca was just
one of four he made in 1943. Many films of this era, includ-
ing Casablanca, were not great works of cinematic art but
popular entertainment for studio profit.
People often saw these films for the stars they had come
to know and for the characters they often represented. Gary
Cooper, star of Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936) and Meet John
Doe (1941), was known as a tall, awkward, humble man of
integrity—the quintessential American, the strong, silent Citizen Kane has been hailed as one of the greatest films of all time.
type. Jimmy Stewart played the same kind of person, im-
mortalized in Frank Capra’s holiday classic It’s a Wonderful
Life (1945).
The studio star system and long-term actor contracts ended in the late 1940s
with the confluence of several forces. First, in 1948, the U.S. Supreme Court di-
vested studios of their theater empires because of monopolistic practices revealed
in United States v. Paramount Pictures. Independent films, those produced outside independent films
the major studios, could then be shown in theaters and became financially viable. Films made by production
Independent producers were also able to rent large studios on a per-project basis companies separate from the main
and benefit from their extensive distribution networks while the studios wel- Hollywood studios.
comed the additional income. Studios productions still had an advantage, how-
ever. Booking their films in blocks made it cheaper for a theater to show several
popular studio films than to take a chance on a single independent film.
Second, the rise of television reduced theater audiences, especially for second-
or third-run films. Although studio heads once threatened to blacklist any actor
who moved to television, this ban was soon lifted as big names such as Bob Hope
and Lucille Ball gave the new medium star power. Conversely, actors like Clint
Eastwood who became popular on TV transitioned successfully to film. Today,
many actors move from popular shows such as Saturday Night Live or situation
comedies to movies.

THE DIRECTOR AS AUTEUR

Following WWII, French film critic André Bazin introduced the notion of the film-
auteur
maker as author, or auteur. Although some early filmmakers, such as D. W.
Griffith and Sergei Eisenstein, could be seen as auteurs, in the intervening years, Director as storyteller.
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filmmaking in the United States became a more

collaborative, corporate enterprise—a trend pro-
moted by Hollywood’s studio system.
The 1950s French New Wave directors were
probably the most influential auteurs. Important
directors included Jean-Luc Godard (Breathless,
1959), Louis Malle (Zazie dans le métro, 1960), and
François Truffaut (The 400 Blows, 1959). These
directors used camera techniques that were inno-
vative for their day, such as the now-common
handheld cameras and freeze frames.
One of the most influential international film
auteurs was Japanese director Akira Kurosawa,
some of whose early films were remade by others as
Japanese director Akira Kurosawa had a film career over fifty years and influenced
such filmmakers as Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, and Francis Ford Coppola. Westerns. Seven Samurai (1954) became The Mag-
nificent Seven (1960) starring Yul Brynner and
Steve McQueen; and in 1964, Sergio Leone remade
Yojimbo (1961) as A Fistful of Dollars, starring Clint Eastwood. Two characters in
the classic The Hidden Fortress (1958) are said to be the models on which director
George Lucas, a great admirer of Kurosawa and Japanese cinema, based C-3PO
and R2-D2 in Star Wars (1977). Kurosawa also borrowed from the West for Throne
of Blood (1957) and Ran (1985), based on Shakespeare’s Macbeth and King Lear,
respectively.
Important American filmmakers have also contributed to the auteur move-
ment. Among them are Blake Edwards, who directed Days of Wine and Roses (1962),
and Stanley Kubrick, who directed 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), Dr. Strangelove
(1964), Full Metal Jacket (1987), and Eyes Wide Shut (1999). Other notable contem-
porary American film auteurs are Martin Scorsese, whose films include Taxi Driver
(1976), The King of Comedy (1983), and The Age of Innocence (1993); David Lynch, who
made Eraserhead (1977), Blue Velvet (1986), and Wild at Heart (1990); and Spike Lee,
who often makes movies that deal with race relations or controversial issues (Do the
Right Thing, 1988), depictions of historical people and events (Miracle at St. Anna,
2008), and documentaries (When the Levee Broke: A Requiem in Four Acts, 2006).

TECHNOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON MOVIE GENRES

Modern cinema comprises a variety of types, or genres. One basic distinction is
between nonfiction, or documentaries, and fiction, by far the dominant type.
Rarely shown in American multiplex cinemas, documentaries, if released theatri-
cally at all, are shown in mostly urban art-house theaters to limited audiences.
Notable exceptions have been the documentaries of Michael Moore, who created
Bowling for Columbine (2002), Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004), and Sicko (2007), all of which
had theatrical releases.
Among the most familiar and popular genres of fiction film are action/adven-
ture, comedy, romance, science fiction, suspense, historical, horror, Western, fan-
tasy, musical, biography, and drama. In many cases, there are subgenres, such as
crime drama, and some films cut across two or more genres, such as romantic
comedy.
Spike Lee often makes films that tackle
controversial or sensitive topics related Technology has always influenced filmmaking and film genres from the days
to race, discrimination, and society. when short reels allowed films of only five minutes or less, which hampered the
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 137

creation of complex stories, to the development of synchronized sound, which genres

made the cameras stationary and changed movies from action- to speaking-ori- Topical categories.
ented styles.
Today, digital technologies allow filmmakers to design and populate entire
realistic worlds. George Lucas, of Star Wars fame, was at the forefront of spectacu-
lar computer-generated special effects, although critics charge these were some-
times at the expense of storytelling and character development. Digital technology
has allowed for more realistic animation, and studios such as Pixar are using the
less labor-intensive new technology to produce animated feature films—although
it is still questionable how much money is saved after the costs for high-end com-
puter systems to generate special effects are factored in. James Cameron’s Avatar
(2009), which he waited for more than ten years to make until the technology
could match his vision of the film, cost over $300 million. As the first film to gross
over $2 billion worldwide, the heavy investment more than paid off. Such was not
the case for the effects-heavy Green Lantern (2011), which cost $200 million to
make and may have topped out at only $260 million in worldwide ticket sales.
New technologies also affect what movies are popular. High-tech gadgetry in
our daily lives and today’s fast-paced media environment have parallels in many
recent science fiction and technology-oriented movies. Slower-paced, character-
driven movies based on historical events appeal less to younger audiences. Plots
can also be interpreted differently because of changes in technology. A suspense
movie made in the 1980s in which tension is created by the main character’s dif-
ficulties in finding a public telephone would likely make young viewers today Documentary maker Ken Burns has a
wonder why the character doesn’t simply use her or his cell phone or borrow some- special effect, the Ken Burns Effect,
one else’s. named after his technique of panning
and zooming from a still image; it is
built into most digital video-editing
systems, including iMovie, Openshot,
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Technological limitations kept film reels short, so only a few and Final Cut Pro. CRITICAL THINKING
minutes of footage could be shown at a time. In what ways could current technological QUESTIONS: What do you think of
limitations hamper our ability to tell stories through the Internet? How could storytelling filmmakers using the Ken Burns Effect?
Is it effective, or does it show a lack of
be enriched?
originality?

OTHER ENTERTAINMENT SOURCES FOR MOVIES

Movies have always relied heavily on other media as sources for stories. Some
of  the earliest films were nothing more than filmed stage plays, including
Shakespearean dramas. Others were based on popular novels or stories, as are
many movies today.
Successful original movies would sometimes inspire a TV series, such as
M*A*S*H (1970), itself based on a novel; the subsequent television series of the
same name ran from 1972 to 1983. Although it still occasionally occurs, such as
with Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles, today movies are equally likely to
derive their inspiration from popular TV series, video games, cartoons, and even
the Web.
Although The Amazing Spider-Man (2012) and The Dark Knight (2008) were
hugely successful, many movies created from TV, comics, or video games have
been less so. The past several years have seen a spate of movies based on popular
television sitcoms, cartoons, and comic book characters: two Addams Family films
(1991, 1998), The Beverly Hillbillies (1993), two Brady Bunch movies (1995, 1996),
two Scooby-Doo movies (2002, 2004), and movies based on superheroes—the
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Fantastic Four, Iron Man, Thor, Captain America, the Incredible

Hulk, and several Batman releases. The venerable Superman
even made a return appearance in Man of Steel (2013).
Undercover Brother (2002), a parody of blaxploitation films of
the 1970s, was one of the first movies derived from an animated
Web series on a site called Urban Entertainment. A bidding war
started among studios for the movie rights—showing how stu-
dios are mining the Web for story ideas. The Web also allows stu-
dios to gauge public interest through viral marketing efforts.
Studios have tried to cash in on the popularity of some video
games and characters such as Super Mario Bros., Tomb Raider, and
Resident Evil. Super Mario Brothers (1993) did poorly at the box
office, but Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (2001), although critically
The Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time is one of the few examples panned, did well enough to spawn a sequel in 2003.
of successful movies that were taken from video games.

DVDS AND STREAMING

Lower production costs for videotape created new opportunities for filmmakers
who would not otherwise make feature films. Yet the movie industry strongly re-
sisted the introduction of consumer videocassette recorder models in the 1970s,
even suing VCR manufacturer Sony for encouraging illegal copying, copyright in-
fringement that they claimed would ruin the movie business. This of course did
not happen; and in fact, video (and now DVD) sales and rentals are double the
revenue of box office receipts.
Two changes have radically altered the video market. First is the move from
videotapes to DVDs, which provide more portability, better video and audio qual-
ity, and extra features unmatched on videotapes. Digital video also allowed low-
budget directors to shoot professional-quality footage at a fraction of actual film
cost. Editing and other postproduction work can also be done on computers or
dedicated editing workstations. In only a few years, videotapes were replaced by
DVDs, which in turn are slowly being replaced by the Blu-ray format, which offers
even better sound, picture quality, and storage.
How people rent or buy video has also changed. Netflix, created in 1997, has
transformed the video rental business by letting consumers use their broadband
connection to stream movies and other video content on demand. The established
video-rental model had involved going to a store, choosing a movie, and returning
it within twenty-four or forty-eight hours to avoid late fees. DVD-rental kiosks,
such as Redbox, have also made DVD rentals easier and more convenient; but by
2014, the DVD rental business itself had become obsolete.
Without expensive store rentals and other overhead costs, Netflix can maintain
a larger, more diverse inventory. By November 2014, Netflix had 50 million sub-
scribers worldwide paying about $8 a month for unlimited viewing of movies and
other video content and about $13 a month for ultra-high-definition video.7 Mean-
while, Blockbuster, king of video rentals in the 1990s, filed for bankruptcy in 2010.
Many industry experts believe that DVDs will eventually go the way of vide-
otapes because of the popularity of subscription streaming services like Netflix,
Amazon Prime, and Hulu Plus. These services forego any physical product, as con-
sumers simply stream movies to their devices and watch them.
The trend can be seen clearly when looking at DVD sales versus streaming
revenues in 2012. DVD sales still accounted for most of the revenues, $8.5 billion,
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 139

but dropped 5.5 percent compared to the year before; whereas subscription strea-
ming revenues rose to $2.3 billion from $1.6 billion.8 By 2013, Netflix alone had
generated $4.7 billion in annual revenues in the United States from its subscription
services.
Much of the movie industry is not happy with the trend toward subscription
streaming services, partly because they fear digital piracy and partly because
profit margins are much higher on DVD and Blu-ray sales than digital streaming.
Netflix is flexing its international
streaming distribution muscle as

Movie Industry Today illustrated by the global company’s

2014 original series Marco Polo,
budgeting $90 million for production of
Today’s motion picture industry contrasts significantly with the vertically inte- the first season of 10 episodes.
grated entertainment companies that owned not only the means of production
but also the distribution system (i.e., the movie theaters). The Supreme Court’s
antitrust decision of 1948 forced studios to sell their theaters, and today much
more power rests with the artists making the films, especially directors and high-
paid actors and actresses.
The major studios have adapted to changing conditions and still frequently
decide which movies to make and promote. Given the high costs, including several
million dollars spent in marketing and specialized technical knowledge, it still
requires large organizations like the movie studios to bring everything together.
Like other media industries, major studios are part of much larger media con-
glomerates. (See Table 5-1.) The major studios make movies under a variety of sub-
sidiary production companies, some of which are quite large in their own right.
Although lacking vertical integration, they still benefit from sister companies. For
example, a Paramount picture may appear on CBS news (both owned by Viacom),
or a Pixar picture on ABC news (both owned by Disney), or a 20th Century Fox
picture on Fox News (both owned by 21st Century Fox).
A motion picture costs on average over $70 million, although movies often top
$100 million, especially with special effects or big Hollywood stars. Marketing
costs can add another $30 million to $50 million. Production, the largest single
expense category, is usually about 25 percent of the total budget, including set
construction, filming on location, film copies for distribution, and crew salaries.
Almost all workers, from actors to screenwriters to cinematographers to carpen-
ters, belong to unions that have standard salary rates and rules.
A filmmaker typically approaches a movie studio with a script, which may be
original but is often adapted by a screenwriter from a novel or real-life story. A
studio will often demand changes, sometimes major revisions, before agreeing to
bankroll and distribute a movie. Creative differences may arise that can kill pro-
jects before they start or force filmmakers to seek support from other major or
independent studios. The movie Rain Man (1988), starring Tom Cruise and Dustin
Hoffman, was almost never made because studio executives demanded an action-
packed chase scene involving Hoffman’s autistic character.
Once a project has finally been approved and the actors’ contracts and sched-
ules agreed on, shooting can begin. This can take several weeks or even months,
depending on schedules and other issues. After shooting, the filmmaker is still
looking at several more months of postproduction work and editing hours and
hours of footage into movie length. This too can produce creative differences, as
studio executives may demand a happier or otherwise different ending based on
early audience feedback. Deleting or even reshooting or shooting entirely new
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TABLE 51 Ownership Among Major and Subsidiary Film Studios

MAJOR FILM STUDIO SUBSIDIARY FILM STUDIO SUBSIDIARY FILM STUDIO
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 141

MEDIA PIONEERS
Kathleen Kennedy
Purple (1985), Back to the Future (1985), Who Framed Roger
Rabbit (1988), Jurassic Park (1993), Schindler’s List (1993),
Twister (1996), The Sixth Sense (1999), Persepolis (2007), The
Diving Bell and the Butterfly (2007), The Curious Case of Benja-
min Button (2008), The Adventures of Tintin (2011), War Horse
(2011), Lincoln (2012), and Star Wars: Episode VII—The Force
Awakens (2015). As of 2014, Kennedy’s films have grossed
over $11 billion worldwide.10
One of Hollywood’s most successful producers, male or
female, Kennedy still flies under the radar with remarkable
grace and characteristic modesty. She attributes her success
in part to luck and good timing; others point to her astute
judgment, formidable work ethic, empathy with cast and
crew, and diplomacy when liaising between directors and
studios.
Kathleen grew up in Redding, California, and graduated
from San Diego State University with a BA in film. Her identi-
cal twin, Connie, is an executive producer at Profile Studios,
a virtual production company for film and games that spe-
cializes in interactive storytelling. Her younger sister, Dana, is
also a media professional, an Emmy-winning broadcast jour-
nalist, former news anchor, and talk show host.
Kennedy became Steven Spielberg’s assistant on Raiders
of the Lost Ark, after which she, her husband Frank Marshall,
and Spielberg formed Amblin Entertainment in 1982. Ten
years later, Kennedy and Marshall created their own produc-
tion company. In 2012, George Lucas, with whom she had
also collaborated over the years, selected her to become
president of Lucasfilm. Kennedy is also a member of the
With a career spanning more than three decades as pro- Board of Governors and Board of Trustees of the Academy of
ducer of more than 60 major films distinguished by over 120 Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences (AMPAS).
Academy Award nominations, Kathleen Kennedy advanced Having closely observed and embraced dramatic techno-
through the celluloid ceiling with digital force. As Sally Field logical change in her stellar career, she maintains that the
told the CinemaCon crowd in April 2013 when presenting essence of great film—great storytelling—remains the same
Kennedy with the Pioneer of the Year Award, “In an industry while the tool chest has expanded. “We’ve talked a great
that is not and has not been female friendly, . . . Kathy has deal about the role that filmmaking technology has played
beaten those odds the only way a woman can—by being so in creating the Star Wars saga,” says Kennedy. “We're incred-
much better than most everyone else.”9 ibly excited to find ways to combine state-of-the-art visual
This is high praise—wholly supported by an extensive, effects with the practical approaches that were instrumental
diverse, and distinguished filmography that includes Raiders in making the original films so iconic; we plan to use every-
of the Lost Ark (1981), E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982), The Color thing in the toolbox to continue the Star Wars story.”11
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scenes may be required. The Ridley Scott classic Blade Runner (1982) is one of the
most famous cases in which the studio required a reworking of the director’s
ending to make it more upbeat. Of course, several versions were later released,
including a “director’s cut” that more closely adhered to Scott’s vision. Musical
scores, dubbing, and voice-overs are also added during postproduction.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Discuss new ways movie theaters might be able to use their
large screens and space to show digital film not only from big-name moviemakers but
from local artists as well. How might this affect the local movie theater and its role in the
community?

Marketing and Distribution for Movies

Marketing and distribution, often key to a movie’s success, are quite ex-
pensive. A movie that debuts in one thousand theaters nationwide, how-
ever well attended, simply will not earn as much as one that fills half the
seats in over three thousand theaters. Major studios can still distribute a
movie more widely than independent film companies can. The Internet,
however, has proven a valuable means of distribution due to its low cost
and its potential to build audiences over time and space. A growing
number of websites provide an extensive selection of independent and
short films online.
The main channel for marketing movies is TV advertising. Heavy ad-
vertising occurs two weeks before release because it is nearly impossible
for a movie to become popular after poor attendance following release.
Much research, effort, and expense go into creating appealing movie
trailers and packaging to reach the right target audience. Although stu-
dios advertise in other outlets, such as newspapers, radio, and billboards,
almost 60 percent of spending is on network- and cable-television adver-
Oscar-nominated 9/11 picture Zero Dark Thirty stirred tising. For some movies, such as Paranormal Activity, the Web and word-
up controversy for Sony Pictures when victims’
of-mouth are important, but these and social media are still a small but
families complained that the movie’s producers had
not obtained their permission to use audio growing part in the overall marketing mix.
recordings, although in the public domain, of actual Movies have a regular pattern of exhibition “windows,” places where
victims of the World Trade Center disaster. CRITICAL they are shown that help increase revenues. When studios were at their
THINKING QUESTIONS: Although these voice
recordings are in the public domain, do you think it is strongest, they could control theatrical releases at what were deemed
ethical for a commercial movie to use them without “first-run” theaters and then, after appeal faded there, second-run theat-
obtaining permission of the families of the victims or ers. Movie studios determined which theaters were first-run and second-
paying them royalties? Why or why not?
run and had agreements that assured theaters of exclusive showing
privileges within a certain geographic area for a certain amount of time.
The usual exhibition windows for movies start with domestic theatrical re-
lease, then proceed to international release, video-on-demand (VOD), pay cable
channels (HBO, Showtime, etc.), network or cable TV, and then syndicated TV.
Each window has a specified time, and the windows generally do not overlap. Re-
cently, however, likely blockbusters have been released simultaneously in the
United States and select countries worldwide. Successful movies may get released
to video earlier than usual to take advantage of theatrical residual popularity; or,
if deemed not worthy of theatrical release, it gets the “straight to video” label and
heads directly to DVD or on-demand distribution. VOD will probably become first
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 143

after theatrical release, even though today it often appears simultaneously with
the video release.12

Movie-Industry Business Model

A seemingly simple business model—get as many people as possible to pay to
watch a movie—becomes more complicated when considering the varied ways to
watch movies today other than in the theater and how important box office popu-
larity is to attracting viewers in later exhibition windows. Increasing the complex-
ity are the other means by which studios can generate revenue, including licensing
deals, product placement, and promotional tie-ins.
The independent film Napoleon Dynamite (2004), for example, cost $400,000 Despite competition from a number of
and grossed $46 million worldwide. Because movies are so expensive to make and other forms of entertainment, movies
market, however, most lose money. High cost and high risk mean Hollywood stu- continue to be highly popular. Guardians
of the Galaxy, one of the most popular
dios seek safety in blockbusters, with their usual spate of sequels and generally
films of 2014, grossed over $333 million
formulaic stories and characters. domestically.
Audiences have been declining steadily over the past several years even as U.S.
box office revenues have continued to rise, thanks to increasing ticket prices of
about 5 percent a year and 3-D movies, which can charge about $3 more than non-
3-D.13 In 2013, gross U.S. box office revenues were at an all-time high at $10.92
billion, even though 2013’s overall audience of 1.36 billion was down substan-
tially from 2002’s record 1.6 billion, when total box office receipts were less than
$10 billion.14
U.S. box office revenues are not nearly as important from a financial stand-
point as they used to be because international sales are often greater today. DVD
rentals and sales are usually the biggest money generator for movies, long since
surpassing box office revenues. Sales have dropped in recent years, though, as con-
sumers rent rather than buy movies, increasingly through VOD services such as
Netflix or cable operators.
Licensing deals can also generate revenue. With popular movies such as the
Toy Story series, the studio receives royalties for licensing the rights to make toys,
blankets, pajamas, and other goods based on the characters. Yet more caution has
been exercised in recent years because these deals turn out poorly if a movie does
not succeed at the box office. Promotional tie-ins, such as those with fast-food
chains, can generate revenue as they generate interest in the movie. Product product placement
placement, using or showing real-life products in a movie, can also create reve- A form of advertising in which
nue, although the overall amount is small compared to box office sales or video brand-name goods or services are
rentals. placed prominently within movie
content that is otherwise devoid of
advertising, demonstrating the
convergence of programming with
Outlook for the Movie Industry advertising content.

Digitization has had profound effects on the movie industry, some of which are
already being seen in the industry itself and in theaters. Amazing special effects
using digital technology can far surpass previous efforts. As computer power in-
creases, computer-artist and programmer skills improve, rendering surfaces like
snow, skin, and fur more realistically.
Movie studios also save through digital-film distribution. It cost up to $2,000
to produce, duplicate, and ship one forty-pound celluloid film print to a movie
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The Croods, a DreamWorks animation released in 2013, is created from 250 billion pixels, making it one of
the highest-resolution movies ever.

theater, and most studios shipped prints to three thousand theaters nationwide if
they hoped for a blockbuster. That means $6 million just in distribution costs for
a major film.15 A digital film, on the other hand, is simply sent over satellite or
through broadband to a movie theater. In addition, endless perfect copies can be
made, just as with other digital media, eliminating the need to receive even more
prints when film breaks or loses its quality after repeated showings.
One obstacle to the movie industry’s adoption of digital distribution, despite
potential savings, has been concerns over piracy. The studios have watched the
music industry’s battles with file-swapping services such as Napster and realize
that they are prime targets for similar practices. Nevertheless, the year 2013
seemingly marked the end of celluloid-film distribution to theaters in major mar-
kets.16 Some industry experts estimate that digital distribution saves movie stu-
dios $600 to $800 million per year. By 2015, more than 80 percent of theaters
around the world are expected to receive movies digitally via satellite.17
Assuming that the movie industry does eventually adopt digital technology at
all levels of production, the moviegoer will likely see great improvement in picture
quality (including 3-D) and sound as well as movie availability. More independent
films may show in major theaters because the theaters and studios will not be
banking on the same large audiences to break even because production and distri-
bution costs will be lower.

Television
According to the Kaiser Family Foundation, children between eight and eighteen
spend more time (6.5 hours a day on average) in front of some kind of screen—TV,
computer, cell phone—than engaged in any other activity except sleeping. And
more time is devoted to television than to any other medium. The average viewer
today who lives to be seventy-five will have spent eleven years watching TV.
Many critics think television is mindless entertainment that does nothing for
social skills and physical fitness. Others point to quality content, educational tel-
evision, news, and cultural programming. Today’s interactive television can even
get the couch potato off the couch and physically active.
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CONVERGENCE CULTURE
3-D Movies: What Will Be the Impact?
Movie studios have long been promoting 3-D movies as the glasses to enjoy special effects (which also incorporate sur-
Next Big Thing, but this time several noted directors are also round sound). Like previous technological advances, the
cheerleaders, including Steven Spielberg, Peter Jackson, and spread of 3-D will probably change the movie experience in
James Cameron, all of whom have released 3-D movies. Some unforeseen ways. Beyond 3-D is 4-D, movies and theaters
proponents even claim that 3-D will revolutionize cinema in the that incorporate physical or tactile experiences and other
same way that sound revolutionized the early film era.
Many mainstream movies are now released both in con-
ventional format and in 3-D. In 2014, blockbuster 3-D films
such as The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies and Guardians
of the Galaxy offered high- quality immersive viewing experi-
ences. Among the most commercially successful 3-D movies
of 2014 was Godzilla, which had box office receipts of $200
million in the United States. With increasingly lucrative ticket
prices, it’s not surprising that moviemakers are turning in-
creasingly to the 3-D format. Dozens more 3-D formatted
movies are scheduled for 2015 production.
Blu-ray DVDs for home viewing are also available for a
vast array of films. Titles in 2014 include Gravity, The Hunger
Games: Catching Fire, and Exodus: Gods and Kings, all in 3-D.
3-D movies still require special glasses. Viewing quality,
however, has improved dramatically in recent years, and
these movies have become so important that writers now
adapt scripts to incorporate 3-D effects. “You build se- sensory components in the storytelling. For instance, the 4-D
quences differently when you know things have to pop out theater at the Bronx Zoo in New York City in 2014 showed
and jump at you,” says Kieran Mulroney, a script writer for moviegoers Ice Age 4-D. It not only featured 3-D video but
Warner Bros.’ Sherlock Holmes sequel, as reported in the Los put viewers in seats that moved as part of the story, simulat-
Angeles Times.18 ing the movement of an earthquake; and in dramatic fashion,
The next generation of 3-D movies will likely be even viewers were sprayed actual mist from a sneezing dinosaur,
more popular because viewers may no longer need special much to the delight of the author’s 9-year-old nephew.

Terrestrial, or over-the-air broadcast TV, has traditionally been the norm, but
today more than two-thirds of homes get TV via cable or satellite. Moreover, most
households watch DVDs or VOD via television. Consumer recording devices for
television were an important development, allowing the audience to time shift, time shift
that is, watch a program any time after the original broadcast rather than be held Recording of an audio or video
hostage by a broadcaster’s scheduling. event for later listening or viewing.
Time shifting helped tilt the balance of power toward the audience in choos-
ing media content—a trend that will continue as TV switches to a digital format. place shift
As with radio, digital media will complicate the very definition of television, espe-
Viewing TV from anywhere using
cially as TVs take on more interactive programming and converge with computers the Internet to access video
and mobile devices. A Slingbox permits viewers to place shift, that is, access originally delivered digitally to the
video via the Internet originally delivered digitally to the home. home (or another location).
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The widespread use and content range of television help it serve its entertain-
ment, surveillance, correlation, and cultural transmission functions. More U.S.
households have televisions than telephones—about 97 percent have at least one
TV—and it is the most influential mass-communication medium. More Americans
get their news from television than from any other source, making its surveillance
function preeminent. More Americans get their entertainment from television
than from any other mass medium as well. Entertainment programming plays an
Via a Slingbox, a viewer can use the
Internet from anywhere in the world to
important role in the cultural transmission of new trends and social norms.
place shift her or his television viewing. Only one development has caused a drop in TV viewership—the Internet. De-
spite this, TV is still number one in most populations’ media use. However, a 2009
Kaiser Family Foundation survey found that young people increasingly watch TV
content that is not live, including DVDs, VOD, and television programming on
computers or mobile devices.
Television became a mass medium providing a common set of experiences
much faster than film, music, and radio, displacing radio, which had supplanted
national magazines. Although more channels and audience fragmentation may
reduce this effect, television continues to shape attitudes on a variety of social and
cultural issues.

History of Television
cathode-ray tube (CRT) Most TV sets and computer displays traditionally used a cathode-ray tube (CRT),
Device in older televisions and conceived in 1859 by German mathematician and physicist Julius Plücker. British
computers using electron beams to chemist William Crookes built the first functional CRT in 1878. In 1873, British
transmit images to the screen. telegrapher Louis May discovered that selenium bars exposed to light conduct
electricity. Some consider this the basis of photoconductivity, a critical foundation
for the electronic transmission of visual and audio information. In 1881, British
inventor Shelford Bidwell transmitted silhouettes using selenium in his “scanning
phototelegraph,” an electrical method that contributed to the development of
modern television.

SEEING THE LIGHT: THE FIRST TELEVISION SYSTEMS

In 1884, German inventor Paul Nipkow developed a concept for mechanical televi-
sion that used a rotating disk. In 1923, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird created
Baird Television, the first mechanically scanned television device to profit from
sending pictures through the air. Some consider Baird’s thirty-line TV the first
high-definition TV for its many more lines of resolution and finer visual detail.
In 1927, Philo T. Farnsworth transmitted the image of a dollar sign across his
San Francisco apartment using his scanning-beam and synchronization-pulse
technologies. This was the first electronic wireless transmission of an image, the
initial step toward electronic television. His first “broadcast” transmitted images
from a Jack Dempsey/Gene Tunney fight and scenes of Mary Pickford combing her
hair (from Taming of the Shrew).

MODERN TELEVISION TAKES SHAPE

Philo T. Farnsworth transmitted the first
wireless electronic image, the first step Much better image resolution was needed for television to advance. The CRT
toward electronic television. screen, with its greater number of scanned lines, afforded a better picture. In 1939,
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 147

David Sarnoff demonstrated 441-line TV technology at the New York World’s Fair
that drew national and international attention. That same year, the National
Broadcasting Company (NBC) began regularly scheduled broadcasts to only four
hundred sets in the New York area, development interrupted by the beginning of
World War II. There were just seven thousand receiving sets and only nine stations
in the United States in early 1946. By 1949, ninety-eight stations existed in fifty-
eight markets. In 1950, 3.88 million households had television, 9 percent of the
total 43 million.
By 1948, there were four commercial television networks: NBC, CBS, ABC,
and DuMont (this last network failed in 1955). By the end of 1955, TV households
numbered 30.7 million, 64.5 percent of U.S. households; and U.S. advertisers were
spending more than $300 million on TV time. By 1960, 45.7 million U.S. house-
holds (87.1 percent) had at least one television set.
Color television broadcasting debuted in 1951 with a live CBS telecast from
Grand Central Station in New York. Unfortunately, only twenty-five receivers
could accommodate the technology, while the 12 million existing black-and-white
sets displayed a blank screen. In 1953, color broadcasting launched in the United
States when the FCC approved a modified version of an RCA system compatible
with existing screens. Color television was only the next step in the ceaseless
effort to present sharper and better pictures.

PROGRAMMING AND GENRE INFLUENCES

Much early TV programming came directly from radio, where talented actors and
comedians such as Jack Benny adapted their routines for television. The influence
of stage and film also lent much to early television. Dramas sponsored by Hall-
mark began in 1948, migrating among CBS, NBC, and ABC for over sixty years
before running on Hallmark’s own channel. Westerns from both radio and film
were particularly popular, and although Hollywood
studios initially resisted, bringing film to television
provided yet another revenue source.
Considerable original programming occurred in
the forms of hosted children’s shows, variety shows,
situation comedies, sports, and news talk shows.
From this diversity emerged a more formal organiza-
tional division of programming: entertainment,
sports, and news.
The 1950s, often referred to as the golden age
of television, featured many critically acclaimed
commercial successes. An entire postwar genera-
tion grew up with the children’s show Howdy Doody;
the first filmed TV sitcom, I Love Lucy; the radio car-
ryover classic Western Gunsmoke; Jackie Gleason’s
The Honeymooners; Rod Serling’s Twilight Zone; and
The Tonight Show, among so many others. The Ed
Sullivan Show, debuting in 1948 as Toast of the Town,
established the variety format and often attracted
half of all viewing households. In 1964, 73 million
viewers nationwide tuned in to see the Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show helped establish the variety show format and introduced
that show. many new artists to the American public.
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Pushing the Programming Envelope

By the 1970s, significant program developments were afoot. Standard one-
dimensional genres were infused with more complex, realistic characters and
story lines. In 1977, ABC launched its twenty-six-hour miniseries Roots, based on
the novel by Alex Haley, the final episode of which remains the third-most-
watched TV program in history.
The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) began broadcasting in 1970, inheriting
programs from National Educational Television, a noncommercial network
founded in 1954. Most famous among these was Sesame Street, arguably the most
influential TV program for children, which has run continuously since 1969. Op-
erating as a not-for-profit corporation owned by member stations, PBS has often
been the home for commercially unviable programming in the arts and sciences,
consistently winning more television awards for high quality than commercial tel-
evision and cable networks combined.
Monday Night Football, started in 1970, became a cultural mainstay and led to
more sporting events broadcast outside of the traditional weekend slot, producing
greater revenue opportunities for sports franchises. Some sports, such as basket-
ball, even changed their rules to promote a faster-paced and more exciting game.
All in the Family, the highest-rated program of the 1970s, introduced contro-
versy into the situation comedy genre with its bigoted character, Archie Bunker.
Its success encouraged others to explore many contemporary social and civil rights
issues, although many more simply repackaged popular genres such as police
dramas, mysteries, and science fiction.
In 1980, producer Stephen Bochco introduced a new genre of gritty police
drama on NBC. Hill Street Blues featured several prominent characters, all with
various story lines, and a realistic, often-chaotic quality that added dramatic ele-
ments of a soap opera. He continued to develop the genre in the 1990s with ABC’s
popular NYPD Blue.

Cable Comes of Age

Music Television, or MTV, debuted in 1981 as a cable channel with its first music
video “Video Killed the Radio Star.” The title proved prophetic. Having dramati-
cally changed music promotion, MTV continued to introduce innovative, although
not always culture-enhancing, programs such as The Real World, Jackass, The Os-
bournes, and MTV’s most-viewed series ever, Jersey Shore. MTV exemplified a sea
change in television programming from one-size-fits-all on the networks to a
fragmented and specialized approach on cable or satellite channels devoted exclu-
sively to travel, sports, and even specific sports such as golf or soccer, movie clas-
sics, television classics, cartoons, science, science fiction, home improvement,
crime, animals, law, and history.
Several cable channels began to develop their own dramatic programming,
occasionally attracting more viewers than many network shows. Despite being in
only about 28 million homes, a third of those with network television and non-
premium cable channels, the fourth-season premiere of HBO’s hit mob series The
Sopranos on September 15, 2002, attracted 13.4 million viewers, the most-watched
show in its history. HBO had already been making original feature films; but origi-
MTV, or Music Television, became such
a part of youth culture after it debuted
nal, critically acclaimed series such as The Sopranos, Sex and the City, Big Love,
that teens who were once labeled Boardwalk Empire, and Game of Thrones are making the networks finally take notice
“Generation X” were also called the of cable. The FX channel, also generating buzz with cutting-edge programming,
“MTV Generation.” attracted 5 million viewers for the premiere episode of its police drama The Shield.
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 149

Reflecting the growing Latin American population in the United States, in the
1980s the Reliance Capital Group launched the Spanish-language network Tele-
mundo Group. Cable and satellite television support channels that target ethnic
groups while also offering access to some programming from their home coun-
tries. Today, usually for an additional monthly fee, many subscribers can get cable
channels in Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Hindi, Tagalog, and Arabic, among other
languages.
Critics of network television programming say the networks have only them-
selves to blame for large-scale defections to cable channels, in particular a risk-
averse corporate culture that encourages copying popular programming rather
than innovating. Cable TV programming can be more innovative and edgy be-
cause it is unfettered by FCC content restrictions on network profanity or partial
nudity. Another factor that works against networks is their need to attract as large
an audience as possible to charge higher rates for commercials, something that
subscriber-based channels such as HBO do not have to consider.

Filling the Days

A staple of early television was the soap opera, so named because, first on radio
and then on television, its principal advertising was for household products aimed
at the daytime serial’s primary audience, homemakers. Indeed, Proctor & Gamble
produced both soap and soap operas, notably Guiding Light, the longest-running
TV soap at nearly sixteen thousands episodes between 1952 and 2009; As the
World Turns (1956–2010); and Another World (1964–1999). One by one, the soaps
have died as more women entered the workforce and audiences shrank. Soaps have
lost a quarter of their audience since the 1980s. No new English-language soaps
have been introduced since the 1990s.
Many fans wax nostalgic over the loss of favorite soaps, pointing out that they
set important new standards for daytime television by discussing topics like abor-
tion and illegitimate pregnancy. Not all are gone. Days of Our Lives and General
Hospital remain daytime fare. Full-length episodes of Guiding Light are still avail-
able at CBS’s website. Telenovelas, Spanish-language soaps with passionate and
sometimes-violent tales, are still popular on Spanish-language TV, although they
typically run only for a few months or years by design. Soap operas introduced
some of today’s biggest movie and television stars including Morgan Freeman,
Kelsey Grammar, Tommy Lee Jones, James Franco, Amanda Seyfried, and Brad
Pitt.
Exceedingly popular in commercial television’s first full decade was the game
or quiz show, a format that had been successful in radio as well. By the end of the
1958 TV season, there were twenty-two network quiz shows, one of every five
shows. As it happened, many were rigged; and after a public scandal and subse-
quent congressional investigation involving the popular Twenty-One, new rules
for regulating game shows emerged.
An even cheaper format, the talk show, has largely replaced daytime game
shows. Dr. Phil, Jerry Springer, Rachael Ray, and The View, for example, have as-
sumed much of the role that soaps used to play in bringing controversial issues to
the public arena.

Filling the Nights

The popularity of the prime-time game show was revived when ABC’s Who Wants
to Be a Millionaire became a ratings leader after its debut in 1999. Like Survivor, it
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was a copy of a European show, reversing a long trend of

European television’s emulating successful American game
shows. Although its success was relatively short lived, lasting
only three years, the show helped spawn a number of other
prime-time game shows. Despite the rapid rise and fall of
some of these, others that air before prime time have enjoyed
greater longevity, such as Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune.
Prime-time network programming is now dominated by
dramatic series, reality shows, and situation comedies, with
occasional made-for-TV movies or broadcasts of popular
movies that have already appeared in theaters. The latter have
become less important, however, as many viewers now choose
to see uncut movies without commercial interruptions on
Born in Colombia, Sofia Vergara stars on one of the most popular DVD, cable, or satellite.
shows on American television, Modern Family, and is the highest
paid actor on television.
Sports
Some of the biggest television events involve sports. The Super Bowl, for example,
annually draws one of U.S. television’s largest audiences. Every four years, the
World Cup, the quadrennial soccer tournament, draws large worldwide television
audiences. Television commentator Les Brown explains how sports constitute a
near-perfect program form for television, “at once topical and entertaining, per-
formed live and suspensefully without a script, peopled with heroes and villains,
full of action and human interest and laced with pageantry and ritual.”19
Sports provide an ongoing venue for technical experimentation. Instant
replay debuted in the 1963 Army–Navy football game, and slow motion replay
came shortly thereafter. Not only do these now-standard techniques enhance
viewing, they have become tools to assist officiating in certain sports, although
not without occasional controversy. The rise in popularity of poker-tournament
shows has been attributed in part to miniature cameras that allow viewers to see
what hands players are holding as they place
their bets.
Although sports events still populate the
major networks, Disney’s ESPN has become
the dominant sports channel, drawing an in-
dustry-high $6 billion in annual subscriber
fees. Yet it faces growing competition, includ-
ing Al Jazeera’s two twenty-four-hour sports
channels (focused on soccer) and Rupert
Murdoch’s newly launched Fox Sports, a
twenty-four-hour sports channel featuring
NASCAR races, major league baseball and foot-
ball games, soccer, and more.
Media play a role in determining what
types of sports get promoted (and thus which
ones get lucrative corporate sponsorships). The
popularity of extreme sports and types of
fighting besides boxing, such as mixed martial
arts, has risen. Generally, slow-paced or highly
Soccer is one of the most widely watched sports worldwide.
individualistic sports fare less well than
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 151

faster-paced events or exciting team sports. One notable exception is golf, likely
due to its upscale demographic attractive to advertisers.
Professional wrestling blends sports and entertainment. World Wrestling En-
tertainment (WWE) combines the physical showmanship that has long defined
professional wrestling with ample doses of sexuality and character-driven story
lines—complete with crooked bad guys who cheat popular wrestlers of their right-
ful titles.

Reality Shows
It may be surprising to learn that reality shows have roots in the earliest days of
television. Game shows like Truth or Consequences, whose contestants performed
wacky stunts for prizes, or Alan Funt’s Candid Camera, a classic prank show, were
very popular in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980s, shows like COPS and America’s
Funniest Home Videos (AFV) debuted, and they continue to air today. AFV is a pre-
cursor to the kind of user-generated content (UGC) often uploaded to YouTube user-generated
or other video websites. content (UGC)
Reality shows became much more popular beginning in 2000 after Big Brother Content created by the general
and Survivor were both hits in the United States. Today, American Idol—which can public for distribution by digital
trace its lineage (including home audience voting by phone) directly back to popu- media.
lar talent-search shows of the 1940s, such as Arthur Godfrey’s Talent Scouts—
remains a top-rated show and has launched singing careers for several of its
finalists and winners.
Reality shows are a versatile genre. Home improvement channels have capital-
ized on the format with shows like House Hunters and Property Virgins, and life-
style channels have had success with shows such as Extreme Makeover and The
Biggest Loser. Practically any situation, real or fantasized, can be adapted to this
format, and viewers enjoy watching both “regular” people and celebrities in vari-
ous challenging situations.
Reality television is profitable for television networks because production
costs are much lower than that of scripted programs with actors, sets, and writers
paid union wages. The format has proven
popular in Europe and Asia, making li-
censing deals appealing. In addition,
many reality shows earn extra money
through product placement. Watch an
episode of The Biggest Loser and count
how many times brand-name products
are mentioned during the show.
Despite their name, few of these
shows actually capture “reality.” Through
postproduction editing techniques and
loose direction regarding how to act or
what to say, the shows present a
contrived narrative that may bear little
resemblance to the participants’ experi-
ences at the time. Although reality shows
have made some people celebrities, they
also routinely subject participants to
Reality shows remain very popular despite the fact many do not truly capture any “reality” with
public ridicule. which most viewers would be familiar.
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: How many reality shows do you watch? Categorize them
according to their genres, such as documentary style, reality legal programming, reality
competition, social experiment, and hoaxes. Do you think certain genres have more
redeeming social or educational value than others, or is there good and bad to be found
within each category?

DIGITAL TELEVISION: PREPARING THE WAY FOR CONVERGENCE

The video and audio of the electronic television’s display terminal has evolved
since its early years. Long before the digital revolution in 1973, NHK (Japan
Broadcasting Corporation) began research on analog high-definition television
high-definition (HDTV), demonstrating Hi-Vision in 1981, which had much higher resolution,
television (HDTV) sharper color, a wider aspect ratio, and superior audio. In 1990, an American com-
Modern television technology that pany, General Instrument Corporation, proposed all digital television (DTV),
produces a much higher-resolution which became the global standard for next-generation TV. Note that HDTV can be
image, sharper color, a wider aspect digital, and digital TV can be HDTV, but the two were not always synonymous.
ratio, and superior audio. Ultra-high Since June 2009, all television broadcast signals in the United States were
definition is next-generation TV
with even higher resolution video. switched to digital. DTV enables the convergence of computing, television, and
4K TVs can display video at 4,000 telecommunications that makes new storytelling techniques possible as well as
lines of resolution, compared to the linking to multicast (multiplex), simultaneously transmitting multiple channels
420 lines of standard definition TV. of compressed content or the same content but at different times. DTV is another
step toward converging TVs and PCs or other digital devices (e.g., tablets).
digital television (DTV)
Television system in which all
information broadcast by cable or THE RISE OF FLATPANEL DISPLAYS
through the air is in digital, or
computer-readable, form. Large-screen, flat-panel, high-definition displays have changed the television-
viewing experience. They bring near-theater-quality sound, color, and picture clar-
multicast ity to living rooms, sometimes in 3-D and all while saving space. Two main types
Simultaneous transmission of
of flat-panel displays have gradually overtaken CRT television: liquid crystal dis-
multiple channels of compressed plays (LCDs) and plasma displays. Seen in digital alarm clocks, laptops, and tablet
content or the same content but at computers, LCD screens also use much less power than the traditional CRT dis-
different times. play. At the end of 2007, LCD outsold CRT sets worldwide for the first time. In
2008, they became the majority of sets sold, at just over 50 percent, and their sales
continue to grow.
LCD technology originated in the late nineteenth century and was developed
throughout the first half of the twentieth century, yet the first LCD was created
only in 1972. Defying earlier beliefs that LCD screens could be no larger than forty
inches, television manufacturers have ramped up production of large-screen LCD
television sets.
Plasma displays, created around the same time as the early LCD screens, ap-
peared to have a number of advantages over LCDs in terms of picture quality,
viewing angle, and screen size. With LCDs now nearly matching the size of plasma
displays, however, and with LCD costs generally lower, plasma screens, as well as
projection TV, have become less popular for large-screen, HDTV viewing. In some
public areas, such as sporting arenas, very large screen displays using light-emit-
ting diode (LED) technology are preferred.
Smart-screen TVs are another type of flat screen making significant inroads.
These advanced TVs feature touch and gesture control and speech recognition,
capabilities that enable interaction with programming as well as intuitive
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 153

interfaces for channel navigation and more. They also sup-

port video chat and other functions typically available on
network-connected PCs or tablets. Next-generation displays
have begun to incorporate curve-LED displays combining
ultra-high-definition video with immersive 3-D viewing ex-
periences that no longer require the viewer to wear stereo-
scopic glasses yet still create the feeling of a virtual presence
within the video stream.

Television Distribution
Screen-image quality matters little if there is no way to mass
distribute content—thus the early importance of televi-
sion  networks, derived directly from the existing national
radio  networks. Television programming is distributed in
three primary ways: broadcasting, cable, and direct-to-home
satellite. The Internet may catch up, however. It has rapidly
become a fourth important medium, as more people watch First Lady Michelle Obama’s appearance on the 2013 Academy
clips of shows or entire programs online. Awards television broadcast was digitally altered by Iran’s semiofficial
news agency Fars to cover her chest and shoulders, conforming with
Iranian restrictions on images of the female body in media. CRITICAL
THINKING QUESTIONS: Do you agree with Fars’ decision to alter the
BROADCAST TV First Lady’s appearance digitally to conform with local conservative
religious views? Why or why not?
Broadcasting (terrestrial wireless) is the traditional means
of over-the-air TV distribution for networks, affiliates, and
local stations. ABC, CBS, and NBC were all originally radio networks; and Fox,
launched in 1986, became the fourth national network, owned by News Corp. The
broadcasting networks dominated television viewing until the 1980s when cable
and satellite TV made program and audience fragmentation inevitable. Today,
about 15 percent of U.S. households receive terrestrial signals on their primary TV
set, but broadcast programs are also carried on cable and satellite TV. In fact, the
three traditional commercial networks still have a cumulative monthly audience
reach of 65 percent.20

CABLE TV
Many think cable TV was invented in the 1980s. But the first systems, community community antenna
antenna television (CATV), were built noncommercially in Mahoney City, television (CATV)
Pennsylvania, and Astoria, Oregon, in 1948. In these communities, over-the-air Cable television developed in 1948
reception was nonexistent or poor due to hilly terrain or distance. A nationwide so communities in hilly or remote
cable system did not begin expanding rapidly until the 1970s, when local cable terrain could still access television
systems grew from about two thousand in 1970 to more than four thousand in broadcasts.
1980.
In the 1980s, the government began deregulating the industry, permitting
companies to buy cable television systems nationwide. Early cable giant Tele-
Communications, Inc. (TCI), now a subsidiary of AT&T Broadband, took advan-
tage of deregulation, spending $3 billion for 150 cable companies across the
United States. By the end of the decade, 50 percent of U.S. households were wired
for cable TV.
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SATELLITE TV
Direct broadcast satellite (DBS) emerged in the United States in the 1990s as a
serious competitor with traditional terrestrial broadcast and cable television. Al-
though already a viable commercial television alternative in Europe, sustained ef-
forts to launch DBS in the United States had failed until the 1994 launch of
DirecTV.
Prior to that, most direct-to-home satellite systems required expensive, large
three-meter dishes. DirecTV and other 1990s DBS entrants introduced inexpen-
sive, compact eighteen-inch dishes that could be installed without professional
help and whose subscription price rivals that of cable. With its 20 million sub-
scribers, DirecTV ranks second only to cable multiple system operator (MSO)
Comcast in terms of subscribers, while rival Dish Network, with 14 million sub-
scribers, ranks third.

Television Industry Today

Television station ownership has continued to consolidate since the passage of the
1996 Telecommunications Act. The 35 percent rule now permits groups to own
stations that nationwide reach up to 35 percent of television households and to
own two stations in major markets.
There are more than ten thousand local cable systems and two satellite dis-
tributors, yet consolidation in the video-distribution industry has resulted in a
relatively few companies—roughly six hundred MSOs—controlling cable televi-
sion and satellite TV for more than 90 percent of American subscribers. As
Table 5-2 shows, the top multichannel video programming distributors have nearly
three-quarters of all cable TV subscribers.
Between 2008 and 2014, Comcast lost more than 2 million subscribers and
second-place Time Warner more than five hundred thousand, a decline espe-
cially notable in urban areas where the telephone companies, such as Verizon
and AT&T, offer fiber-optic services.21 The top 13 cable MSOs continued to lose
subscribers in 2014, with some 150,000 subscribers cutting their cable cord in
the third quarter of the year, the worst quarter in the history of cable TV. 22 Of
course, companies like Comcast have at the same time gained new broadband
Internet subscribers: 315,000 in the third quarter of 2014, for a total of some
21.6 million.23

CABLE SYSTEM STRUCTURE

The typical cable system features a tree-and-branch architecture. A headend, or
main office, is the center, with fiber or coaxial cable trunk lines, feeder lines, and
drops to end users. The 1990s move from analog to digital technology entailed
upgrades costing most cable companies millions or billions of dollars not only to
improve and expand channel capacity but to add interactive features, such as two-
way capacity (e.g., for program ordering), cable modems, and set-top box convert-
ers for high-speed Internet. In 2014, more than 80 percent of American households
subscribed to pay TV at an average basic subscription cost of $123, an annual in-
crease of 9.4 percent since 2011.24
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TABLE 52 Top Multichannel Video-Programming

Distributors in the United States, 2014
CABLE/SATELLITE MSO NUMBER OF SUBSCRIBERS

22,376,000

20,203,000

14,041,000

11,030,000

6,505,000

6,067,000

5,533,000

4,296,000

2,715,000

Source: Leichtman Research Group, Inc. accessed March 1, 2015, http://www.leichtmanresearch.com/

press/111414release.html.

SATELLITE VERSUS CABLE

DBS offers more than three hundred digital programming channels, compared to
nearly two hundred for cable. Subscriptions are usually cheaper than cable, even
basic cable, but installation costs are involved with satellite dishes and other
equipment.
The greatest DBS problem is its lack of a full local array, important for local
news, weather, and other programming. Despite great channel capacity, they
cannot carry every local station, only those in the largest markets, which require
subscribers to pay a fee.
Cable companies have been strongly criticized for increasing monthly sub-
scription costs and poor customer service. Most areas have only a single cable pro-
vider, although this is changing in some urban or heavily populated areas. Cable
companies are introducing more services—such as VOD, DVRs, and video
gaming—to compete with satellite and the Internet.
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Television-Industry Business Model

Business models vary with television-signal delivery. Traditionally, terrestrial
broadcasting networks relied primarily on selling advertising, one-minute or
thirty-second ads, taking up between sixteen and twenty-two minutes of an hour-
long program.
Advertising revenues generated network profits and subsidized the develop-
ment of new shows. They also created a culture among networks very similar to
that in Hollywood—a risk-averse mindset that sought hit television shows to at-
tract the largest audiences, which meant more lucrative commercial spots. This
promoted a copycat trend as other networks scrambled to emulate hit shows the
next season.
The importance of tracking audiences led to the Nielsen ratings, a way to
measure how many people in various markets were watching a particular show. As
Nielsen ratings became the yardstick of success, small drops in viewership could
have profound consequences, such as moving shows to different days or time slots
or canceling them completely.
Founded in the 1920s by Arthur Nielsen for radio-audience measurement, the
system relies primarily on two means of data collection. First is the diary of self-
reported TV-watching behaviors. Second is the Set Meter, a digital device that
automatically collects viewership data from TV sets. Set Meter data are combined
with viewing data collected by individual “people” meters as well. In 2013, Nielsen
announced it would begin collecting data about viewership from DVRs. Ratings
are calculated by dividing households viewing a program by the total number of
TV households. So a rating of 25 would mean one-quarter of all TV households
(estimated by Nielsen at 116.3 million in 2014) watched a particular program.
Nielsen reports ratings by demographic group as well, collecting its most detailed
and comprehensive data four times a year during “sweeps.” Nielsen data show a
continuing trend of declining viewership of live TV, with the average American
watching 4 hours and 32 minutes of live TV each day, 12 percent less than
in 2013.
Cable’s fragmentation of audiences made the Nielsen ratings a less ac-
curate measure. Even hit cable shows usually have smaller audiences than
low-rated network shows. Like satellite, cable services are typically offered
in tiers, varying program packages at varying rates. The main cable services
are basic, premiere channel, and per program, either pay-per-view or VOD.
The FCC requires basic service, the minimum level, to include all local over-
the-air television broadcast signals and all public, educational, or govern-
ment-access channels. Basic cable channels air commercials even as they
charge a monthly subscription fee. Smaller audiences mean lower advertis-
ing rates, however.
Premium cable subscribers get commercial-free content on various
bundles, including HBO, Cinemax, and Showtime as well as specialized
NCIS became the world’s most popular TV drama and foreign-language channels. Additional monthly fees can range any-
in 2013 as it entered its twelfth season. It also
boasts two spin-offs featuring stories set in Los where from $4.99 to $16.99 a month. Pay-per-view services include fights
Angeles and New Orleans. CRITICAL THINKING or other sporting events, usually for around $50, while the increasingly
QUESTIONS: What accounts for the international popular VOD costs anywhere from $2.99 to $16.99 to download a movie.
appeal of NCIS? Identify a number of popular series
with spin-offs. Do you think the spin-offs proved as
Some services offer free on-demand content along with paid programming.
popular as the originals? Why or why not might VOD services will continue to grow, especially as networks, cable, and sat-
this be the case? ellite compete with online television services and services like Netflix.
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 157

An alternative to advertising and subscription-based models is public broad-

casting. In the United States, PBS, a private, not-for-profit corporation owned by
member stations, depends on a combination of annual federal appropriations,
corporate sponsorships, and private viewer contributions. Different yet is the
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). Started in the United Kingdom in 1936,
it receives an annual fee collected by the government as a broadcasting tax levied
on all TV and radio receivers.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: If you had to restrict your viewing to only one of the following
for a month—network television, premium cable, or video on demand—which would it
be and why?

Outlook for the Television Industry

The switch to an entirely digital television signal in the United States in 2009
freed up some areas of bandwidth used by analog while allowing broadcasters and
cable operators to offer new products, including VOD and other interactive ser-
vices. More significantly, it signaled another step toward an exclusively digital
media world.
Although cable and satellite operators have had to adjust to digitization
changes, network television has arguably been most affected, as audiences are
drawn to other viewing options such as edgier or more innovative cable shows.
And as audiences shrink, so do advertising revenues.
Networks are experimenting with online viewing, such as with Hulu.com,
founded in 2007. Co-owned by NBCUniversal, News Corp., and Providence Equity
Partners, Hulu was easily able to expand content from subsidiary companies Fox,
NBC, Sony Pictures Television, Warner Brothers Television, and others. The net-
works have also made a notable effort to have online
streaming video of a distinctly superior quality to the
videos found on YouTube. These programs sometimes have
embedded advertisements. To watch full episodes, users
must pay a monthly fee to Hulu Plus. The subscription
model of Hulu Plus is yet one more example of how media
companies are realizing that old business models are un-
tenable and that if they do not do something online, other
upstart companies will.
Some companies, such as Netflix, Amazon, and Micro-
soft, are producing pilots (the first-run test shows of new
TV series) and even entire original series for online distri-
bution. Series produced for digital distribution on Netflix
include House of Cards, Hemlock Grove, and Orange Is the New
Black. And the fourth season of cult classic Arrested Develop- In 2015, HBO Now launched Internet streaming of its original
ment was also a Netflix exclusive. With Amazon Fire TV, programming and movies in an exclusive partnership with Apple, a
subscribers to Amazon Prime can watch more than 200,000 convergence of media and technology that should appeal to a
generation of cord-cutters and cord-nevers. The streaming service
movies and video and other content including music on costs $14.99 a month, and its April debut coincided with a new season
demand via the Internet. of Game of Thrones, HBO’s most popular series.
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MEDIA CAREERS

Entertainment is serious business at home and abroad, a dynamic field in a state

of constant growth. The U.S. entertainment industry generates billions of dollars,
revenue accrued in domestic and international markets. Rewarding careers in the
visual arts of photography, film, and television are too numerous to list. Identify-
ing the specific path that you would most like to pursue is an important first step.
The most high-profile positions, for the few who attain stardom, are in acting;
but actors would be nowhere without talent behind the scenes in the major profes-
sions of casting (both locations and people), art, camera and lighting, costuming
and makeup, special effects, production, directing, and writing. Numerous career
options exist within each of these categories.
Media jobs in the television and movie industry also include creative opportu-
nities for reporters and publicists. These positions require both skill in multime-
dia production as well as an understanding of social networking media and a
strategic appreciation of the changing nature of TV and film in the increasingly
interactive, mobile, and on-demand global marketplace.

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

Deregulation and the passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 paved the
way for mergers and consolidation in the cable industry in recent years. Cable TV
now offers consumers bundled packages of telephone, cable television, and Internet
service. Verizon, traditionally a telecommunications company, has begun offering
more regions in the United States direct-to-home fiber-optic lines, FiOS, a service
whose popularity has contributed in part to the decline in cable subscribers.
Cord-cutters and cord-nevers are increasingly turning away from cable and
other traditional pay TV services and toward broadband Internet services, wired
and wireless, to access and watch VOD, live and interactively. If consumers use a
cable provider for their telephone service, which rules apply—cable TV regulations
or phone regulations? Why should an email sent over telephone wires be treated
differently, from a legal perspective, than an email sent via cable? This goes to the
heart of the so-called network neutrality debate roiling broadband policy makers.
From both a production and a distribution point of view, digital has presented a
challenge to industries stretching back to the nineteenth century. Consumers have
been increasingly empowered as both creators and distributors of their own movies
and photographs. Reduced prices and their convergence with the Internet via mobile
devices such as the tablet and the smartphone have made digital cameras ubiquitous.
Increasingly, TV viewers are holding another digital screen, such as a tablet or a
smartphone. Multiscreen viewing, a trend likely to increase, was evident with Super
Bowl XLIX. More than two-thirds of viewers were also using a handheld device and
sending 24 million tweets, often interacting via social media with friends or family.
This century will continue to reshape the visual storytelling of photographs,
television, and motion pictures in an increasingly public and participatory envi-
ronment of social media and interactive technology. These changes in media pro-
duction and consumption also present various problems, however, including the
impact of such transformations on privacy and cultural transmission.
 CHAPTER 5 >> VISUAL MEDIA: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION 159

MEDIA MATTERS EYEQ TEST

1. (T/F) The principles used in photography were (TV, computer, VOD, a mobile device, etc.).
known for hundreds of years before the first What patterns do you see, and what
photograph was ever made. implications do they have, if any, for your
2. Was your first camera digital? Of the many ways media consumption?
that digital photography has revolutionized 6. If you live to be seventy-five, how many years
picture taking and distribution, which do you of your life will have been spent watching
consider most important and why? television?
3. Is it an invasion of privacy to take a picture or 7. What is the most common way Americans get
shoot a video of the front of your house television signals—over-the-air broadcasts,
without your permission and post it on the cable, satellite, or online?
Internet? 8. Are you a multiscreen viewer? It what ways
4. Why did some of the earliest film pioneers, does this media habit detract from and
such as the Lumière brothers, believe film to be enhance the viewing experience?
a novelty that would be a short-lived fad? 9. When did all television signals in the United
5. Keep a diary for a week of the television shows States convert to digital format?
you watch, how long you watch them, and how

9. June 2009.
on screen would soon wear off. 6. eleven years. 7. Cable (but closely followed by satellite, and with Internet-delivered video growing rapidly).
ANSWERS: 1. True. 3. No. 4. Because they took film of people doing everyday activities, and they felt the novelty of watching such things

FURTHER READING
American Photography: A Century of Images. Vicki Goldberg, Robert Silberman (1999) Chronicle
Books.
Film Art: An Introduction, 8th ed. David Bordwell, Kristin Thompson (2008) McGraw-Hill Higher
Education.
Hollywood! A Celebration. David Thomson (2001) DK Publishing.
The Film Snob’s Dictionary: An Essential Lexicon of Filmological Knowledge. David Kamp, Lawrence
Levi (2006) Broadway Books.
Film: A Critical Introduction, 2nd ed. Maria Pramaggiore, Tom Wallis (2007) Allyn & Bacon.
The Film Encyclopedia: The Complete Guide to Film and the Film Industry, 6th ed. Ephraim Katz
(2008) Collins.
The Business of Television. Howard Blumenthal, Oliver Goodenough (2006) Billboard Books.
The Columbia History of American Television. Gary Edgerton (2009) Columbia University Press.
Dangerous Lives: War and the Men and Women Who Report It. Anthony Feinstein (2003) Thomas
Allen.
The Inventor and the Tycoon: A Gilded Age Murder and the Birth of Moving Pictures. Edward Ball
(2013) Doubleday.
Movies: Discovering Careers. Facts on File (2012) Ferguson Publishing.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

162 Interactivity Defined

163 Interactive Media Versus
Mass Media
165 Historical Development
of User Interfaces
168 Historical Development
of the Internet and the
World Wide Web
173 Video Games
174 Historical Development
of Video Games
177 Types of Video Games
180 Video-Game Industry
182 Trends in Video Games
183 Gamification
184 Augmented Reality
185 Ethics of Interactive
Media
 6

Interactive Media
THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES,
AND AUGMENTED REALITY

F
ormer college journalism student Palmer Luckey has emerged as a digital media LEARNING OBJECTIVES
trailblazer at the ripe old age of twenty. Taking his idea for a virtual reality headset
to the crowdfunding website Kickstarter in 2012, Luckey quickly amassed some >> Define the elements
$2 million in funding, enabling him to create a working prototype. That captured of interactivity.
the attention of another wunderkind, Mark Zuckerberg, founder of social media giant >> Explain the importance
Facebook, who then acquired Luckey’s virtual reality enterprise, Oculus Rift, investing of interactivity in terms
42 billion in the startup.1 Moving rapidly toward the consumer media marketplace, Oculus of modern media.
Rift signals the arrival of fully immersive and interactive media. >> Describe the historical
Although it did not achieve the same start up acclaim as Oculus Rift, there was development of user
another unusual hit in 2014: the latest version of the game Minecraft. Created in 2009 interfaces, the Internet,
for the PC, the game’s simple and blocky graphics belie the complexity of the game, and the World Wide Web.
as players can literally interact with every element in the game world. >> Explain how digital
If visually Minecraft resembles video games from the 1980s and early 1990s, its distribution empowers
audiences to act as
sales figures reflect the popularity of video games today. Minecraft has sold more
distributors themselves.
than 10 million copies for the PC and more than 54 million across all platforms.2 And
like today’s social games, Minecraft has multiplayer options that allow people to >> Describe why user interface
is important to mass
compete against each other. A comparison of the seemingly disparate Minecraft and
communication.
Oculus Rift reveals one thing in common—YouTube. Gamers across all platforms
record and share their play online to create helpful video reviews and tutorials for
>> Explain how emerging trends
will affect user interface and
others. They, too, discuss user-created modifications—mods—to the game.
the way we use media.
Fans have also created scene-by-scene video presentations of their experience
>> Discuss relevant similarities in
playing Minecraft using the Oculus Rift. Wearing this headset, gamers can play Mine-
today’s video-game industry
craft within a completely immersive environment. Characters are rendered and with older media.
edited just like in video or film. These YouTube mods have impressive viewing num-
>> Explain what augmented reality
bers approaching a million or more.
is and how it can be used by
A Minecraft movie is apparently in the offing, and a wide variety of Minecraft- media and other companies.
themed video parodies can be found on YouTube, ranging from Katy Perry to Cold-
>> Identify some of the ethical issues
play, when they aren’t being shut down for copyright infringement claims by the related to interactive media.
artists or their producers. This illustrates cross-fertilization between old and interac-
tive media and some of the problems that accompany the hybridization.
161
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Digital media transformed mass communication by allowing audience members

to interact with content, with media producers, and with each other. Interactivity
has had sweeping implications for all aspects of media and communication.
In the past, audiences were largely recipients of news and entertainment from
media producers. Newspapers, magazines, and books had limited distribution and
a restricted amount of news or information. Likewise, radio and television sta-
tions covered only specific geographic areas (as local stations still do). Although
cable and satellite expanded the reach of television, viewers were still generally
passive. A publisher or broadcaster sent media content to a large audience that
could do little to influence the experience, short of not watching or reading at all.
Today, the audience can choose not only the type of content and media source
but, in many cases, how, where, and when to engage with it. People can watch a
video clip of an interview aired on television the previous day, download its full
text transcript to read later on a mobile device, or get the audio podcast. Rather
than trying to decipher unclear lyrics by listening over and over to a song, people
can go to any number of song-lyrics sites and learn the actual words. Furthermore,
audiences can easily distribute content to each other through email, blogs, Face-
book, Twitter, and other social media. Interactivity has produced dramatic changes
in the public’s relationship with media. Its power to engage and involve users also
raises new ethical issues, which we explore in this chapter.
In this chapter, we will focus on two main arenas where interactivity is most
user interface (UI) readily apparent: the user interface (UI), which enabled the development of the
Junction between a medium and
Internet itself and the burgeoning video-game industry, and the emerging field of
the people who use it. augmented reality, which promises to further change our media usage.

Interactivity Defined
interactivity Interactivity, a crucial aspect of digital media, has been defined in many ways.
For digital-media purposes, it
According to media and Internet scholar Sheizaf Rafaeli, it is “the condition of
consists of three main elements: communication in which simultaneous and continuous exchanges occur.”3 In
(1) a dialog that occurs between a other words, interaction involves two or more parties communicating through an
human and a computer program, ongoing give and take of messages.
(2) a dialog that occurs
simultaneously or nearly so, and
For our purposes, we will define interactivity as having the following elements:
(3) the audience has some measure 1. A dialog that occurs between a human and a computer program (this in-
of control over what media content
it sees and in what order. cludes emails, online chats, and discussion groups; at either end of the
communication flow, a human interacts with a computer program—the
Internet is simply the channel).
2. The dialog affects the nature or type of feedback or content received,
changing as the dialog continues.
3. The audience has some measure of control over media content and the
order in which it is seen (getting personalized or localized information,
magnifying an image, clicking on a hyperlink, etc.).
These three components include almost all the activities that characterize our in-
teraction with digital media and distinguish it from our interaction with tradi-
tional media. Some may consider changing television channels interactive, but
the viewer is unable to engage in dialog with the television and cannot alter the
nature of a program on a particular channel. The level of interactivity involved in
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 163

changing channels with a remote is simply not the same as that which character-
izes Internet use.
In a dialog, both parties adjust their messages in response to feedback, thus
changing the nature of subsequent messages. Consider a simple example: You are
eager to share a funny story with a friend, but observing that he looks depressed,
you ask what is wrong rather than launching into your narrative. The feedback you
received altered your message. If you had sent a letter instead, the story would
have been conveyed as originally intended regardless of his state of mind.
The same thing happens in an interactive media environment, not only be-
tween users but between computer programs and users. Someone reading a news
story may click on a hyperlink for an unfamiliar name, taking that reader to an-
other website that describes the person, which in turn may lead to other interest-
ing links. This essentially changes the story for that particular user, who may have
a very different sense of it than someone who read the same story but did not click
on those links.
Similarly, two people may have very different impressions of the same story
after typing in their zip codes to get personalized or localized information or after
viewing a multimedia slideshow of the story as opposed simply to reading text or
listening to it on the radio. Traditional media devices do not permit switching,
such as moving from a printed newspaper story to audio.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider the differences between immediate interactivity,

such as pushing a button or discussing on IM, and delayed interactivity, such as email or a
discussion board post. How does the change in time affect conversations and relations?

Interactive Media Versus Mass Media

Interactive media can present information in a way that encourages users to learn
and explore. Online quizzes, surveys, and games appear in many places on the Web,
ranging from news sites to interactive adver-
tising, although many such items could be con-
sidered gimmicks. A far more important aspect
of interactive media is how it changes the
media experience for users. The dialogic nature
of interactive media can personalize our rela-
tionship with content and make it more rele-
vant and compelling. We engage not only with
media but also with others through discussion
forums, online chat, instant messaging, emails,
and social media—interactivity that may fur-
ther increase content relevance.
Interactive media also change our concepts
of narrative and what makes a story. The control
typically enjoyed by producers in traditional A web-based documentary on a dying county in West Virginia, Hollow allows visitors
media could well be a thing of the past in an in- to explore different narrative arcs through video interviews with some of the residents
who still live there. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: In what ways do interactive
teractive media environment. Users may have narratives empower the audience? What kinds of challenges do journalists face when
less patience with long, complex stories and be creating this kind of interactive narrative?
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more inclined to take hyperlinked detours. Users on varied narrative routes may
wind up in different places because choices made during many video role-playing
games may determine the ending. A growing number of interactive documentaries
illustrate the significance of storytelling via varied narrative routes. Among the best
examples are the award-winning Hollow: The Story of a Dying County in West Virginia;4
Fort McMoney: An Interactive Game Based on An Oil Boomtown;5 Le Mystere de Grimou-
ville: A Mystery in a French Community (requires French);6 and Inside Disaster Haiti.7
Interaction is important for media companies in other ways. Companies can
see who commented on a particular story, how many visitors it had, how long they
stayed, and where they went next. This knowledge can influence editorial content
as publishers seek larger audiences. A type of story that gets more page views may
tempt publishers to produce more of such pieces.
The ability to interact with the media and share one’s specialized knowledge
has embarrassed some news organizations, as readers point out errors or bias in
news stories. Although newspapers have long published corrections, lag time,
space limitations, and editorial control over what receives an official correction

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
The Internet of Babel
It is easy for Americans, especially, to forget that not ev- 2000 and 2014, that is dwarfed by the more than 1,000
eryone speaks English, even as a second language. To percent growth in the number of Chinese speakers
date, language has generally not been a major issue on during the same time. Only Russian, with 1,825 percent
the Internet, largely because Internet users have tended growth, and Arabic, with 2,501 percent growth, showed
to be well educated and able to communicate in English comparably huge leaps in the number of Internet users.8
even if it is not their native language. Even so, Arabic speakers made up only 3.3 percent of
total Internet users and Russian speakers 3 percent. To-
gether, the top ten Internet languages (in order: English,
Chinese, Spanish, Arabic, Portuguese, Japanese, Russian,
German, French, and Malaysian) make up more than 82
percent of Internet users worldwide.
As languages other than English proliferate on the
Internet, conflicts between different groups can in-
crease. For example, when large numbers of Brazilians
joined the social-networking site Orkut, they spoke
among themselves in Portuguese, making English
speakers feel left out. Monolingual English speakers
could be missing opportunities to get information and
communicate with others.
Although translation programs are improving, they
As Internet use spreads among people throughout still cannot compare to a good human translator. Still,
the world, English will lose its dominance. In 2014, hope remains for the monolingual English speaker as a
Mandarin (Chinese) was the most widely spoken lan- growing number of free or low-cost language-teaching
guage in the world, with one billion speakers. English is sites, such as Busuu and Duolingo, make it easier than
the second-most widely spoken, with 508 million speak- ever to learn a foreign language. Even better for some, a
ers worldwide. Although the number of English speak- growing number of volunteer translators are willing to
ers on the Internet grew about 300 percent between fill in the gaps that computer translations miss.
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 165

has limited usefulness. In an online, interactive environment, readers can see

comments and corrections from users along with the story.
The ability to learn what others may be saying about a particular news story or
type of media content greatly democratizes our information environment. It helps
us understand others as a community, albeit perhaps a specialized or temporary
one. Yet it also threatens the traditional balance of power between media organi-
zations and the audience. But before we address these issues, let’s take a look at
the feature that enables interactivity—the user interface.

Historical Development of User Interfaces

So familiar a feature is the user interface (UI), the junction between a medium and
a user, we rarely give it a second thought and tend to forget that everyday practices
initially had to be learned. Computers, because of their relative complexity, have
more UI issues than traditional media. Even something as simple as navigating
with a mouse can be challenging for a computer novice, let alone the functions of
right-clicking and double-clicking.
Digital media have enabled a more active audience, one familiar with word
processing, browsers, email, and so forth. The interface has helped shape these
uses while empowering users, functions critical to the future of mass communica-
tion. Media content is essentially wasted if users cannot find a given website and
access the desired information. The user interface should be intuitive and natural
yet appropriate to the medium and customizable in content.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Give the address of a familiar website to a partner, and with-
out looking at the screen, instruct the partner to complete certain tasks on the site. How
difficult is it to explain the user interface or certain functions when you cannot look at the
site and do it yourself? Why do you think this is so?

TELEVISION INTERFACES
Before the development of the computer, we did not generally employ the term
“user interface.” This is because traditional analog media were not designed to be
interactive, and the equivalent of the user interface was generally unchanging.
Turning a dial or pushing a button to receive content was an easy task to master.
The development of the electronic user interface has both technological and social
dimensions, getting people accustomed to using new technologies in a mass-
communication context. Had the public not been familiar with television, it might
not have been as ready to adapt to the Internet and computers.
Technological improvements in computer monitors, often now called displays,
once they became the standard interface with computers, have largely been driven
by the desire for more of the qualities that we have come to expect from television
screens, such as color, a screen of certain dimensions, and crisp images. Although
computer makers originally borrowed from television in creating monitors, televi-
sion has returned the favor in borrowing from the online world of screen win- Remote controls have grown
increasingly complex as we have gained
dows, scrolling text or tickers, and multiple items on various topics on a single more functions and channels on our
screen. This is especially evident in newscasts. television sets.
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The TV remote control is not only one of the most important transformational
technologies in television but also often the source of friction between the sexes and
among family members. The first TV remote control was introduced in 1950.9 Zenith
introduced the Lazy Bones, a remote control connected by a wire to your TV set. In
1955, Zenith introduced the Flash-matic, the first wireless TV remote, which used a
flashlight to change channels. The following year, Zenith’s Space Command used
ultrasound to change channels but also had the unintended consequence of disturb-
ing household pets. Most modern TV remote controls use infrared technology.
The remote control altered viewing habits, as viewers could now easily toggle
back and forth between channels, or channel surf, avoid commercials or uninter-
esting segments in programs, or simply watch multiple sports events.10 Frequently
multitasking changing channels could be considered a simple form of multitasking. Remote
In a computer environment, doing
controls changed our media behavior in subtle yet important ways, preparing us
several activities at once with a for human–computer interactions.
variety of programs, such as
simultaneous word processing,
spreadsheet, and database work
while conducting real-time chat INTUITIVE INTERFACES
through an instant-messenger
service.
Because computers and humans use different languages, some kind of interface, or
“translator,” is needed to allow communication between the two. The ideal, intuitive
human–computer interface can be figured out quickly and easily; it should seem natural on first use.
interaction In the earliest days of computing, the user interface was anything but simple.
Any interaction between humans Usually, only the inventor or a highly trained specialist could operate a computer,
and computers, either through interact with it, or access information contained within it. Data were entered on
devices such as keyboards, mice, punch cards, often requiring hundreds of cards to represent even a simple piece of
and touch screens or through voice information, such as a series of numbers or names. The output of a computer anal-
recognition.
ysis was typically printed on paper, which might take many minutes or even hours
with a slow dot-matrix printer. If computers were to be more useful, they needed
not only to become more powerful but also to develop a better interface for both
the input and output of information. Even today, improvements and refinements
continue to be made in the intuitive interfaces discussed next.

Keyboards
The first typewriters, developed in the 1870s to make writing faster, had key-
boards arranged alphabetically, but it turned out this was a poor design because
some keys were used more often than others and, if typed too quickly, would jam
together. Christopher Latham Sholes developed the QWERTY keyboard (after the
first row of letters in the upper-left-hand corner of the keyboard) in which the
most frequently typed keys (such as “a” and “t”) are spread far apart, slowing down
the user and thus discouraging jamming.
Jamming became a nonissue with the invention of electric typewriters, but the
QWERTY legacy endured, which explains why August Dvorak’s keyboard, created in
the 1930s and designed for maximum typing efficiency, was never adopted. His key-
board allows users to type more than three thousand words without reaching with
their fingers. The standard QWERTY keyboard can be reprogrammed to the Dvorak
layout easily with free software, but most people have never even heard of it.

Computer Mouse
In 1968, Douglas C. Engelbart invented the computer mouse, made of wood and
used with a companion keyboard. His inspiration was a now-classic article in the
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 167

The Dvorak keyboard is much more efficient for typing than the standard QWERTY keyboard, greatly
increasing typing speed and accuracy.

July 1945 edition of the Atlantic Monthly by Vannevar Bush titled “As We May
Think.” It discussed how the computer could be a desktop tool. Engelbart’s mouse
enabled the easy manipulation of computer data by pointing and clicking as de-
sired. Although a major development in the evolution of the intuitive interface,
the computer mouse may also become an artifact of computer history with the rise
of touch-sensitive screens on computers and mobile devices.

Touch Screens
In 1974, the Control Data Corporation (CDC) introduced PLATO (Programmed
Logic for Automated Teaching Operations), the first computer system to have a
touch-sensitive video display terminal.11 Before tablet computers and smart-
phones, ATMs were the most common example of touch-sensitive screens. Despite
greatly facilitating human–computer interaction, touch-sensitive interfaces have
certain drawbacks: the need to be within reach of the screen, which means large
screen sizes would bother our eyes; and extremely small screen sizes, such as on
smartphones, that limit interaction, just as with keyboards. This problem was re-
solved to a large extent with tablets that provide tactile feedback during typing.

Natural Input Methods

The first computer that could accept natural handwriting with an electronic stylus
was sold in 1979, although it could not translate into computer-readable text until
almost twenty years later. Among the most natural or intuitive user interfaces, as
well as the most elusive, are computer voice recognition and speech synthesis.
A hallmark of science fiction for generations, they are gradually becoming integral
to the computing and mobile phone environment. For example, users can now
get  phone audio responses to questions they ask of Siri (Apple) or Google Now
(Android). Speech recognition is not without its weaknesses as well. Imagine, for
example, the cacophony in a library if everyone input information or notes in their
computers via voice.

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES

Three developments helped make desktop computers capable of full multimedia:
first, the development of greater computing power and increased storage capacity;
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second, the addition of audio and video; and third, the creation of a graphical user
graphical user interface. The foundation for the modern graphical user interface (GUI, pro-
interface (GUI) nounced GOO-ey) was created, like many other computer innovations, at Xerox
Computer interface that shows Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Debuting in 1974, Xerox’s Alto, a computer
graphical representations of file with a graphical user interface navigated with a mouse, never caught on with the
structures, files, and applications in public. However, Apple Macintosh computers’ implementation of GUI revolution-
the form of folders, icons, and ized human–computer interaction, followed several years later when Microsoft’s
windows.
Windows implemented a graphical user interface for its operating system.
The graphical user interface for personal computers and, later, the Web, enabled
digital media to compete vigorously with traditional mass media. Educating and en-
tertaining in ways unimaginable with analog, it not only changed how the audience
accessed and utilized information, potentially transforming passive media consum-
ers into active media users, it also changed how media organizations created, pro-
duced, and presented stories. Businesses seeking to reach the growing number of
consumers online resulted in the commercialization of the World Wide Web, whose
history is inextricable from that of the graphical user interface to which we now turn.
The highly anticipated Apple Watch,
an iPhone-compatible smartwatch
available in a number of models, colors,
and price points, debuted in April 2015 Historical Development of the Internet
and the World Wide Web
to mixed reviews. Fashion meets
function in the latest digital innovation
from Apple, but the learning curve for
navigating the small, new interface may Expensive computers often large enough to take up entire rooms in the organiza-
be steep. tions or institutions that owned them originally ran machine-specific languages
and programs. They could not communicate with one another prior to the creation
of the Internet, whose foundations were laid in 1969 when the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) launched the Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network (ARPANET). The first national computer network connected

TIMELINE M I L E S TO N E S I N T H E D E V E LO PM E N T O F T H E I N T E R N E T

1993
1971 Mark Andreessen and others create Mosaic,
Email invented. a Web browser, or graphical user interface
for the Web, which helps bring the Web
1982
1958

1958 DARPA adopts the TCP/IP protocol as the

into broad public use.
In response to the 1957 Soviet launch of Sputnik, the standard for communication among
U.S. Department of Defense establishes the Defense computers in ARPANET.
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to develop
advanced communications capabilities.

1991
1974 Tim Berners-Lee creates the World
Cerf and Kahn specify the design of a Wide Web, a global publishing
platform on the Internet.
1969 transmission control protocol (TCP), the 1995
DARPA launches the Advanced basic protocol for the Internet, and coin WikiWikiWeb, the first
Research Projects Agency the term “Internet.” wiki, is created and named
Network, or ARPANET, the first by Ward Cunningham.
national computer network.
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 169

many universities around the country for advanced, high-speed computing appli-
cations and research. Still, computers could not yet transmit information easily
via the network because there was no “common language” or protocol, a set of
rules that facilitate communication between parties who normally speak different
languages.
The next important development was email, which “kind of announced itself,”
said Ray Tomlinson, the computer engineer who invented it in 1971. The Guinness
Book of World Records claims the first email message he sent was QWERTYUIOP—
the keys on the third row of the keyboard. And, according to Tomlinson, the
symbol @ (“at”) was the obvious choice for the symbol to separate the names of
individuals from their machines: “As it turns out, @ is the only preposition on the
keyboard. I just looked at it and it was there. I didn’t even try any others.”12
Electronic mail was a significant advance, but clearly something more robust
was needed, a simplified, common language in which computers could speak to
each other and by which they could send and receive large amounts of data.

INTERNET PROTOCOL
In 1974, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn introduced the term “Internet” and speci-
fied the design of a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) as part of its main Transmission Control
protocol. Jonathan Postel, as a graduate student at UCLA, outlined along with Protocol (TCP)
Cerf certain key principles of today’s Internet protocols (IP). A part of the main protocol for the
Although the exact date when the Internet officially started is difficult to pin Internet that allows computers to
down, in 1982, the Defense Department adopted TCP/IP as the basis for the AR- easily communicate with each
PANET, requiring universities that wanted to remain in the network to follow other over a network.
suit. Moreover, at this time, researchers began defining an “internet” (lowercase i)
as a connected set of networks using TCP/IP, and the “Internet” (uppercase I) as a
set of connected TCP/IP internets.13

2000
The dot-com economic
bubble bursts in March,
ending a run since the
late 1990s that saw huge
increases in valuations of 2008 2010
Internet companies. There are 70,000 public Wi-Fi hotspots in the United States.
The Firefox web browser, a free, open-
Wi-Fi refers to wireless local networks based on the Institute
2014
source browser, gets about 10 percent
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’ (IEEE) 802.11. It is
of the worldwide market, third only to
Internet Explorer and Google Chrome.
broadband, wireless Internet access. 2014
Internet users top
3 billion worldwide.

2009
Cloud computing 2010
1998 enters the mainstream, A total of 79
2012
percent of U.S.
Google founded by Larry Paige 2008 with computing
households The United States has 256
and Sergey Brin. Wikitude World Browser services, software, and
information delivered have Internet million mobile 3G users,
introduced as first location- an 81% penetration rate,
over a wireless access.14
based, augmented-reality while Japan has 99% 3G
web browser. network.
penetration.
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WORLD WIDE WEB

Hypertext Transfer
For its first decade, Internet activity required knowledge of a variety of arcane
Protocol (HTTP) commands and terminology, and its principal users were academic and govern-
ment researchers. In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee, a British researcher at CERN, a phys-
A protocol that enables the ics laboratory in Switzerland, invented the World Wide Web (WWW), altering the
standardized transfer of text, audio,
and video files, as well as email, Internet’s limited, specialized nature and opening it up to a much wider group of
from one address to another. users. Berners-Lee created Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) that enabled
users to connect to other Web pages or sites whose content is displayed and for-
Hypertext Markup matted with Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
Language (HTML) As a global electronic-publishing medium accessed through the Internet, the
A coding format that describes World Wide Web fostered the most fundamental shift in human communication
how information should look on since the printing press five centuries earlier. It enabled inexpensive many-to-
the Web. many communication over distance and time while making computer use easier
for many nontechnical people. The next development would further lower the bar-
rier and increase Internet access for the masses.

GRAPHICAL WEB BROWSERS

The creation of graphical Web browsers helped even nontechnical people navigate
the Internet. Formerly, most information online was text based. A graphical Web
browser brings multimedia, such as images or icons and other visual tools, to the
Web interface, making it more user friendly. In 1993, Marc Andreessen, then at
the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of
Illinois at Champaign–Urbana, created a graphical user interface called Mosaic.
Although GUI browsers Viola and Erwise were also created in 1992, by the end of
Tim Berners-Lee created the World 1993, Mosaic had become the best-known Web browser.
Wide Web to make it easier for people In 1996, Microsoft created Internet Explorer (IE) to compete with Netscape
to find information online. (formerly Mosaic and then called Netscape Navigator). Because Microsoft offered
Internet Explorer for free and eventually
bundled it with the Windows operating
system, IE became the dominant browser in
only four years, with 75 percent usage, com-
pared to Netscape’s 25 percent. By 1999, at its
peak, IE had 99 percent of the browser
market. AOL bought Netscape that year and
announced in 2007 that Netscape would be
discontinued.
Firefox, an open-source browser created by
the Mozilla Foundation and launched in late
2004, presented the first serious competition
for Internet Explorer. By early 2015, without
advertising or marketing, Firefox had captured
about 10 percent of the browser market, most
of it from IE. Google’s browser Chrome, debut-
ing in late 2008, had about 16 percent of the
browser market by early 2013, declining about
1 percent from earlier highs. At the same time,
The original GUI Web browser, Mosaic, was revolutionary when released in 1993. IE was down to 56 percent.15
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 171

BROADBAND
A crucial element for online communication to reach its full potential as a mass
medium is bandwidth. This coaxial or fiber-optic cable of varying capacity is per- bandwidth
haps more readily understood metaphorically as a pipe that delivers data (rather The carrying capacity and speed of
than water) to your home. Tapping the large data pipe, or “fat pipe,” directly allows telecommunication networks that
data to flow at high speeds; through thin pipes, data arrives at a trickle, no matter determine how much information
how fast the personal computer.16 can be sent and how fast it can
travel over the networks.
Without high-speed, or broadband, connections, most people cannot receive
audio or video in real time or of the same quality as television or radio. Broadband broadband
Internet behavior differs considerably from dial-up connection activity. Broad-
A network connection that enables
band users are more likely to produce and distribute media content, and their a large amount of bandwidth to be
online expenditures are more than double. transmitted, which allows for more
Broadband connections also allow us to receive vast amounts of verbal and information to be sent in a shorter
visual information from a variety of global sources that increase our knowledge as period of time.
they broaden our cultural horizons. The inability to access the same information
as others can become a serious disadvantage in terms of education or career pos-
sibilities. In the United States, broadband telecommunications costs can be high,
which means that the lower end of the socioeconomic scale spends proportion-
ately more for what many see today as a basic necessity.

DISTRIBUTION DYNAMICS
Even for people who may not be interested in creating original media content or Mobile broadband Internet access gives
who have no computer programming skills, today’s broadband speeds and exten- Americans high-speed connectivity
anywhere, anytime.
sive networks accelerate the distribution of content. Consider, for example, a pho-
tograph from a local online newspaper. A user can easily copy the picture to his or
her local drive, separate from the article it accompanies (it is also easy for the user
to manipulate the photo, but for our discussion here, that is not important). She
or he could then share the digital photo via Facebook, Twitter, or Google+ with,
say, two hundred people.
Assume that only half of those two hundred people send it to two hundred
other people. Within two “generations,” over twenty thousand people could see
the photo, all within a matter of minutes after it was originally sent and at virtu-
ally no cost to the senders. Distribution no longer depends on sending content
from a central location to a passive audience. Rather than accessing media con-
tent from central servers, users can keep it on personal computers with large
hard drives for storage and make it available to others on the Internet. Many
localized distribution points have replaced a few centralized distribution points,
creating the basis for peer-to-peer (P2P) applications, such as popular music- peer-to-peer (P2P)
sharing services. The basis of file-sharing services, a
computer communications model
and network whose computers are
considered equal peers who can
send, store, and receive information
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: See how the Internet can track you. Do a search on Amazon equally well.
for a product that you would never purchase; then over the following days track what
types of ads you see on different websites. How long does it take for the ads to revert back
to topics that are actually more relevant to you?
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FIGURE 61 Client/Server and Peer-to-Peer Networks

Client/server model Peer-to-peer model
Data stored here Data stored on each computer

A client/server network relies on a server to provide content to people on the network, and content on a
P2P network exists on various individual computers and is shared among them.

Decentralization of distribution means a loss of control for media companies

because a single company cannot dictate what every single PC among the public
may or may not distribute. This translates into potential lost revenues because
copies are made and shared among millions of Internet users without any pay-
ment to the copyright holders. This is precisely what is happening with music
online. The music industry’s concern stems from the fact that each member of the
public who uses file-sharing applications becomes a potential distributor of con-
tent merely by having certain files others would like to download. No one has to
send anything.
File-sharing services using P2P networks started making the news in late
1999 primarily because of the rapid rise in popularity of Napster, a program cre-
ated by eighteen-year-old Northeastern University student Shawn Fanning. Nap-
ster let Internet users easily share MP3 files, a compression format for digital
music. College campus networks slowed as millions of students downloaded and
shared music, and the music industry discovered just how active audiences could
be when empowered by digital distribution.
Napster’s centralized servers made it an easy target to shut down through
legal action. But other file-sharing services that do not rely on centralized servers
have been nearly impossible to bring to court, partly because they are based over-
seas or frequently move their server locations.
Streaming files can also be shared on a P2P network in various ways without a
swarming centralized server. Swarming with BitTorrent, perhaps the most popular file-
The process used by some P2P
sharing protocol on the Internet today, allows users who would otherwise have to
systems in which multiple pay high server and bandwidth costs to distribute large video and music files
downloads of the same file are easily. Its general operating principle encourages sharing dynamics: the more con-
temporarily coordinated to tent a user shares, the more content that user can access. Internet TV services
accelerate the downloading
process.
such as Joost used similar swarming techniques to share streaming video files.
P2P networks serve other purposes as well, from distributing computing pro-
jects to creating an information network impossible to censor or shut down.
Should a central company server go down, the content will likely remain available.
As long as someone with the material is online, it can be downloaded. This ready
availability demonstrates an interesting intersection between technological con-
vergence and cultural convergence, as more people become accustomed to sharing
files with one another.
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 173

Video Games
Of the numerous interactive ways to use the Internet, which is the most popular?
Recently, video games and social media have surpassed email in measures of In-
ternet activity, although it is worth noting that more messages are still sent via
email than through the U.S. Postal Service, and email marketing remains a cost-
effective form of advertising for many companies. Online video gaming has ex-
ploded thanks to the graphical user interface, which revolutionized, if not wholly
created, the industry. Advances in graphic capabilities helped video games grow
from a computer-geek pastime to a huge business on par with, if not surpassing,
other forms of entertainment media.
Played on computers or other electronic devices with graphic capabilities,
video games—whose content is often borrowed freely from movies, television
shows, and other areas of pop culture—demonstrate convergence in action. In
turn, some popular games, such as Lara Croft: Tomb Raider and Resident Evil, have
spawned movies. And machinima, a whole new genre created by video-game machinima
enthusiasts, takes cross-fertilization even further with 3-D animated movies A combination of machine and
modeled after video-game scenarios and characters. cinema that uses 3-D animation
Many game-related websites have active discussion groups in which fans of a techniques and characters from
particular game help each other with questions; complain about aspects of the popular video games to make
movies.
game; compose cheat codes; provide hints for finding special bonus treasure; and
even create mods, modifications to games. This ardent dedication, the envy of mods
many other media companies, may court other dangers, however, such as addic- Short for “modifications,” user-
tive behavior. created code changes that alter
Video sales have eclipsed U.S. domestic movie box office receipts since how video games are played or
2001. Increasingly, we see commercials for upcoming games that look like look.
movie trailers. Technology, in the form of the video-game consoles, and con-
tent, in the form of popular game titles, have been closely intertwined as the
industry, games, and technology continue to evolve with the rise of social and
mobile gaming.

Machinima App on Xbox One represents a new generation of video games that feature cinema quality video
production.
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Historical Development of Video Games

For a relatively new medium and industry, video games have seen many transfor-
mations in the past forty years. Companies have come and gone while certain
titles, such as Pac-Man and Super Mario Bros., became part of popular culture.
Whole new ways of playing games have developed at the cutting edge of user inter-
face and human–computer interactions.
Dating the birth of video games is difficult. In the 1950s, computers pro-
grammed to play checkers and chess, for example, could be found in university
laboratories or government agencies but were far beyond what any average con-
sumer could ever afford or use. Here, we consider only some of the major develop-
ments in popular video games.
In 1972, Atari released the arcade version of Pong (a home version was released
in 1975), and Magnavox released the sports-related home video game Odyssey,
which could be played on the television. Coin-operated arcade games and home

TIMELINE M I L E S TO N E S I N T H E D E V E LO PM E N T O F V I D E O G A M E S

1979
Milton Bradley’s 1988
Microvision is the Sega Genesis is
first handheld released, starting
game console, the fourth
grossing $8 generation of 1994
1962 1972 million in its first 1983 video-game Sony releases the PlayStation, a
The first The year of release. Limited games, small Nintendo releases the Famicom in Japan, released consoles. console that uses discs instead of
computer-based Magnavox screen, and lack of industry support as the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in cartridges, the fifth generation
video game, Odyssey is led to its downfall in 1981.17 the United States two years later, starting the of video-game consoles.
Spacewar!, is launched, the third generation of video-game consoles.
created by MIT first home
student Steve video-game
Russell. console.

1985
Nintendo releases Super
Mario Bros., which sells 10
1962

million copies by the end of

the year and became the
game that defined 1989 1999
“platforming.” Until 2008, Nintendo releases Sega releases the Dreamcast, a
Game Boy, the first console that pioneered online
1972 it was the overall best-
handheld video- gaming and began the sixth
selling video game.18
The arcade 1977 1980 game player since generation of consoles.
version of Pong Atari releases the Atari 2600, Pac-Man,
the ill-fated
is created and the most successful video- developed by
Microvision, selling
quickly becomes game console of its time, Namco and
110 million units
popular. starting the second designed by Toru
worldwide.
generation of video-game Iwantani, will
consoles. become one of the
most influential
video games of all
time.
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 175

video games with consoles and controllers competed for players

in the early days.
Arcade games initially had the advantage. The first genera-
tion of video-game consoles was simply the games themselves;
if a customer wanted to buy a different game, then that person
had to buy a different console. The “Golden Age” of video arcade
games spanned the early 1980s to the early 1990s, fading once
console games became as powerful as arcade games and could
play the same games with the same quality. Consequently, there
are fewer video arcades today. Those that do exist emphasize
immersive simulation games, such as racing cars, space battles,
and first-person shooters. Early gamers still fondly remember the iconic Atari 2600 VCS,
The second generation was developed in 1977 with Atari’s the first game console that let players change game cartridges.
release of the first cartridge-based video-game console, the
Atari 2600 VCS, which allowed players to play different games

2012
Halo 4 becomes
Microsoft Studios’
biggest-selling game,
2004 gaining $220 million in
Nintendo sales on its opening
releases the 2009 day.22Angry Birds Space
Nintendo DS, Social games like hits 10 million
which uses a FarmVille and mobile downloads in three 2014
touch screen games like Angry Birds days after release.23 Facebook
and stylus. become wildly popular, purchases Oculus
2001 2006 moving game playing to Rift virtual reality
Microsoft releases the Xbox, its first Sony PlayStation 3 and Nintendo Wii social-networking sites (VR) technology
video game console. Nintendo for $2 billion,

2014
released. The Wii is the first console to and smartphones.
releases the GameCube. use handheld motion controllers. signaling the
potential
commercialization
of VR as interactive
media.

2003
Virtual-reality environment
Second Life launched. 2011
Eighth-generation consoles—

2008
Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation Vita, 2013
and Wii U—enter the market. Complaints from gamers cause
World of Warcraft Microsoft to reverse planned
becomes the most
2000 popular massively
policies for their Xbox One console
Sony releases the PS2, the best-selling console that would have required a
multiplayer online constant Internet connection and
to date, with 138 million units sold.19 Casual
gaming skyrockets after the release of The
2005 game (MMOG), with restricted players’ ability to sell
Microsoft Xbox over 10 million and trade used games. The OUYA,
Sims, which goes on to become the best-selling subscribers.21
360 released, touted as the next revolution in
computer game franchise of all time.20
beginning the gaming, released on June 25 for
seventh $99. This inexpensive, Android-
generation of based platform, with all games
consoles. free to test, went on to raise over
$8.5 million in crowdsourced
funding.24 PlayStation 4 launches
late in the year.
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by switching cartridges. Games such as Space Invaders, Combat, and Breakout

became very popular and helped make the Atari the dominant console game until
the early 1980s when toymaker Mattel released a different system, starting one of
the first console wars, which still occur today.
In 1985, Japanese playing-card company Nintendo released its Famicom
(a shortening of “Family Computer”) console in the United States as the Nintendo
Entertainment System (NES). An 8-bit console, it ushered in the third genera-
tion of more powerful consoles, with better graphics and more processor power.
Popular games such as Super Mario Bros. and the Legend of Zelda made NES the
best-selling console in video-game history. In 1989, Nintendo released Game Boy
(GB), a hugely popular mobile player.
The 1990s and 2000s saw console makers Nintendo, Sega, Sony, and later, Mi-
crosoft competing heavily as they developed increasingly powerful gaming sys-
tems and struck deals with game-developer companies for exclusive title rights.
The fourth, fifth, and sixth generations of game consoles were largely delineated
by either the shift from cartridges to disc-based consoles or the ever-increasing
console power from 8- to 16- to 32-bit systems.

MEDIA PIONEERS
Super Mario
In the world of video gaming, no one has achieved the fame G4, Super Mario Bros.
or fortune of Mario, the carpenter turned plumber turned has sold over 40 million
Super Mario, the king of platform gaming. His story is inti- copies.27 It remains the
mately connected to that of the industry itself, from his 8-bit biggest seller in the
beginning to his most recent 128-bit incarnation. Yet, Mario franchise, which
whereas the technological world he inhabits has changed has expanded to more
considerably over the past three decades, Mario remains than 100 games28 sell-
largely the same unlikely-looking hero from his early days. ing over 500 million
His mischievous mustached face, along with his paunchy copies.29 Mario games
physique and blue-collar outfit, defies the handsome-hero have appeared on
stereotype but remains curiously compelling to young and nearly every new Nin-
old alike. tendo console. Hit series include Mario Kart (e.g., Mario Kart 7
Many celebrities experience a modest debut, and Mario from 2011); Mario Party puzzle games (e.g., Mario Party 3DS);
is no exception. He was introduced to the public in the 1981 Paper Mario role-playing games (e.g., Paper Mario: Sticker Star
arcade game Donkey Kong as Jumpman, a carpenter who from 2012); and sports games, including Mario & Sonic at the
contends with an escaped gorilla while leaping barrels and Sochi 2014 Olympic Games and the 2015 Mario vs. Donkey
scaling a construction site to rescue a captive maiden. After Kong for the Nintendo Wii U. In 1993, Super Mario Bros. was
a name and career change, Mario starred as a plumber bat- released as a major film, although it did not translate well to
tling creatures in the sewers of New York City along with his the big screen with human actors.
twin brother, Luigi. Mario Bros. proved a success despite the Mario’s enduring popularity in a fickle market is due not
great video crash of 1983 to 1985.25 only to his winning personality. His new games often offer
In 1985, Super Mario Bros., featured on the Nintendo En- technological, artistic, and gaming features that satisfy the
tertainment System and credited with reviving the industry, most avid players while continuing to draw new fans. De-
offered some new characters and a new setting, although a spite his displays of athletic prowess at the Olympics, don’t
rather familiar plot involving a villain who kidnaps a expect Mario, who claims he and his brother can fix anything
damsel.26 Rated the number one video game of all time by if there’s spaghetti involved, to lose any weight.
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 177

Sony’s PlayStation, launched in 1995, used CDs rather than cartridges, making
games cheaper. More powerful consoles also allowed for 3-D graphics. PlayStation
2 (PS2), launched in 2000, could function as a DVD player as well and became the
most popular console of its time.
In 2001, Microsoft released Xbox, the company’s first console. Although sales
lagged behind Sony’s and Nintendo’s consoles, one of the most popular game titles,
Halo: Combat Evolved, was available only on the Xbox. Mobile gaming systems con-
tinued to evolve as well, with the Nintendo DS and PlayStation Portable released
in 2004 and 2005, respectively.
In late 2005, Microsoft released the first of the so-called seventh-generation
game consoles, the Xbox 360, which had an even more powerful processor. In late
2006, however, Nintendo leapfrogged ahead again and released the Wii, a seventh-
generation console that included handheld motion controllers. Wildly popular for the
2006 holiday season, it quickly sold out in stores. It wasn’t until late 2010 that Micro-
soft released its own motion-sensing input device for the Xbox 360, Kinect, which
used the player’s body motion as a “controller” and followed certain voice commands.
The motion sensors in the Wii and Kinect have radically changed how players
interact with games. No longer do players simply sit and
press buttons with their thumbs (although many still do).
Rather, game players can run in place, exercise, dance, do
yoga, and even fight as the video game captures their mo-
tions in real time.
The next generation of consoles, such as Xbox One,
PS4, and Wii U, have added or improved on capabilities
such as voice commands and face recognition.
In another dramatic change, more gaming systems
are shifting to online-only modes, forgoing discs. Online
services like Steam, Xbox Live, and UPlay allow gamers to
play their games from any console or computer, and they
facilitate easy downloading of updates and even player
mods. These services require a broadband connection,
however, and Xbox One’s attempt to move their services Eighth-generation video-game consoles give users an immersive and
entirely online drew complaints about restricting players’ interactive experience.
use of games.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Discuss a video game you loved to play as a child or young
teenager. What made you like it so much? What made you finally stop playing it? How may
your answers to either of these questions relate to material discussed in this chapter re-
garding user interface and the nature of the video-game industry?

Types of Video Games

There are as many video games as there are genres, which many games freely mix
and match. As Table 6-1 shows, some of the most popular genres are sports, action,
racing, role playing, simulation, and shooter. Genres help set parameters on con-
tent and game-play dynamics.
Table 6-1 shows other points of interest. First is the prevalence of tried-and-
true titles, especially Nintendo’s Mario franchise. Note also the general
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TABLE 61 Best-Selling Video Games (to 2014)

RANK GAME YEAR SALES

1 Nintendo: Wii Sports 2006 $81.2M

2 Nintendo: Super Mario Bros. 1985 $40.2M

3 Nintendo: MarioKart Wii 2006 $33.7M

4 Nintendo: Wii Sports Resort 2006 $31.6M

5 Nintendo Game Boy: Pokémon 1996 $31.4M

6 Nintendo Game Boy: Tetris 1999 $30.3M

7 Nintendo DS: Super Mario Bros. 2006 $29.1M

8 Nintendo: Wii Play 2006 $28.7M

9 Nintendo: Duck Hunt 1984 $28.3M

10 Nintendo: Super Mario Bros. Wii 2009 $26.8M

11 Nintendo DS: Nintendogs 2005 $24.5M

12 Nintendo Game Boy Color: Pokémon 1999 $23.1M

 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 179

RANK GAME YEAR SALES

13 Nintendo: Wii Fit 2007 $22.7M

14 Nintendo DS: MarioKart DS 2005 $22.5M

15 Nintendo: Wii Fit Plus 2009 $21.2M

16 Play Station 2: Grand Theft Auto San Andreas 2004 $20.8M

17 Super Nintendo: Super Mario World 1990 $20.6M

18 Nintendo DS: Brain Age 2005 $20.0M

19 XBOX360: Kinect Adventures! 2010 $20.0M

20 Nintendo Game Boy: Super Mario Land 1989 $18.1M

Source: VGChartz Game Database, http://www.vgchartz.com/gamedb/

dominance of Nintendo, claiming the top fifteen titles and eighteen of the top
twenty. Many Wii games are also on the list.
Computer users continue to engage in massively multiplayer online games
(MMOGs), such as Aces High, and massively multiplayer online role-playing games
(MMORPGs), such as Activision Blizzard’s World of Warcraft. In this kind of game,
players create characters and participate in online quests or missions. They work
with other players in real time using chats and text messaging to join teams, fight
with or against one another, and gain treasure or experience through battling
monsters. Console video-game makers see this area as one with great potential
and have been moving to establish their own MMOGs. Examples of this with first-
person shooters are multiplayer versions of games like Call of Duty and Far Cry 3 in
which players can either work together in teams or simply participate in free-for-
all online combat.
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Most MMOGs and MMORPGs use either a subscription model or some varia-
tion of a freemium model in which people can play for free but have limited access
to the game world or to character development. Many games have also developed
in-game economies in which more advanced players can sell or barter items. Some
people use real money to buy virtual items that will help them in the games. In
China, some enterprises pay people to play and acquire items that can then be sold
on auction sites.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Discuss what types of video games you enjoy and their genre
or genres. What makes those games fun for you? Which is your favorite, and why? Do you
enjoy online games or those played on mobile devices?

Video-Game Industry
Video games sold strongly in the 2000s. Sales did not dip until the recession in
2008. In 2014, U.S. sales of video-game titles and hardware were $10.54 billion,
down from $16.998 billion in 2011.30 As in prior years, big-name titles sold well.
The top two titles in 2014 were Activision’s Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare, which
sold 5.8 million units in the United States, and the company’s Destiny, which sold
3.8 million units. Third place went to Rockstar’s Grand Theft Auto V, which sold 3.3
million units. Small game studios are having increased success, though, as titles
such as Papers, Please have captured gamers’ interest.
For much of the history of the development of video game titles, many small,
independent video-game publishers coexisted with Japanese giants like Nintendo,
Sega, and Konami. From the late 1990s and especially in the past several years,
there has been rapid consolidation among video-game publishers throughout the
world, much as in book publishing and the recording industry previously. Large
video-game publishers may develop their own games internally, but often they
either contract game development to studios or buy the developer companies out-
right and run them as subsidiaries.
Today, except for the odd hit, such as Minecraft from independent developer
Mojang, most games come from subsidiaries of a handful of larger game-publisher
companies, some of which themselves may be subsidiaries of global media compa-
nies. The largest gaming company by revenue is Japan’s Nintendo. Activision Bliz-
zard, formed by a merger in 2008 of popular game publisher and developer Activision
and Vivendi Games (itself a part of NBCUniversal), is the second largest. Some of the
company’s popular titles in the separate Activision and Blizzard divisions include
the Warcraft series, Call of Duty, the Tony Hawk franchise, and Skylanders Giants.
Electronic Arts (EA), founded in 1982, is one of the oldest and largest video-game
publishers and developers, third after Nintendo and Activision Blizzard. EA’s well-
known titles include many popular sports titles, such as the Madden NFL and the FIFA
series, along with popular action and combat series such as Crysis and Mass Effect.
Ubisoft, based in France, is Europe’s largest independent game-development
company and the third largest in the United States. Its popular titles include the
Assassin’s Creed series, Far Cry, and the Tom Clancy series of games. ZeniMax
Media, a U.S. company, has acquired several well-known smaller developers in
recent years including Bethesda Softworks, maker of the popular fantasy role-
playing Elder Scrolls titles.
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 181

In recent years, social and mobile games have grown rapidly. In 2009, Zynga
launched FarmVille in 2009 on Facebook. Playable on a browser or a mobile device, social games
it had 69 million users within a year—a tremendous growth rate when compared
Online or mobile games that are
to storied game franchises like the online World of Warcraft, which has 7.4 million played in real time with others or
subscribers. Social games can coexist easily on popular sites like Facebook and that encourage simultaneous
encourage players to recruit new participants from their network of friends. group playing.

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
Is Playing Video Games Bad for You?
Some psychologists claim video-game addiction is on the Research from 2009 conducted by the Centre for Addic-
rise. People have collapsed and died after playing video tion and Mental Health in Toronto, Ontario, on 9,000 students
games for days without eating or sleeping. In South Korea, a from grades 7 to 12, shows about one in ten school-age chil-
couple found their 3-year-old daughter dead after returning dren spends seven or more hours a day in front of a computer
home from a twelve-hour gaming session at an Internet cafe screen. An even greater portion of children this age report
where they played a virtual-life game similar to Second Life. having a video-game addiction problem. With the growth of
Twenty-six-year-old Xu Yan died in 2007 in Jinzhou, China, mobile gaming on smartphones and tablet devices, screen
after reportedly playing online games continuously for two time has only increased, as has the likelihood of addiction.
weeks during the Chinese lunar New Year holiday.31 Mental health experts say signs of addiction include the
following:

• Inability to stop the activity or playing much longer

than anticipated
• Neglect of family and friends
• Lying to employers and family about activities
• Problems with school or job
• Carpal tunnel syndrome
• Dry eyes
• Failure to attend to personal hygiene
• Sleep disturbances or changes in sleep patterns

Psychologists believe that online games are addictive in

part because they give people who feel like they do not fit
The social aspects of massively multiplayer online role- into regular society a chance to interact easily with others
playing games (MMORPGs) have been blamed for teen sui- and to redefine themselves. Other studies have shown that
cides, such as the 13-year-old Chinese teen in 2004 who, after video games, especially character-driven games that encour-
playing World of Warcraft thirty-six hours straight, left a sui- age a range of activities and exploration, can help people
cide note that he wanted to be with his heroes in the game. experiment with new identities and new ways of seeing
Others have taken online betrayals or thefts of virtual magic themselves, which in turn can help them in real-life social
weapons or equipment seriously enough to kill themselves situations. A 2014 study shows that video-game play can ac-
or physically hurt others. Children have become violent when tually influence the physical development of the brain.32
not allowed to play games, and children and adults have Two 2011 studies from Colorado State University report
skipped school or work to play. the potentially positive effects of the popular multiplayer on-
Researchers still do not entirely understand the nature line game World of Warcraft. These studies find that game
of video-game addiction, although they assume it stimulates players can get involved in the game to the extent that they
the same dopamine receptors that affect other types of psy- block out their external environment. Researcher Jeffrey
chological addictions such as gambling. Games, especially Snodgrass reports such “absorptive experiences” can be pos-
role-playing games, also have powerful escapist aspects. itive and provide mental health benefits.33
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The huge number of players for games like FarmVille

means an attractive audience for advertisers, generat-
ing a revenue stream that enables Zynga to keep the
game free. The information on user behavior that
Zynga collects is also a potential gold mine for market-
ers. Advertisers could use this in combination with
other demographic or behavioral data to create highly
targeted ads.
The industry, however, is still volatile. After much
hype regarding the value of Zynga, experts questioned
its business model. When their relationship with Face-
book ended in March 2013, a huge revenue stream was
lost; and in June 2013, the company announced it was
Recent research has indicated that a family can bond by gaming together laying off one-fifth of its workforce and closing some of
while improving communication among family members. CRITICAL its U.S. offices.34 Despite Zynga’s troubles and uncertain
THINKING QUESTIONS: Have you ever played a board game with your
family? A video game? Why or why not might this be the case? Which future, social games remain a large-scale and growing
video games do you think your family might enjoy most as a group part of the industry.
activity?

Trends in Video Games

Some experts initially thought that the video-game market would be limited to
males in their teens or younger. Yet research has shown that when the first young
people who grew up with home-console video games in the 1980s and 1990s reached
their twenties and thirties, they kept playing; and females were playing in greater
numbers. The growth in tablet computers has increased the popularity of social and
mobile gaming.
Today, game publishers tend to release games on multiple platforms. Previ-
ously, each console had specific games exclusively, leading to tough decisions for

Video games are increasingly used in settings to help train or educate people,
providing simulations that other media simply cannot.
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 183

consumers regarding which console to buy. The statement “Content rules” ap-
plies especially to video games, for a handful of popular titles and series make
up a large portion of the revenues. In 2014, industry experts wondered if the
drop in American sales for traditional industry segments was due in part to the
lack of new titles or popular sequels. As industry consolidation continues and
game-development costs rise—with budgets sometimes in the millions of
dollars— companies will tend to stick with tried-and-true “blockbuster” series.
But online and mobile gaming are likely to see significant growth as mobile de-
vices and Internet-connected consoles are used to play against live opponents
around the world. This may reduce the number of new or innovative genres or
games in traditional arenas.
Those outside the industry see potential for other settings, such as education.
Serious games, or applied games, educate players about history or politics, for serious games
example, while they entertain. The U.S. Army used video-game training for offic- Games created to be fun and
ers deployed in Iraq, putting them in tense situations requiring quick decisions. educational that use game
Emergency workers and city planners may practice their skills in simulated real- dynamics to instruct players
world situations and see the results of certain decisions. Video games have helped on topics.
some in nursing homes stay mentally sharp and get mild exercise with a Wii, for
example.35

Gamification
Gamification, in general terms, is the use of game-like mechanics and thinking gamification
in a nongame setting, earning points or rewards, for example, for responding to The use of game-like mechanics in
a survey or writing a product review. Such techniques are not new to the Inter- nongame settings, such as earning
net: Consider how you earn points when using some credit cards or how Boy points, badges, or rewards for
Scouts earn merit badges. Online media provide many opportunities for gamifi- performing certain actions.
cation, including encouraging social competition or community recognition of
achievements.

Badges are typically used in gamification to help give users incentives to participate
in a site or perform certain actions.
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Whereas the term itself was coined in 2010, the principles of gamification
emerged earlier as ways of better engaging people in mundane tasks. Because we
often compete with each other and like to be rewarded, recognized, and generally
admired, a growing number of sites have integrated various tools to encourage us
to do exactly that. I may earn a badge for answering questions from other users on
a site. Some badges may be harder to obtain than others, encouraging me to write
more reviews or edit more articles. Displaying my badges to others in the commu-
nity may encourage others to want more. Sites may encourage voting, which cre-
ates competition among ideas or proposals and interaction among users.
Such techniques have promoted the growth of many popular sites. The location-
based social-networking site Foursquare uses badges and titles to encourage fre-
quent check-ins, increasing the site’s usefulness for everyone as more people
participate.
Gamification techniques can be seen in many fields, including marketing, cus-
tomer service, and education. Sites like Khan Academy and the language-learning
site Duolingo employ gamification to enhance learner engagement. Duolingo users
learn parts of a foreign language in modules that unlock other modules and earn
digital gold coins as they complete lessons. Gamification has critics, however, who
claim that it fosters unnecessary competition, discourages collaboration, and cre-
ates a false sense of satisfaction in earning badges for relatively trivial actions.

Augmented Reality
virtual reality Augmented reality overlays digitized information onto what we see in the
real world, adding information that would not otherwise be visible to us or in-
The replacement of the real world
with a digitized, virtual one, a
cluding additional information about what we are viewing. Augmented reality
mainstay of science fiction stories differs from and will likely have a greater impact on our lives and media than
hyped in the late twentieth century. virtual reality, the replacement of the real world with a digitized, virtual one,
a mainstay of science fiction stories hyped in the late twentieth century.
augmented reality Thanks to television sports, we are already familiar with augmented reality.
Sports scores, player stats, the yellow first-down line in football, and other extra
Digital overlays of information on a
screen that correspond to what is information shown throughout games can all be considered limited augmented
being looked at in the real world reality. True augmented reality overlays information onto real-world, context-
through the screen. specific scenarios personalized to each user.
For example, a person with an augmented-reality, head-worn display could be
looking at the ruins of an ancient Greek amphitheater. The display could overlay
any number of visuals, such as what it would have actually looked like in its day.
Augmented reality could be useful for tourism in other ways, providing visual cues
for public transit or pop-up restaurant reviews.
This idea is not new. In the late 1960s, computer scientist Ivan Sutherland cre-
ated the first head-worn computer display, with limited graphics and computing
power. Since the 1970s, researcher Steve Mann has been experimenting with vari-
ous head-worn, augmented reality displays. Columbia University professor Steven
Feiner, a pioneer in augmented reality, has been creating various augmented-
reality prototypes since the early 1990s.
Augmented reality appears most frequently online for advertising and on con-
sumer product websites. The augmented dressing room on a site like Tobi.com allows
shoppers to upload pictures and “try on” a variety of dresses overlaid on the photo.
You can vote yes or no or even forward the picture to friends. Taking augmented
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 185

reality one step further is Bodymetrics, a company that installs a dressing booth in
department stores that scans the body and then shows your “virtual self” in 3-D
with different types of clothes, eliminating the need to actually try on each outfit.
These are just the first steps in augmented reality, whose true potential as a
media interface lies in its personalizing a viewing experience depending on loca-
tion and context. We see some simple examples of this with mobile phones that
can overlay some information, such as map directions, when used as a camera
viewfinder.
First available to testers in 2012, Google Glass more closely approaches the
vision of Mann and Feiner for augmented reality. It lets people access a variety of
information regarding what they are observing. A user could ask for sushi restau-
rants in the area and receive visual cues about restaurants around the corner or
blocks down the street. Or a person could access historical
photos to see what the neighborhood looked like one hun-
dred years ago. If a landmark looks familiar, a user could ask
which movies have used the landmark and get short clips of
the movies, perhaps bookmarking them for later viewing.
Because the glasses can take pictures and shoot video,
wearers could secretly record what they are seeing. For
that reason, several Las Vegas casinos have already said
they will not allow people wearing them into the casinos.
The glasses also invite judgments about the “cool” versus
“geek” factor. A popular Tumblr blog, White Men Wearing
Google Glass, pokes fun at the Silicon Valley tech types
wearing the glasses. Such representations may deter
sales. On January 15, 2015, Google announced the end of
the public phase of Glass development, although it would
Samsung is one of many companies around the world that have
continue to develop wearables as an internal research introduced augmented reality head-worn displays to access the
program. Internet through immersive media.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Some contend that secretly recording conversations or activi-

ties, even when the acts recorded occur in a public space, is a violation of privacy. State
and defend your position on the matter.

Ethics of Interactive Media

The power of interactive media to engage and involve consumers of media content
raises many ethical issues. Some of these are amplified issues with traditional
media; others are largely new. Some touch on age-old concerns regarding free
speech, the role of advertising in society, and trust.
Interactivity requires faith in others because users must trust those they deal
with on the Web. Face-to-face communication includes cues and mannerisms that
help us establish trust with others, but online we rely on words and the results of
our interactions.
Consider what would happen if you were in a chat room discussion with
a number of members over the course of several days, greatly enjoying the dis-
cussions and the feeling that you have met some interesting, like-minded
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individuals. Then imagine your sense of betrayal if you learned that one or more
of the participants was actually a computer program that gave context-specific
responses to human posts. Your trust in that chat room—and perhaps all chat
rooms where you did not know the individual participants personally—would
likely be broken.
Trust between people is similarly relevant because we expect (or hope) that
others will respect our views even if they disagree with us and that they will
debate in civilized ways. Most people know how disruptive an obnoxious poster
can be to a discussion group, spouting incendiary views simply to draw a reaction.
trolling Trolling degrades the quality of the discussion and wastes time.
Posting deliberately obnoxious or
Complaints about advertising’s influence have also intensified in an interac-
disruptive messages to discussion tive environment. At the forefront of this are video games for children created by
groups or other online forums companies, such as toy manufacturers, that feature their products prominently in
simply to get a reaction from the the games. Because of the high level of engagement in video games, critics worry
participants.
that unaware young users are absorbing hidden commercial messages.
Violence in video games is also a major concern to certain groups claiming
that the game interactivity influences children more than simply passively
watching violence on television. This is one reason the Entertainment Software
Rating Board (ESRB) was created for video games and mobile apps. Similar to the
movie-rating system, it ranges from EC (early childhood) to A (adult only). Rat-
ings correspond to levels and realism of violence, sexual content, and strong
behavioral targeting language.
Behavioral targeting also raises ethical issues. A website tracks your brows-
Advertisers tracking individuals’
web-browsing behavior to provide
ing or search behavior and then delivers relevant advertisements. After looking at
ads that closely match the topics of travel sites, you may get ads for deals on your Facebook page or see travel ads ap-
sites visited or searches made. pearing on other sites for several days afterward.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Identify some instances where you have encountered troll-
ing. Is trolling more likely to occur on certain sites? What has been your response to such
behavior? Explain your reaction.

MEDIA CAREERS

Careers in interactive media represent a growing opportunity, especially for

anyone with an entrepreneurial spirit. Most notably, innovators with a new idea
for an interactive media enterprise, such as a new app or a video game, may de-
velop an idea for a digital media prototype and then perhaps solicit funding on a
crowdfunding website. Another possibility in interactive media is as a player. Pro-
fessional video-game playing is on the rise, and an increasing number of colleges
even offer scholarships to students who show potential and skill at video-game
play. With the growth of augmented and virtual reality, a new career pathway has
also emerged for students interested in creating content for those platforms, espe-
cially with VR cinema companies such as Jaunt.
And jobs also exist for those who write creatively, particularly in the genres
of fantasy and sci-fi. Screenwriting and storyboarding skills are also an asset.
Game developers come up with a concept; writers develop compelling settings,
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 187

plots, characters, and dialog that bring their concept, an imaginary world, to
life. Writers need not be programmers, but they need to be familiar with the
latest in video technology and passionate about gaming. Competition is fierce
not only for players but also for candidates in this job market, which makes
networking an even more important activity for those hoping to break into the
industry.

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

With the convergence of computing, telecommunications, and media, technologi-

cal changes can affect media and mass communication powerfully. Increased
computer-processing power created better opportunities for a graphical user in-
terface that made computers much more accessible to the average person, which
expanded audiences online. Advances in technology will likely further alter our
interaction with computers in unforeseeable ways, yet some general patterns in
the following broad categories are evident: easier accessibility, more immersive
media environments, and seamless or fluid interfaces. The video-game industry is
leading the way in these fields because the very success of games depends on how
enjoyable and playable they are.
Like traditional media, the video-game industry has consolidated. As with
Hollywood movie studios, companies show a strong propensity for producing
“blockbuster” game titles. The video-game industry now rivals Hollywood in terms
of total revenue, with $64 billion earned in 2014. Video game industry revenues
are expected to top $100 billion worldwide by 2018, potentially making it the larg-
est media segment of all.36
Wireless handheld devices such as mobile phones and tablet computers are
now commonplace. They raise important user-interface questions for content on
small screens, such as how people can input information naturally yet privately.
Geography and location matter because most devices have GPS receivers. From a
user-interface perspective, this means that maps will become increasingly impor-
tant as graphics-layered information on-screen. Map-based GUIs can provide eve-
rything from information on the nearest restaurant, including reviews, to local
points of cultural or historical interest.
Accessing media content will be increasingly easy, but accessing the content
one wants when and where one wants it may be harder than ever unless sound
principles in user-interface design are applied to search-and-find functions.
A variety of forms of immersive media are emerging and expanding in the
online environment. These include 3-D visualizations, virtual reality, 360-degree
photography and video, and augmented reality. Immersive media environments
can provide experiences unlike those encountered in traditional media or even in
the typical digital-media environment, providing new opportunities—and new
challenges—for user interfaces.
Interfaces that change to suit our informational and entertainment needs will
gradually replace largely static web pages. We will not necessarily have to “go to” a
website to get information; rather, we may have some version of the Web on a
wearable computer and interact with the screen through voice commands or even
eye movements. Wearable computers capable of recording do raise privacy issues,
among other ethical and social concerns.
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It is important to remember that the online environment with which we are

familiar is not simply one in which we receive a variety of media content in differ-
ent forms, although that continues to be a large part of it. It also includes various
ways to communicate directly with media producers, other audience members,
and one’s social network. Our user interface helps us receive the kind of informa-
tion and entertainment we want and easily communicate and interact with others.
Interactivity is one of digital media’s central and distinguishing features.

MEDIA MATTERS ENGAGING WITH INTERACTIVE MEDIA

1. Define “interaction” in your own words. How such as points or badges to encourage users to
might your definition explain the difference interact more with the site and one another.
between using the Internet and watching a What potential disadvantages do you see with
television show or buying something at a the gamification trend, if any?
vending machine? 4. Some critics say that video games are addictive.
2. Visit a website or download a mobile app for What behavior do you believe indicates such
a magazine or newspaper in a language that addiction?
you do not know. From only visual cues, try 5. Video games have been developed for a wide
to locate specific information such as variety of educational settings, for example,
movie reviews. How well did the common training engineers and emergency workers in
language of user interface and navigation simulations. If video games can teach positive
guide you? qualities and skills in such situations, do violent
3. Gamification is a growing trend, with many video games teach violent behavior? Defend
websites and mobile apps offering rewards your response.

FURTHER READING

Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, reprint ed. Marshall McLuhan, Lewis Lapham (1994)
MIT Press.
Bias of Communication, reprint ed. Harold Innis (1991) University of Toronto Press.
A History of Modern Computing. Paul E. Ceruzzi (1999) MIT Press.
Interface Culture: How New Technology Transforms the Ways We Create and Communicate. Steven
Johnson (1999) Basic Books.
The Rise of the Image, the Fall of the Word. Mitchell Stephens (1998) Oxford University Press.
About Face 3: The Essentials of Interaction Design. Alan Cooper, Robert Reimann, David Cronin
(2007) Wiley.
Designing with the Mind in Mind: Simple Guide to Understanding User Interface Design Rules. Jeff
Johnson (2010) Morgan Kaufman.
Don’t Make Me Think: A Common Sense Approach to Web Usability, 2nd ed. Steve Krug (2005) New
Riders Publishing.
 CHAPTER 6 >> INTERACTIVE MEDIA: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND AUGMENTED REALITY 189

The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon—The Story Behind the Craze That
Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. Steven Kent (2001) Three Rivers Press.
The Video Games Guide: 1,000+ Arcade, Console and Computer Games, 1962–2012, 2nd ed. Matt Fox
(2013) McFarland.
Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World. Jane McGonigal
(2011) Penguin.
1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. Tony Mott (ed.) (2010) Universe.
Replay: The History of Video Games. Tristan Donovan (2010) Yellow Ant.
The Google Story: Inside the Hottest Business, Media, and Technology Success of Our Time. David Vise,
Mark Malseed (2006) Delta.
Planet Google: One Company’s Audacious Plan to Organize Everything We Know. Randall Stross
(2008) Free Press.
Click: What Millions of People Are Doing Online and Why It Matters. Bill Tancer (2008) Hyperion.
Augmented Reality: Theory and Practice. Dieter Schmalstieg, Tobias Hollerer (2014) Addison-Wesley.
The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution. Walter
Isaacson (2014) Simon & Schuster.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

192 Defining Social Media

197 What Is “Social” About
Social Media?
200 Types of Social Media
212 Producers and Produsers
218 Social Media: The Good,
the Bad, and the Ugly
 7

The Impact of Social

Media
J
ustine Sacco, a 30-year-old senior director of corporate communications LEARNING OBJECTIVES
at IAC, tweeted several jokes about travel on her way from New York City
to visit family in South Africa. At Heathrow Airport in London, she wrote >> Define social media.
“Going to Africa. Hope I don’t get AIDS. Just kidding. I’m white!” None of >> Explain the differences
her 170 Twitter followers responded; and she got on the plane, blissfully un- between social media and
aware of how that tweet would change her life. traditional media.
Eleven hours later, upon landing in Cape Town, she learned from a friend’s text >> Identify the different types of
that @justinesacco had become the number one trending topic on Twitter—and social media.
not because of her sense of humor. The editor at Valleywag (essentially a gossip >> Explain the historical
blog) was forwarded her tweet by someone, retweeted it to his 15,000 followers, and development of social media
posted it on the Valleywag site. From that, a public backlash and shaming of Sacco within a larger mass-
began.1 communications context.
Within weeks, she lost her job at IAC while being continually hounded by the >> Assess how audiences are
media and receiving death threats online, even after she issued a written apology changing from consumers to
that attempted to clarify she was not racist and had simply been trying to offer social “produsers.”
commentary about the bubble of white privilege. >> Discuss the potential negative
Sacco’s case follows a pattern similar to that of others whose various transgres- effects of social media use.
sions have provoked publicly shaming through social media—name-calling, death
threats, and invasions of privacy, sometimes followed by termination of their em-
ployment. In early 2013, a woman at a conference overheard an off-color joke, found
it offensive, snapped the jokester’s picture with her phone, and tweeted her displea-
sure at yet another example of sexism in the technology field to her nearly 10,000
followers. The next day, the man was fired—and, subsequently, so was she. Once the
man posted his story online, she received death threats, had her home address pub-
licized, and was eventually dismissed after denial-of-service attacks on her compa-
ny’s website, which the organization was told would continue until she was fired.
Just as the rapid speed of communication among the public on social media
has intensified the ability to publicly shame people—even for minor transgressions—
the same dynamics can be a force that accelerates good works and enhances posi-
tive feelings. Consider the Michigan mother who created a “Happy Birthday Colin”
191
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Facebook page asking people to send her 11-year-old son birthday greetings. The page
quickly went viral, generating over 10,000 messages, cards, and letters for Colin, who has
a condition similar to Asperger’s that makes it difficult for him to make friends. Good
Morning America decided to enhance his special day as icing on the cake, so to speak, by
hosting a surprise birthday bash in Times Square that featured the Rutgers marching band
and a subsequent trip to Disneyworld.2

The tools and capabilities of social media have existed since the earliest days of
the Internet, but not until the past few years has their potential been realized by
businesses, including media companies. Many of the changes have been driven
from the ground up rather than by traditional media companies, a fact that em-
powers social media and often threatens traditional business models. Social
media have altered roles and working practices in journalism, public relations,
and advertising.
The rise of social media has also brought some ugly social issues to the fore.
The potential harm and perhaps prevalence of such negative behaviors as bullying
have increased because of social media, with dozens of cases reported just in the
past few years of young people committing suicide because of cyberbullying. Of
course, racism and bullying did not originate with social media. However, because
it makes such bad behavior more public, social media do raise new issues and can
make the behavior seem more common.

Defining Social Media

Social media continues to be defined and redefined by scholars, professionals, and
the press. Finding a description on which everyone agrees is difficult, partly be-
cause the tools for social media change with advances in technologies, and popu-
lar sites or trends touted as The Next Big Thing seem to lose popularity almost as
quickly as they enter the limelight. Nevertheless, we can examine the elements
underlying some commonly used definitions and then apply these to the realm of
mass communication.
According to John Jantsch, author of The Duct Tape Marketing blog, social
media can be defined as “the use of technology combined with social interaction to
create or co-create value.”3 He keeps the definition concise because his readers are
busy marketing professionals. PR professional and social media expert Brian Solis
defines social media as “a shift in how people discover, read, and share news and
information and content. It’s a fusion of sociology and technology, transforming
monologue (one to many) into dialog (many to many).”4 In other words, social
media represent a convergence of mass communication and interpersonal com-
munication. Anvil Media, a search-engine marketing firm, provides a definition
derived from sociology: “An umbrella term that defines the various activities that
integrate technology, social interaction, and the construction of words and pic-
tures. This interaction, and the manner in which information is presented, de-
pends on the varied perspectives and ‘building’ of shared meaning, as people share
their stories, and understandings.”5
These definitions all mention the intersection of technology, social interac-
tion, and information sharing, seemingly simple elements that will continue to
transform many aspects of mass communication. Before looking at them in more
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 193

detail and exploring how they are changing mass communication and media in-
dustries, we will examine how social media differ from traditional media.

DIALOGIC COMMMUNICATION
Traditional media use a broadcast, or monologic, model of one-to-many communi-
cation, whereas social media employ a more dialogic model of many-to-many com-
munication. Of course, this does not mean that mass-media audiences prior to the
Internet never spoke with one another—there were fan clubs, letters to the editor,
and a variety of ways to interact. The flow of communication, however, favored the
broadcaster sending a message to many people simultaneously, with audience
members having limited means to share their thoughts with each other on a mass
scale.
Consider how a viewer in the 1970s might have been able to share his reac-
tions to the previous night’s episode of a popular yet controversial situation
comedy like All in the Family. If he watched with friends or family, he could of
course comment during or after the show. He might also discuss the program at
the office the next day. If, however, a viewer felt particularly strongly about a racist
remark made by the character Archie Bunker and felt that others should know
how offensive the remark was, options to communicate these feelings to a broad
audience were limited, expensive, and generally did not generate dialog.
He could write a letter of complaint to the network or the FCC, with no guar-
antee that he would hear from either. He could write a letter to the editor of the
local newspaper; but even if published, it would reach a limited audience of only
the paper’s readers (and specifically those who read the letters to the editor that
day). He could purchase an advertisement in the newspaper, which might get more
attention than a letter to the editor, but that would be expensive, or the paper
might choose not to accept such an ad. Or he could create a flyer, make photocop-
ies, and hand them out or mail them to people, which would be both expensive and
time-consuming.
If the viewer was persistent (or persuasive) enough or if he attracted enough
supporters and perhaps held a demonstration or march, his crusade might get
picked up as a news story in the local paper or television, thus perhaps attracting
more people to his cause. Although at first glance this would seem to be a kind of
many-to-many form of communication, consider the mechanisms by which it
occurred—his message was communicated primarily through mass-media chan-
nels. Furthermore, it is unlikely that he would have had the resources—either
time, money, or media attention—to carry out a campaign like this in the first
place.
Now let’s look at what a viewer would do circa 2015. Let us say that a racist
comment made by Peter, the father, on the animated Fox show Family Guy offends
a viewer. Her first public complaint is likely not a letter to the FCC or the Fox net-
work but a tweet from her Twitter account, perhaps even with a hashtag that helps
others easily find tweets on the topic. Or perhaps she weighs in on the discussion
board of the show’s website. Or maybe she goes to any number of other discussion
groups or fan sites devoted to Family Guy and comments there. Today audiences are able to express
Perhaps she finds within a couple of days that someone who shares her views their displeasure with shows through a
range of social media outlets, including
has created a mash-up video of such stereotypes found on various prime-time showing excerpts of the shows
shows or in the news. The video is uploaded to YouTube, where it gets viewed themselves.
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hundreds of thousands of times within a couple of weeks. It may appear on a

news aggregator site such as Reddit, getting even more views and generating
further discussions among YouTube viewers both for and against the posi-
tion conveyed in the video. Or she may create an online petition on a site
such as Change.org, asking people to boycott the show or write letters of
complaint to the network. If the video is viewed enough times or talked about
enough, or the petition gets enough signatures, then mainstream news or-
ganizations may cover the story, amplifying public interest and discussion
even more.
What is notable in this latter example is that, except with the original
source material, traditional mass-media organizations are not involved
(until perhaps later in the process), yet far more members of the public may
be affected in a very short time than would have been the case in the 1970s—
or even the 1990s. More importantly, our viewer may never even consider
writing a letter to the editor of the local newspaper or to the FCC. A complete
media ecosystem can be created and sustained through social interaction
using tools that social media provide. Mainstream media may still play a
role, of course, but they do not have to be involved like in the past.
This follows what new-media scholar and NYU professor Clay Shirky
Clay Shirky, a writer, consultant, and NYU
professor, examines the social and economic calls a “publish, then filter” model.6 Traditional media industries such as
effects of Internet technologies. news are based on a “filter, then publish” model of information. From a vast
universe of possible information, specialists or professionals (editors, music
producers, etc.) select their content, making decisions based partly on the limita-
tions of their medium, such as time limits in TV news or space limits in print
media.
This material—the news in a newspaper or the bands promoted by a major
record label or MTV—is then distributed to the general public. The public is likely
completely unaware of all the other possible types of information it could have
received. Media business models have been built on this way of controlling and
disseminating information, and even entire professions have made this model an
essential part of their professional identities. An example is journalism, com-
monly described as necessary for a healthy democracy because of its role in in-
forming the public and monitoring the government. Journalists function as
gatekeepers, professionals with special access to the halls of power and unique
skills and training that presumably give them the ability to decide what informa-
tion should be disseminated to the public.
Yet, as seen in the “publish, then filter” model, prevalent in social media, many
of these professional assumptions are being challenged, as are the business
models. If the public can connect directly with the vast universe of information
out there and find what is relevant through a combination of social networks, rat-
ings systems, and online discussions, then what functions do organizations that
restrict the flow of information to the public serve?
This is not to say that traditional mass media are no longer important or pow-
agenda setting erful. The media serve an important agenda-setting function in that they pro-
Media’s role in deciding which
vide us with much of the material that we talk about, even if they do not necessarily
topics to cover and consequently tell us what to think. The media also tend to amplify events through their cover-
which topics the public deems age because they generally have larger audiences than the majority of social media
important and worthy of sites, even though traditional media audiences continue to fragment. In addition,
discussion.
much of what is talked about on social media derives from entertainment or news
content created and distributed by traditional media organizations.
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 195

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider the traditional “filter, then publish” model and the
“publish, then filter” model. What do you think are some of the biggest weaknesses of each
type? Can you think of certain types of media that may be better suited to one type over
the other? Why?

SOCIAL PRODUCTION
Another fundamental difference with traditional media is the collaborative aspect
of social media that threatens established media business models used through-
out much of the twentieth century and into this one. Most people cannot afford to
start a newspaper or create a radio or television station. Digital media and the
Internet greatly reduce costs for creating and distributing media content widely,
to the point that they are well within the reach of many.
Collaborative, or participatory, media trace their roots to the free and free and open-source
open-source software (FOSS) movement. This type of participatory or social software movement (FOSS)
production contrasts sharply with the standard profit-making business models A movement that wants software
that rely more heavily on proprietary licensing agreements and intellectual to be freely available and the
property protections to protect products. To understand the difference, think source code open to anyone to
LibreOffice versus Microsoft Office or Wikipedia versus Encyclopaedia Britannica. make modifications and
improvements.
As the name suggests, the FOSS movement wants software to be freely available
and the source code open to anyone to make modifications and
improvements.
Although not always free in the sense of “no cost,” this move-
ment was informed by a strong spirit of keeping the information
freely available to anyone and letting everyone share in the bene-
fits. Commonsense theories of human behavior suggested that
nobody would work hard on a project to only have others benefit
greatly from it. Yet without the collaborative efforts of a good
number of computer programmers and engineers committed to
sharing information and knowledge freely, the backbone of the In-
ternet would not exist. No company would have spent the resources
to create the structure needed, especially when there was no clear
way to profit from it.
The open-source model did indeed work. The Apache web server
program, the Linux operating system, and the LibreOffice software
suite are all open-source developments that continue to play sig-
nificant roles in computing today. Some countries have adopted
LibreOffice for all government agencies, a mandate that raises the
distinct possibility that other institutions will follow suit to dimin-
ish compatibility issues.
Computing and media companies operating with mass-
communication business models are not sitting idly by, however,
while a new and different media ecosystem based on collaboration,
interaction, and sharing emerges. Some companies have incorpo-
rated open-source software into their own product lines. IBM expe-
rienced a larger and swifter increase in revenues than expected Social media have altered the power dynamic between
consumers and producers. Consumers can now force a
after switching to Linux. Oracle simply purchased the MySQL data- response from companies when they review or complain
base system, reneging on a promise to keep it truly open source. about a company’s products.
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Microsoft chose to compete more head-to-head with LibreOffice’s predecessor

OpenOffice, offering libraries and other public institutions free computers—
loaded with Microsoft software, of course.
Open-source software, which allows
anyone to access its source code and is The success of the open-source model also raised the question that if it works
often free, demonstrates how for software, then why can’t it work for entertainment, journalism, advertising,
successful social production can be. public relations—or any kind of content and knowledge production? Collabora-
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: Do
you favor open-source software models
tion on such an unprecedented scale is seen with projects such as Wikipedia in
such as LibreOffice? Had you developed part because of our powerful and cheap computers. Large-scale projects can be
the software yourself and had a broken down into small components, making them easy for people to do and al-
proprietary interest in it, would your
lowing individuals to contribute when and how they choose.
opinion differ?
In what is called distributed computing, any number of volunteers can
distributed computing assist a project without inconveniencing themselves because the program works
in the background. The free computing power amassed through the various users
Individual, autonomous computers is much greater than any research project could afford. The website also informs
that work together toward a
common goal, typically a large, people of progress, thereby engaging the public in a field they might otherwise
complex project that requires more have ignored. Examples of projects using the power of distributed-computing net-
computing power than that of any works include seeking cures for diseases such as cancer, working on models of
individual computer. global warming, using protein-folding programs to test for new drug combina-
tions, and even searching for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI).
We see this culture of collaboration and openness in a range of media produc-
tion today, ranging from crowdsourced news sites to reviews of everything from
movies to restaurants to consumer products. Mainstream media companies en-
courage citizen reporting, letting the public send raw video footage or photo-
graphs from breaking news events, which may be
aired after being vetted by editors and a show’s
producers.
We also see a combination of nonmarket prin-
ciples of collaboration with market forces in crowd-
funding sites like Kickstarter (see the Media
Pioneers box in Chapter 4). People propose projects
or goals and ask the community to donate money
to their cause. If the financial goals are met within
the allotted time, then the project is funded. Its
creators often inform the funder community of
progress and sometimes give them samples of the
finished project, such as a video or CD.
This gradual change in our online culture, in
the ways we freely help each other or simply use
our computers to advance the general common
Distributed computing combines the excess computing power of many computers
to perform operations that not even supercomputers could perform alone.
good, demonstrates how technological and eco-
nomic factors have altered our assumptions about
people acting selfishly or not helping others.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Have you ever made a decision to see a movie, buy music or
a book, or go to a particular restaurant based on user reviews? If so, do you think that you
have an ethical obligation to also contribute reviews that could guide others? Why or
why not?
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 197

What Is “Social” About Social Media?

Cultural norms may have changed, but media have always had a social component.
From the earliest days of print, people read aloud and in groups. In the 1930s and
1940s, families congregated around the radio to listen to their favorite programs;
and people came together to listen to music, dance, and socialize. Even television,
a medium maligned as passive and isolating, often has important social aspects,
as families and friends get together to watch and discuss shows and sporting
events. Some of HBO’s most popular original series, such as The Sopranos, gener-
ated what became known as “water-cooler buzz,” or discussions among workers
about a show the day after it aired, which in turn created more interest among
people who hadn’t seen the show.
How are social media more “social” than traditional media? This is an impor-
tant question. If traditional media are no less social than what is being touted as a
revolutionary, transformative new kind of media, then it would follow that Web
2.0 and all the talk about it is just the latest hype about new technology.
The Center for Social Media in the School of Communication at American
University identifies five fundamental areas in which people’s media habits are
changing: choice, conversation, curation, creation, and collaboration.7 These five
components provide an excellent framework for understanding social media
better.

CHOICE
The public has far more media choices than in the past and far more options of
media styles and genres than ever before. Even so, thinking of the public or audi-
ence primarily as passive consumers of media ignores the variety of ways people
can interact and find the media content they want. Through search engines, rec-
ommendations from friends (often known only from online interactions), RSS
feeds, and, of course, traditional media channels, people today are generally more
proactive in getting the type of content they want.
Note that “more choice” does not necessarily mean “better quality.” Simply
because there are many more options does not mean that the quality of content
people may find is going to be better. Greater choice, however, does mean that
more media types and channels are competing with each other to attract the at-
tention of the audience. This alters the production, promotion, and marketing of
media and even what types of content may be created in the first place.

CONVERSATION
From the earliest days of the Internet, conversation was important, and it contin-
ues to be a defining characteristic of social media. Discussion groups, Usenet,
email, IM, and Twitter have been or continue to be important tools that enable
people to communicate easily with each other on a scale and in ways not possible
with traditional media. Companies have had their reputations tarnished or en-
hanced because of online conversations, unknown artists have become famous
through them, and funny or embarrassing moments caught on a video recording
have made some people instant (if short-lived) celebrities.
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Comcast has learned the hard way about the power of social media. In 2006,
a  customer posted a video on YouTube of a Comcast technician sleeping in the
customer’s home while waiting on hold—with Comcast—for over an hour. In
2008, Comcast was ranked at the bottom of the American Customer Satisfaction
Index, and hundreds of customers contributed their complaints to the website
ComcastMustDie.com. As part of its efforts to improve customer service, Comcast
started monitoring blogs and online conversations and discussing customer con-
cerns directly in the online forums. Many companies follow online discussions
about themselves, but Comcast took an extra step in often responding to bloggers
and engaging in conversation with them. Today, their actions are considered a
prime example of a company improving through listening to its customers.
Many companies have discovered that their brands and corporate images are
not what they claim in traditional advertising or public relations efforts but what
the customers say they are. The focus on conversation is one other example of the
shift from a lecture to a dialog between companies (including media companies)
and the public.

CURATION
With so many options available today, how can people find the kind of media con-
tent they like? The traditional gatekeepers of information and knowledge, such as
media professionals and librarians, are finding their roles changing in the social
media environment. One major change is a shift from a “gatekeeping” model to
what Australian media scholar Axel Bruns calls a “gatewatching” model in which
tagging people act as their own filters, classifiers, and reviewers.
Classifying content happens through an activity such as tagging or creating
Using searchable keywords to
define a piece of information, file, folksonomies of definitions. This helps bring some order to the vast array of con-
image, or other type of digital tent out there, and it helps in searches. An important difference in tagging is that
media in a nonhierarchical system. people are not waiting to hear from an authority on how to classify terms, such as
a librarian would do—they are doing it themselves. Sites such as Instagram, Flickr,
folksonomies Facebook, and YouTube have all encouraged tagging among users, which makes
Collection of tags created by users the content more searchable and helps users recognize relations among terms
that provide metadata (data about they may never have seen before.
data) regarding information. News aggregation site Reddit is an example of how curatorial activities can en-
hance a site’s relevance for everyone. Users vote either positively or negatively on sto-
ries that have been submitted, and stories with the highest
percentage of positive votes get pushed to the front page.
This creates a natural hierarchy of content, where typically
material deemed most relevant or interesting to the Reddit
community becomes more visible to other users of the site,
even if they do not vote on stories themselves.
The online environment lends itself to a curatorial
mode of contributing to the social media space. It is fairly
easy to tag something with terms, or to write a one-
paragraph review of a book or movie, or to write a few
lines about a product recently purchased. It is also much
easier to find, and publicize, fault with something. On-
line reviews have become increasingly important in con-
Reddit users participate by voting for or against stories, pushing the most sumers’ decisions on items ranging from household
popular content to the front page of the site. goods to media products.
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 199

CREATION
The digital-media tools that facilitate the creation of content have played a major
role in the rise of user-generated media content. Cheaper communication tech-
nologies allow more people to create media, whether it is the printing press in
Renaissance Europe or the high-speed Internet in the twenty-first century. The
ability to distribute content cheaply and easily to a mass audience, along with the
chance to interact with others, is probably the most crucial aspect of how the In-
ternet is transforming mass communication. Without this ability, the media land-
scape today would look vastly different. It could even be said that social media as
we know them now would not exist.
Simply because the tools are readily available to create media does not, of
course, mean that everyone will start producing great works of art. Most people,
in fact, will be satisfied consuming media and not creating anything, and there
will be far more amateurish or poor-quality content online than high art. Yet even
if only a small percentage of the people online create and share content, the pool
of media content will be larger than that in the traditional media world because of
the sheer numbers of people online.
Creating content is not without its challenges. As noted elsewhere in this
book, intellectual property laws are being challenged by a digital culture that sees
nothing wrong with borrowing freely from existing media to create something
new. Furthermore, many people online have come to expect a variety of media
content for free. Rather than encourage creativity, as intellectual property laws
were meant to do, more restrictive laws may have the opposite effect by removing
creative material from the public domain. Nevertheless, content creators should
be compensated for their work.

COLLABORATION
The willingness to collaborate on a common good for no personal monetary gain is
perhaps one of the biggest surprises one encounters when examining social media.
It is one thing to spend hours creating an app with the hopes of copyrighting it for
licensing or offering it for money, but quite another to do so and provide it to the
Web community for free use or to provide open access to your project and invite
others to work on and improve it.
A number of cases of collaboration extend from the online realm to offline,
especially in organizing people around politics or social movements. In fact, the
most successful uses of online tools in political campaigns have included ample
opportunities for people to socialize in real-world settings as well. This was the
lesson the Howard Dean campaign learned in 2004 from looking at Al Gore’s failed
presidential campaign in 2000. Gore’s campaign used online media primarily as
another media channel, asking for donations and alerting users about issues and
appearances. Dean used online tools to encourage supporters to get together in
person and act, generating millions of dollars for his campaign in the process.
Although Dean eventually dropped out of the presidential race, Obama’s pres-
idential campaigns applied and further refined these lessons. In recent years, or-
ganizations such as Sunlight Labs and Code for America have partnered with
government agencies and other organizations to host civic hackathons, bringing
coders and others together to work jointly on finding solutions to common gov-
ernment problems. One example of this is Boston’s Citizens Connect app, which
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Civic hackathons, in which coders and others gather over one or two days to work on computing
solutions for government or civic issues, have become increasingly popular in recent years.

lets Boston residents easily report various civic issues such as potholes and track
the progress of the problems getting fixed.
In some ways, the realization that people need real-world socializing to com-
plement their online socializing harkens back to the earliest days of social media,
long before that term was applied. In fact, the need to meet, interact, and discuss
was an impetus for the earliest online communities, many of which are precursors
to today’s social media tools and are still widely used today.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Which of the five ways in which our media use is changing
(choice, creation, curation, conversation, or collaboration) do you think is the most impor-
tant? Why?

Types of Social Media

In 1980, France launched its videotext service, text delivery over the air or by
cable for presentation on television screens or other electronic displays, known
then as Teletel and later as Minitel. Ahead of its time, Minitel was one of the most
successful, early interactive online information services before the Web. Minitel
worked because the government subsidized it and provided every home with an
access device. Its biggest problem turned out to be the emergence of the World
Wide Web, which quickly outclassed the stand-alone Minitel communication ter-
minals. Despite these drawbacks, there were still 10 million Minitel users in 2009,
yet France Telecom finally closed the Minitel service in June 2012.
Many of the tools we now commonly associate with social media were used
Smartphones and tablets have made it
easy for people to keep up with social before social media became an Internet phenomenon. Even the pre-Web Minitel
media or online news at all times. had what it called its “blue rooms,” adult-oriented chat rooms, the only part of the
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 201

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Social Networks of Influential Languages
Just like people, it turns out that languages can also be Chinese, Hindi, and Arabic—which combined
mapped via social networking principles to reveal which have nearly a quarter of the world’s population of
networks are the most extensive and most important. native speakers—all had fewer connections in the net-
In social networks, a hub is someone or something working map, meaning works written in these lan-
that has many other connections to others, essentially guages got translated to and from other languages far
acting as a communications or information focal point. less than the number of native speakers would other-
One study on the influence of various languages that ap- wise indicate.
peared in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci-
ences by researchers at MIT, Harvard, Northeastern
University, and Aix-Marseille University looked at three
separate communication networks: books, tweets, and
Wikipedia articles. They examined the output of all three
networks done in various languages and mapped their
translations to other languages to determine which
tended to be most translated, thus reaching more people.
It is perhaps no surprise that English was a central
hub, making it the best language to spread your message
to other languages in all three networks, even though it
is only the third most widely spoken native language,
with 5 percent of the global population. A few other lan-
guages, such as French, Spanish, Russian, and German,
worked as intermediate-level hubs in much the same way
as English, except on a smaller scale. This means that even What does this mean for native English speakers
though the actual number of native speakers of some of studying a foreign language? At least in terms of tapping
these languages may be relatively small, books, tweets, into global conversations and knowledge and spreading
and Wikipedia articles tended to get translated to and your message, it may be better to study a language such
from these languages at a disproportionately high rate. as Spanish or German than Chinese or Arabic.

service that generated a significant revenue stream. The use of modern social
media grew significantly with Web-related advances that facilitated creating and
sharing content. Other differences include the rapid growth of the Web audience
and the increase in broadband Internet connections that enhance user experience.
Wireless Internet capabilities have also expanded access to social media.
Here, we will look specifically at how some social media tools have developed
and been used over time. In most cases, people have found ways to subvert the
tools to their own ends, making the service less useful for everyone. In response,
communities have created social norms and rules of behavior along with punish-
ments for transgressions.

EMAIL
Email, or electronic mail, was one of the first uses of the Internet and until 2008
was the most popular Internet activity. In 2010, email moved down to third place,
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following social-networking sites and online gaming.8 Email can be overlooked as

an element of social media, but its ease of use, prevalence, and capacity to send
messages to more than one person make it a powerful communication tool.
Although email is an exchange of messages via telecommunication between
two people, an individual can easily create a mailing list and send out a single mes-
sage to multiple people, in a sense broadcasting the message. This capability has
caused more than a few red faces, as anyone can attest who has been on a mailing
list in which one member made disparaging remarks about another member,
thinking the response was going only to an individual and not to the entire list.
Mailing lists differ from discussion boards in that messages posted get sent
directly to subscribers’ email inboxes rather than to an online location that a
listservs member must visit to read the messages. Listservs are automated mailing-list
Automated mailing-list
administrators that allow for easy subscription, cancellation, and delivery of
administrators that allow for easy emails to subscribers. Many organizations use them to keep their customers or
subscription, cancellation, and supporters informed of the organization’s activities or special deals.
delivery of emails to subscribers. The principles that allow for easy creation of mailing lists are also responsible
for what many consider the scourge of email—spam, unsolicited email advertis-
spam ing. Spam, once rare and considered extremely bad form in the early days of the
Unwanted mass emailing from Internet, is now all too common. Computer programs comb the Internet and find
advertisers. email addresses on websites and social media, “harvesting” them to a central loca-
tion that a spammer can then use to send messages or sell the list of emails to
other companies.
A battle continues between spammers and companies creating software to
block spam. Automated filtering software often removes much of the spam but
may also inadvertently remove desired messages. Spam clogging the Internet and
inboxes reflects the downside of being able to share content easily. Lowered costs
of distribution on the Internet have helped create
online communities and given the public a chance to
distribute media content on a par with established
media companies, but it has also made it easier for indi-
viduals and companies to abuse that distribution
system, making it less valuable for all. Legislators are
fighting back, however, with increasingly stringent an-
tispam laws that penalize spammers.
The antispam legislation and better spam-blocking
software seem to have had an effect. In 2010, an esti-
mated 78 percent of all emails sent were spam. In 2014,
64 percent of all emails sent were spam, according to
Symantec, with over half consisting of sex and dating
topics and nearly 40 percent on pharmaceutical topics.
Because of improved antispam technology, most spam
gets blocked before reaching our inboxes. Spain is the
Although spam remains a problem, clogging inboxes and costing number-one source of sent spam, followed by the
companies millions of dollars, antispam technologies and laws have United States, the previous spam leader, according to
reduced the amount of spam in recent years.
Symantec.

DISCUSSION BOARDS AND WEB FORUMS

Today, most online discussions boards are on Web-based forums that provide a
variety of user-friendly tools to create and post discussions. Users can easily
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 203

follow conversational threads on different topics or search for archived material.

The precursor to Web forums was Usenet, created in 1979, which even today pro- Usenet
vides thousands of discussion boards, each separated by categories called news- One of the earliest discussion
groups. Members of Usenet, the first file-sharing service, posted files to a forums in use today in which
newsgroup to share with subscribers, group members who could then download participants discuss topics in
and save the files on their computers. categories called newsgroups.
Usenet has decreased in popularity, especially with the rise of the Web and the
association of the service with pornographers, who used it to send large files. Sev-
eral Internet service providers (ISPs) either have blocked Usenet servers entirely
or allow access only to certain newsgroups within the major categories. Despite its
decline in popularity, Usenet presaged many of the principles seen today in social
media, including decentralized servers, encouraging communication between
users, and enabling users to find others with similar interests in niche categories.
Discussion boards are a vital form of mass communication on the Internet.
Their format and asynchronous nature (i.e., not requiring users to be online at the
same time) allow for relatively lengthy expositions on topics written whenever
convenient for the person sending the message. They also provide value even to
members who do not post messages but simply read what others are writing, a
practice called lurking. Some discussion-board creators encourage newcomers to lurking
lurk for a while to become familiar with the tone and type of topics before posting Only reading what others write in
messages of their own. online discussion boards but not
Because public discussion boards are easily searchable on the Web, they pro- contributing to the discussions.
vide useful information on a range of specialized topics. People with similar ques-
tions can find helpful advice on any number of issues long after the initial
discussions take place. One of the earliest online communities, created through
discussion groups, is still thriving today. The WELL (Whole Earth ’Lectronic Link)
began in 1985 and continues to promote high-quality and interesting discussions
among its members, many of whom are noted intellectuals, artists, authors, and
creative thinkers. The WELL’s policy of requiring real names rather than user
names has, according to some, enhanced discussion and fostered a strong sense of
community among its members. Now owned by the Salon Media Group, publisher
of Salon magazine, it charges members $15 a month, one of the few online com-
munities that has successfully charged members simply for discussions.

CHAT ROOMS
Like discussion groups, chat rooms are usually divided by topic, ranging from
highly technical computer issues to pop stars to sex. Chat rooms differ from
instant messaging, which also takes place in real time, in that instant messag- instant messaging
ing usually involves an online conversation between two people or a few at most. Often abbreviated IM, a form of
Because chat rooms are synchronous, occurring in real time, media organiza- real-time communication through
tions can use them to promote special guests online and let the audience “speak” text typed over a computer
to them, much like a radio station having a musician visit and take listeners’ calls. network.
Chat rooms are not without their own unique communication problems. They
can often be chaotic, much like trying to talk to someone across the room at a
crowded, noisy party. It can be difficult to tell who is being addressed, although
some chat rooms have general rules and guidelines posted for proper behavior.
Although messages may be sent in real time, the fact that they must be typed in-
evitably slows down the give-and-take that occurs during spoken conversations.
Some chatters can monopolize the conversation as well or repeatedly post the
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scrolling same message, a practice called scrolling, which quickly draws the ire of other
Simply repeating the same
chatters in the room.
message in a chat room, which The video instant messaging service Snapchat, launched in 2011, has become
quickly draws the ire of other very popular, with an estimated 700 million videos and photos sent each day, ac-
participants. cording to Snapchat. The unique characteristic of Snapchat is the automatic dele-
tion of photos and videos after recipient viewing.

BLOGS AND MICROBLOGS

blog Blogs, or weblogs, are an individual’s web pages of short, frequently updated post-
Short for weblog, a type of website
ings arranged chronologically, much like a series of diary entries or journal pages.
in which a person posts regular Blogs can contain thoughts, links to sites of interest, rants, or whatever the blog-
journal or diary entries, with the ger wants to write about. The earliest blogs go back to 1994, although technologi-
posts arranged chronologically. cal limitations made it more cumbersome to update posts then.
The role that technology plays in social media is
clearly evident with the rise of blogs. Not until 1999
did blogs start increasing in popularity, largely due
to new software tools that made blogging easier and
did not require knowledge of HTML code or pro-
gramming. Blogger.com, created in 1999 and bought
by Google in 2003, is one such tool that makes creat-
ing, posting, and sharing a blog easy even for non-
technical people. WordPress is another very popular
blogging platform that offers free blog hosting.
Some blogs, such as BoingBoing and the Huffing-
ton Post, have readerships in the millions and an
influential agenda-setting function much like main-
stream media. When a blog becomes popular and
attracts many readers, responding to most of the
comments or discussions becomes impossible for
David Karp founded the popular microblog site Tumblr, which has surpassed the blogger. In this way, blogs tend to develop the
WordPress in popularity and was purchased by Yahoo in 2013.
characteristics of traditional broadcasting or pub-
lishing models of information or news.
News organizations were slow to adopt blogs as part of their media offerings,
seeing them as a threat or something that might detract from their credibility. In
2002, Steve Olafson, a longtime journalist for the Houston Chronicle, was fired for
having a pseudonymous blog in which he criticized local politicians. Today, many
big news organizations operate blogs and expect their reporters or columnists to
blog regularly.
Although the blog’s element of authenticity is vital to conversation or true
dialog, its raw, honest, and unfiltered quality often becomes problematic in the
business world. Excessively polished blogs or those that simply repeat public rela-
tions platitudes are unlikely to generate respect or develop a following. Adopting
a more natural, conversational tone with the public and responding to their com-
ments have been difficult for companies accustomed to carefully controlling their
public messages.
Blogs have also moved from their text roots to include video, audio, and mul-
timedia, an example of how users are creating content by mixing and matching
different media types to make something new. Blogs also play an important cura-
torial role, as some become popular because the blogger finds the best and most
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 205

compelling ideas and makes relevant comments about that content, which helps
the blog’s readers find information of interest to them and to understand it within
a larger context.
As their name suggests, microblogs work much the same way as blogs, but the
format and technology encourage shorter posts and content. Today, perhaps the
most popular microblog is Twitter, which allows only 140 characters to be sent at
a time, or tweeted. Launched in July 2006, Twitter has 302 million active users
with 500 million tweets sent per day.9 Many people have started using Twitter as
a kind of curatorial news service, following people who tend to find new or inter-
esting stories.
Some studies have shown that only about 10 percent of Twitter users contrib-
ute over 90 percent of the content.10 That a relatively small percentage of people
contribute a disproportionate amount of content is important to remember when
considering how media-usage habits are changing. Just because the audience can
now create and distribute content easily does not mean everyone will—the vast
majority of people seem perfectly happy as consumers of media content.
Tumblr, another popular microblogging service, allows for easy uploads of
text and multimedia content. Founded in 2007, the name derives from “tumble-
logs,” the original term used for microblogs before the latter name became more
widely used. In May 2013, Yahoo bought Tumblr for $1.1 billion; in May 2015,
Tumblr hosted over 237 million blogs and over 111 billion posts, surpassing popu-
lar blogging platform WordPress.11
Chinese microblogging site Sina Weibo (“weibo” means microblog in Chinese),
founded in 2009, has been likened to a Chinese version of Twitter, even though it
functions more like a Twitter/Facebook hybrid. Although still popular, with over
500 million users, it has suffered because of competition from free messaging and
voicemail service WeChat, launched in 2011, which quickly gained nearly 300
million users and continues to rise in popularity.12
Many of the most popular social-networking sites offer microblogging ser-
vices as well, although these are often called something like “status updates.” Re-
gardless of the name used, updating friends in your social network while out and
about is essentially a type of microblogging.
Wikipedia is an excellent example
WIKIS of what can be created online by
many people collaborating for
Wikis have become more widely known, thanks to the phenomenal success of free.
Wikipedia, the collaborative encyclopedia created entirely by volunteers that
quickly came to rival the scope and accuracy of established encyclopedias. Like
most of today’s social media tools, the roots of wikis go back much further. A wiki, wiki
which means “quick” or “speedy” in Hawaiian, is essentially a web page that anyone Website that lets anyone add, edit,
can edit. In 1994, Ward Cunningham created the first wiki, WikiWikiWeb, de- or delete pages and content.
signed for easy sharing of information among computer programmers. He took
his wiki public in 1995 and asked developers to improve on it.
In 2001, Wikipedia used a version of a wiki system for its new encyclopedia
that encouraged anyone to contribute and edit. This was a drastic change from
traditional encyclopedias, the epitome of the gatekeeper media model of authori-
tative, unidirectional communication to a silent and passive audience.
Today, a variety of wikis are used for different purposes, especially in educa-
tion. Corporate wikis encourage knowledge sharing among groups, especially
when offices are far apart. One important aspect of wikis is the ability to see the
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MEDIA PIONEERS
Jack Dorsey
A century and a half after Samuel Morse’s initial telegraph day. Not merely a stroll by places of interest, these Friday
transmission—What hath God wrought?—Twitter and its outings became a commitment to cleaner streets, a project
30-year-old creator, Jack Dorsey, would tweet “just setting announced in this tweet from Jack: “Tomorrow morning at
up my twttr” “inviting coworkers.” And thus a radical one-to- 11a Pacific we’re going out & picking up trash for 30 minutes.
many communication medium was launched that would Join us (equipment provided): 5th & Natoma.
crisscross the globe in ways the one-to-one telegraph #cleanstreets.”15
system never could, yet in a simi-
larly concise textual form. Almost
as fast as you could tweet “The
Next Big Thing,” Twitter was it.
Social media quickly embraced
downsized expression of 140
characters or less, immediate and
entertaining status updates from
close friends and distant celebri-
ties, as well as more serious
broadcasts from journalists, poli-
ticians, activists, and even
revolutionaries.
Elegantly simplified responses
to complex problems character-
ize Dorsey’s pioneering achieve-
ments. When, for example, an
artisan friend lost a $2,000 sale
because his small business could
not justify the costs associated
with credit card transactions,
Dorsey conceived of and created
a tiny card swipe reader that
could plug into an iPhone or iPad,
instantly making any small opera-
tion capable of meeting the costs
of handling such sales. This con-
cept and device formed the basis
for Square, his foray into the
world of seamless retail
transactions. Dorsey’s efforts to make our public communication
Dorsey, described by one colleague as “a first-rate strate- more democratic, our business transactions more efficient,
gist, a first-rate designer, and a first-rate technologist”13 and and our world cleaner will no doubt extend beyond his en-
by another as “a technologist with the soul of an artist,”14 is a terprises with Twitter and Square. In 2013, he joined the
dynamic entrepreneur with a holistic concern for his staff board of directors for the Walt Disney Company, and he has
and for society. Operating in downtown San Francisco, he also expressed a desire to be mayor of New York City
has led coworkers on excursions through the city during the someday.
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 207

editing history of any particular page and to revert to an earlier version if needed.
This function keeps an automatic archive of editing changes identifiable by users.
In combination with discussion or talk pages associated with each article, it pro-
vides a ready way for participants to discuss and debate points.
What would seem like a major weakness of wikis—the freedom for anyone to
change any content on a page at any time—has actually turned out to be their
strength. Low barriers to creating content or adding special expertise a user may
have make participation easy. Although not without its share of trolls, people
who purposely vandalize Wikipedia entries by inserting false or nonsensical in-
formation, the Wikipedia community has shown a remarkable ability to police the
vast and growing content on the site. Wikipedia has been able to avoid major dis-
ruptions of vandals, thanks partly to technology but mostly to the norms and
rules the Wikipedia community has created over time, an example par excellence
of how collaborative work and social media transform media audiences and oper-
ate on principles different from traditional media economic models.
Nevertheless, Wikipedia has had growth pains. In August 2009, it announced
the need for more restrictive editing rules and page “lock” or “protect” to prevent
further editing, a move away from its original freewheeling days. Even earlier,
Wikipedia had blocked any changes from ISPs originating from either house of
Congress because politicians’ aides were continually changing politicians’ entries
to make them look better, breaking the Wikipedia community norm of neutral
point of view (NPOV).

SOCIALNETWORKING SITES
The various social-networking sites have become perhaps the most visible face of
social media. What distinguishes these sites from other types of social media is
that in some manner they show users connections in their social network.16 The
ability to visualize and share one’s social network while allowing others to tap into
that map by contacting other people in the network has become an incredibly
powerful tool.
Although today Facebook or LinkedIn seem to get all the attention, the first
social-networking sites were actually created several years before, and some are
still around. Classmates.com, founded in 1995, and SixDegrees, starting in 1997
and closing in 2001, are two early examples of social-networking sites. Classmates
.com, as its name suggests, focuses primarily on putting people back in touch with
former classmates from college, high school, or even grade school.
Reconnecting with old friends or creating friendships has proven to be a pow-
erful force for establishing social-networking sites. Friendster, launched in 2002,
was the first social-networking site with features similar to those of Facebook and
LinkedIn. With the rise of MySpace and, later, Facebook, the popularity of Friend-
ster rapidly waned in the United States but remained strong in Asia. Relaunched
as a social-gaming website under new ownership in 2011, Friendster is still popu-
lar in some Southeast Asian countries.
The case of MySpace shows just how chaotic the business of social-networking
sites can be and how easy it is to lose the trust of users when not considering the
audience. Launched in 2003, MySpace became the most popular social-networking
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site in 2006, only to lose that position in 2008 to Facebook. In 2005, News Corp.
purchased MySpace and its parent company, Intermix Media, for $580 million. In
June 2011, News Corp. sold MySpace for $35 million—a fraction of its original
value—to Justin Timberlake and Specific Media, an advertising network. In mid-
June 2013, MySpace launched a new version of the site, deleting without warning
all the material users had on the old version of MySpace. This raised a huge outcry
among users, many of whom had lost years of messages with past loved ones, blog
entries, and games that they had purchased on the site.
In late 2003, Facebook began as a project within Harvard University called
Forbes ranked the cofounder, chairman,
Face-mash, a version of the website Hot or Not. It launched as a social-networking
and CEO of Facebook number 16 on
their 2015 list of billionaires. Mark site under its current name but available only to Harvard students in early 2004.
Zuckerburg’s net worth at that time was A few months later it opened to other Ivy League schools and then expanded to
$35.4 billion. include all college students. The next year, it accepted high school students and
then companies; and in 2006, it opened to anyone thirteen or older, rapidly over-
taking MySpace as the most popular social-networking site thanks to these

TIMELINE S O C I A L N E T W O R K I N G SI T E S

2003 2005
Networking continues to specialize with the launch of YouTube enters the video-sharing
LinkedIn (a professional site), Couchsurfing (a competition. Ning is founded,
hospitality exchange site), and MySpace (a social site allowing users to create custom
1999 focused on music). Friendster turns down a $30 million social networks. Facebook
AsianAvenue and buyout offer from Google, considered one of the expands to include high school
BlackPlanet are biggest blunders in Silicon Valley. networks. News Corp. buys
1995 created to target MySpace, a hugely popular site
Classmates.com specific with young people, for $580
launches to help communities. million.
users find friends
from school, work,
and the military.

2006
Text-based Twitter
2004 launches. Facebook
2002 Facebook is created for Harvard
opens to corporate
Originally conceived as a social networking site, students. Animal-themed
networks in early 2006
1995

once-popular Friendster becomes a social gaming Dogster and Catster become

and to everyone late in
platform in 2011 after experiencing a decline in available. Orkut, owned and
the year. Google buys
most markets. Created in Malaysia, it remains operated by Google, opens but
YouTube for $1.65
1997 popular in Southeast Asia. closes ten years later. Image
billion.
A social circles and video hosts Flickr and
network, Vimeo launch.
SixDegrees opens
but closes four
years later.
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 209

expansions. By March 2015, Facebook claimed to have 1.44 billion active monthly
users worldwide, which makes it the largest social-networking site in the world.
Facebook’s rapid rise in popularity led to frequent media reports of potential
buyouts from larger media companies, such as Microsoft. Despite these reports,
Facebook launched its initial public offering (IPO) in May 2012, the largest in In-
ternet history, valued at its peak at $104 billion.
Although Facebook remains the most popular social-networking site, two dif-
ferent reports in 2014 caused some alarm at Facebook and among investors. Both
reports stated that fewer teens were using Facebook than in previous years, down
to 88 percent in 2014 from 95 percent in 2012.17 Most companies would not worry
about such a small dip, especially with so many users, but some wonder if the de-
cline could be the beginning of a long-term trend in which the coveted teen market
moves elsewhere for their social-networking needs.
The launch of Google+ in June 2011 was Google’s effort to compete with
Facebook. Despite Google’s dominance as a search engine and its growing number

2008 2010
Facebook overtakes Google’s fourth social- 2014
MySpace in Alexa networking effort, Ello launches, designed as
rankings as Google+, becomes an alternative to sites that
MySpace

2014
available. advertise and that sell user
membership data, particularly Facebook,
continues to 2012 which claims 2.2 billion
decline. Facebook tops 1 users worldwide in July.
billion users.

2009 2011
Local search and discovery
mobile app Foursquare
Pinterest launches, allowing 2013
users to share images, known Acquired by microblogger
launches.
as pins; Snapchat launches, Twitter, short-form video
allowing users to share photos service Vine launches. Free
or videos, known as snaps. mobile app Yik Yak becomes
MySpace sells for an estimated available, allowing users to
$35 million, 6 percent of its create and respond to
purchase price in 2005. anonymous “yaks” within a
ten-mile radius.
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of online services, Google+ remains far behind in terms of active users, with only
about 9 percent of Google+’s 2.2 billion profiles having posted anything on
Google+, according to one analyst.18
Many other social-networking sites have sprung up since 2003, some focusing
on professional interests, such as LinkedIn; topic interests, such as Dogster; media
or image sharing, such as Pinterest, Flickr, and Instagram; and location-based in-
terests, such as Foursquare and Loopt. Launched in late 2014 with ninety people
on its network, Ello, whose manifesto promises never to sell advertising or user
data, claimed less than a year later to have millions of followers. Some have de-
scribed Ello as the anti-Facebook, a moniker supported by the defection of many

TABLE 71 Most Popular Social-Networking Sites*

RANK SITE UNIQUE VISITORS

1
900,000,000

2
310,000,000

3
255,000,000

4
250,000,000

5
120,000,000

6
110,000,000

7
100,000,000

8
80,000,000

9 65,000,000

10 42,000,000

Source: eBizMBA, http://www.ebizmba.com/articles/social-networking-websites.

*As of May 1, 2015
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 211

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
Are We Really Separated by Six Degrees?
We’ve all met someone with whom we realized we share a Although Milgram never used the term “six degrees
coincidental mutual friend or a similar experience, such as at- of separation,” it was popularized in a 1984 play of the same
tending the same school or belonging to the same fraternity name that also referenced his experiment. The notion
or sorority. For scientists who study social networks, these became even more widespread with “Six Degrees of Kevin
amazing coincidences are precisely what make Bacon,” a game that calculates the de-
social networks important. grees of separation of various actors from
The number and type of our social con- Kevin Bacon. This can easily be done
nections can greatly affect our opportunities in through the Oracle of Kevin Bacon web-
life. If we have a robust social network of people site, which uses the Internet Movie Data-
who likewise have robust social networks (not base as its source.
identical to ours), then we are better able reach Surprisingly, even long-dead actors
people in those other networks through our are connected with Kevin Bacon or with
friends. For example, if I want a publisher to famous people who are not professional
consider my novel, knowing an editor at the actors but who have appeared in docu-
publishing house who can recommend the mentaries or movies. This makes sense if
manuscript may help it get serious attention. you consider the actors gathered on a
A popular pop-culture theory claims that movie set as a small world, a social net-
everybody in the world is connected by no work of tight connections, people who
more than six degrees, or six links in a network. get to know one another while filming
The number of connections or links between and then get to know a large number of
you and the U.S. president is theoretically no more than six. other actors, who then go on to make other movies with dif-
The notion that everyone in the world is separated by no ferent actors.
more than six degrees gained public attention through a Although finding an actor or actress separated from
“small world” experiment conducted by psychologist Stanley Bacon by more than even five degrees is difficult, he is actu-
Milgram in the 1950s. Milgram sent copies of letters to people ally not the most connected Hollywood actor. Both John
in the Midwest and asked them to send the letter to the Carradine and Robert Mitchum had far more connections
person they thought would most likely be able to forward it than Bacon. If you know someone listed in the Internet Movie
to a certain lawyer living in Boston. Out of the forty-two let- Database, then you can see that person’s Bacon number and
ters that reached the lawyer’s home, the average number of simply add one more (your link to that person) to see how
links was nearly six, although the range was quite large. closely connected you are to Kevin Bacon.

six degrees of separation

Notion that everyone in the world
is separated from all other
members of the LGBT community from FB to Ello due to safety concerns about individuals by at most six additional
Facebook’s requirement for real names on user profiles. nodes in a social network.
In addition to seeking out social news about friends on these networking sites,
many seek out local and world news about events and issues. According to a 2014 small world
Pew study, social media are reshaping news, especially on Facebook, a pathway to Tight-knit social network with
news for 30 percent of the general population, most commonly about entertain- many strong ties.
ment. Sixty-two percent of Reddit users get news from the site, yet this translates
to only 2 percent of the general population. (See Figure 7-1.) Users are less likely,
though, to follow current events as they unfold on Facebook, unlike Twitter, where
many turn for breaking news.
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FIGURE 71 Social Media as a Pathway to News:

Facebook Leads the Way
Percent of U.S. adults who use each social networking site and percent
of U.S. adults who get news from each social networking site

Use site
64% 51

Facebook Get news YouTube

on site
30%
10

19 16
Linkedln Twitter
8
3

14
Pinterest 15 Google Plus
4

12
Instagram Myspace 5
1
1

4
Tumblr Vine 3
1

3
reddit 2

Note: The percent of U.S. adults who get news on Pinterest and Vine each amount
to less than 1 percent.
Aug. 21-Sept. 2, 2013
Source: "News Use Across Social Media Platforms," Pew Research Center, Washington, DC (November, 2013)
http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/09/24/how-social-media-is-reshaping-news/

Pew also found that reading news on these sites does not necessarily pro-
mote sharing opinions about what was read. A 2014 Pew survey on social media
and the spiral of silence, for example, discovered that people were less willing to
discuss the NSA-Snowden story on the public forum of social media than in
person. If, however, Facebook users felt their followers or online community
agreed with their position, they were about twice as likely to join a FB discussion
group on the topic.

Producers and Produsers

Throughout most of the twentieth century, media companies used technology to
address audiences as masses. How many viewers a television show could boast
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 213

determined advertising rates. Magazine and newspaper ads were priced according
to their circulation. Records and movies were made according to which ones would
likely draw the biggest audiences or sales. It didn’t matter if most subscribers to a
newspaper did not read the whole paper—in fact, there was no way to measure
easily whether they even read it; claiming a certain circulation was enough. It was
irrelevant if most of a television show’s viewing audience went to the refrigerator
during commercials.
All this began to change with the Internet and social media. Now companies
could track audience behavior with more detail than ever before, all without in-
stalling special tracking devices, asking the audience to fill out forms or a keep a
diary, or other intrusive measures. They could see what audiences were watching
and doing when they interacted with media. Such tracking produced massive
amounts of data and raised the problem of how to analyze such large data sets.
This growth in big data has spawned entirely new businesses to tackle the data, big data
figuring out what is relevant and what is not, and discovering ways to visualize A collection of data sets too large
and explain the data so that they can be used. for traditional analytic techniques
What media companies saw when looking at the data did not make them to sort, analyze, and visualize.
happy. Nor did it make advertisers happy. A website could claim to get 2 million
page views a month, but the same technology that let them state that with accu-
racy also told advertisers that only a fraction of 1 percent of the viewers clicked on
their banner ads, and an even tinier portion acted as desired by buying a product
from the advertiser’s website.
Further, the kind of fragmentation of audiences already seen to some extent
with the rise of specialized magazines and cable television channels accelerated
with the Internet. Businesses that relied on mass audiences were now able to
better watch their audiences, but unfortunately, they were watching those audi-
ences shrink.
Although many more media choices for people caused much of the audience
fragmentation, at least part of it was also due to the fact that audience members
could now talk to each other and create their own media content. Even worse, they
could talk back to traditional media producers in a public forum such as the Web.
That might help some shows become hits, but it also meant that negative senti-
ment from the public could keep potential viewers away.
If audiences were active, then advertisers wanted to see the audience actually
do something useful for them, like buying their products or at least visiting their
websites or registering to get email newsletters. New technologies enabled compa-
nies to track and record all these kinds of activities, but they also created a need
for new kinds of measurement metrics that could capture the dynamics of audi-
ence interaction more accurately.
As discussed in Chapter 1, some of the biggest changes taking place among
the three types of convergence have to do with how media are being used differ-
ently and the implications for media-company business models that assumed a
passive audience. Traditional audiences were seen largely as passive consumers by
the mass-media companies that created content to sell to them. The audience
might consume media in the form of programs, books, or music, or buy products
advertised through various media channels.
Of course, people were not as passive as that relationship would indicate; but
until the Internet, and especially social media, the chances for people to choose,
create, and “talk back” to producers were extremely limited. Now, however, people
have the tools to talk back, and many are doing so. What’s more, they are not only
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talking back but simply ignoring the traditional producers

and talking to each other. Audiences are shifting from
simply being consumers of media content to what media
scholar Axel Bruns calls produsers,19 although others use
the term “prosumers” or just “users.”
This complex relationship dynamic is not easily de-
fined. “Prosumer” still seems to emphasize consumption,
almost like a professional consumer or kind of über-
consumer. Similarly, “user” does not capture the sense of
creation or production, an important element of the social
media landscape.
Consumption in one form or another still predomi-
nates. Not everyone is (or wants to be) a producer of media
content. But to contribute to the larger conversations
taking place—to add something, however small, that helps
create a greater whole—is easier than ever before. Posting
Media scholar Axel Bruns uses the term “produsers” to describe today’s a link to a worthwhile website or blog that others on a dis-
audiences as both consumers and producers of media content. cussion board may have never heard of is a form of media
production, collaboration, and knowledge sharing that
should not be downplayed as nonproductive or unimportant, especially on a large
produsers
scale.
Audiences who no longer are Furthermore, people do not have to contribute to feel like they are part of a
simply consumers but also produce community; it may be enough for many to see that others feel the way they do,
content.
connecting them to something larger. We see this sense of activism and commu-
nity in some of the mass protests that have taken place, especially in countries
such as Egypt during the Arab Spring. Social media help people realize there are
others—sometimes many others—who share their thoughts and feelings while
providing informal media channels to express views publicly and to organize
actions.

REPUTATION, RATINGS, AND TRUST

The change in audiences from consumers to produsers has had a powerful ripple
effect, not only on business models but on many social factors. In the traditional-
media world, we could rely on certain established brands to give us certain things.
The Wall Street Journal or the New York Times delivered a kind of content that the
National Enquirer did not, and we learned what to expect.
Today, that has changed. Although the traditional brands still (for the most
part) retain their meanings for us, it is more difficult than ever to determine
whether to trust information from unknown sources. How do we know that the
Amazon book review we are considering was not written by someone paid for a
glowing assessment or by the author’s mother? How do we know that a Wikipedia
entry about a prominent figure was not posted by some avid fan, highlighting only
positive information and ignoring past scandals? How do we know that the blog
about childhood diabetes is not the work of a pharmaceutical company trying to
promote their drug?
These and other issues are all extremely important in today’s media world;
hence the importance of critical thinking and media literacy. Issues of trust and
reputation become vital in figuring out what information we can believe. Ratings
systems that rank the usefulness of a review or comment help us make that
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 215

decision. But the question also arises whether the raters are trustworthy or not.
This is where social networks can be useful, for we generally trust friends or people
we have let into our social networks and are more likely to listen to what they say
or recommend. This is one reason word-of-mouth marketing (or buzz market- word-of-mouth
ing) has become so important for advertisers. Ratings systems as a measure of marketing
gauging trust will develop and become more important in our social media land- Marketing that takes place among
scape, but some thorny ethical and legal questions have arisen as well. customers through discussions
One big legal concern is figuring out who owns user-generated content on with one another.
social media sites. If someone decides to write a book based on discussions taken
from a site such as The WELL, using extended passages of actual discussions, is
this a breach of copyright? How should the poster be compensated, if at all? Is
permission needed to use the post or an excerpt of it? If so, how much is fair use
and how much is an infringement of intellectual property? These are just some of
the issues that social media sites will have to wrestle with in the future.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: What policies should be adopted regarding content on discus-

sion forums? Should the people who post own the content they have posted, or should
the site hosting the content own it—or should it be there for the taking by anyone? Explain
your reasoning and identify who should be responsible for content that is libelous or po-
tentially harmful.

PRIVACY
Norms for privacy are also changing. For many people older than Millennials,
making so much of one’s life public through posting photos, discussing one’s
thoughts or desires on a blog, or sharing other highly personal information online
feels strange. There is a sense that much of that is nobody else’s business or that
information should be shared only with a select group of people one knows and
trusts.
This “living publicly” generally does not seem to bother Millennials, yet many
feel their privacy has been invaded when they learn that an employer is raising
questions about material found on a social-networking site. Most employers today
do Google searches of job applicants and examine social-networking profiles if
they can, making decisions about who will be called for an interview accordingly.
Some potential employers even insist on access to applicants’ Facebook profiles.
The goofy profile picture of you partying at your college may be hilarious to your
friends on Facebook but not so amusing to a potential employer trying to gauge
how you may represent the company.
Facebook has landed in hot water frequently over its policies that invade users’
privacy or that threaten to do so. In 2012 Facebook revealed that more than 83
million of their accounts might be fake, news that apparently caused company
stock to drop to new lows. In an effort to address this security issue (and presum-
ably any attendant financial fallout), Facebook later began enforcing its policy of
real names for user profiles to promote identity “authenticity,” deactivating ac-
counts with names they deemed fake. Unfortunately, this did not make the FB
community safer for all its members. To the contrary, this move heightened the
dangers for individuals in certain vulnerable or at-risk groups who rely on ano-
nymity for security, most notably the LGBT community and survivors of domestic
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abuse. Some Native Americans argued this policy has also hurt them, resulting in
the deactivation of accounts with real or legal names that did not appear to meet
Facebook standards.
A program launched in 2010 called Instant Personalization allows sites such
as Yelp, Pandora, and Microsoft Docs to access what Facebook defines as public
information (your name, your picture, your gender, your location, your friends,
and all your likes) unless you opt out of it. However, even if you do opt out, if a
friend has not opted out, then these sites may still access your information
through the friend. Pandora uses the information on music likes, for example, to
recommend songs to you based on genre similarities. Although some people may
like this easy personalization, others see it as an invasion of privacy.
In 2012, Facebook paid a $20 million settlement in a class action lawsuit for
using users’ Likes in their Sponsored Stories features without first getting their
permission. The settlement affected 125 million Facebook users. Facebook was
also threatened with a lawsuit for putting users’ photos in ads without permis-
sion. In 2014, Facebook made it easier to change its notoriously confusing privacy
settings and made some minor moves toward improving users’ privacy.
There are many temptations for companies such as Facebook and Zynga, the
maker of FarmVille (which tracked Facebook users even when they left Facebook,
before the relationship between Facebook and FarmVille ended), to invade users’
privacy by tracking their online behavior. The data collected are immensely valu-
able to marketers trying to figure out how best to tap certain markets—especially
the lucrative eighteen-to-thirty-four demographic. For many companies, the
wealth of data on user behavior they can obtain—and sell—is simply too great to
resist, even if it is an invasion of privacy. Facebook jealously guards the data it col-
lects on its members, working out deals with advertisers to provide them with the
kind of information they want.
The online advertising industry has been promoting a “do not track” option
for users, which would let users state they do not want their online interactions
tracked by advertisers. However, while the industry claims to promote such a
system, they are also attempting to make the option nonbinding and therefore
essentially ineffective.
Companies that are bought by other companies or that go out of business have
databases of registered users and online activity that could provide very valuable
information. When users registered with a site, however, they likely did not con-
sider that their personal data and on-site behavior might at some point end up in
the hands of a different company with less stringent privacy policies.
Now that anybody can essentially be a publisher with her or his own website,
private individuals can more easily and unwillingly be thrust into the public eye.
With the ubiquity of camera phones and small video cameras, revenge porn, in
which former partners post nude or sexually explicit photos of their exes, has
been a growing problem. Although still not illegal in many states, twenty-seven
states have either passed or introduced laws making revenge porn illegal; and
some members of Congress have promised to write a bill to make it illegal
nationwide.
What ethical principles should media companies and the general public follow
in deciding whether to post or publish material? Companies often have profes-
sional codes of conduct or codes of ethics, but no such general code yet exists for
the public publishing content. Journalists often cite the public’s “right to know” as
a guiding principle when weighing ethical issues regarding publishing a story
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 217

damaging to someone. Yet it is hard to say that the right to know outweighs some-
one’s right to privacy when publishing a nude picture of an ex-girlfriend or when
making defamatory claims about someone on a blog. The law tends to protect
social-networking sites and websites, not holding them liable for what members
post on the sites, which gives the sites little incentive to police their content.
Despite the valid concerns raised about privacy here, we can see that anonym-
ity can be even more damaging in some cases. The Yik Yak app lets people post
comments anonymously within a ten-mile radius. Yik Yak has caused problems at
universities, as students have been victimized by vicious comments, and some
students have used it to share test answers with other sections.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider your own time spent on Facebook. Have you found
yourself using it less than you used to? Why? What are you using to stay connected instead
of Facebook?

TRANSPARENCY
Even supposedly tech-savvy companies leading the social media revolution seem
regularly to make blunders similar to traditional-media companies regarding the
new audience dynamics, as the Facebook Sponsored Stories example shows.
Companies creating faux viral videos or fake grassroots blogs, a practice called
astroturfing, are often punished in the court of public opinion once their machi- astroturfing
nations are exposed. Sudden shifts in privacy policies, either unannounced or an- Creating a movement controlled by
nounced inadequately, have produced similar audience backlash. a large organization or group
Facebook learned this the hard way in early 2009 when a change in their pri- designed to look like a citizen-
founded, grassroots campaign.
vacy policy, which had been made a few weeks earlier but went unnoticed by the
general public, stated that Facebook would own the rights to user-generated con-
tent on the site, including posted photos. Publicized by a consumer interest group,
the change elicited immediate and immense outrage, including a threat by the
Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) to file a complaint with the FTC.
Facebook quickly reversed the policy and cre-
ated a group of users to discuss future privacy-
policy changes—apparently to little avail, given
their subsequent privacy problems just a few
years later. Other companies should note these
actions and reactions, emblematic of the shifting
power dynamic between companies and the
public. It would have been far better had Face-
book created such a group in the first place rather
than only after receiving complaints. Further, Fa-
cebook’s own customers used the very tools that
helped make Facebook so popular to organize
against the company.
The need for transparency is becoming in- During the manhunt that followed the Boston Marathon bombings in April 2013,
creasingly important with social media—a fact someone created a fake Twitter account for the suspect Dzhokhar Tsarnaev. The
that individuals and organizations forget or account posted threatening messages to the police. It was exposed as fake, but not
before being retweeted, picked up by police scanners, and reported on by the
ignore at their peril. Yet transparency often un- media. Such fakes can cause harm by diverting police attention and resources
dermines corporate strategy making and during a crisis.
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planning because companies do not want to reveal secrets to competitors. Even

when business strategy is not involved, what seems like harmless jokes sent by
email between colleagues can damage reputations and brands if those emails
appear on the Web.
Fake Twitter accounts can be quite funny, but they have also caused a great
deal of confusion when it becomes unclear if an account is fake or not. Phweeters
(phony tweeters) have also crossed the lines of good taste when falsely reporting
deaths, such as in 2009 when someone faked a journalist’s Twitter account and
reported the death of Cincinnati Bengals wide receiver Chris Henry twelve hours
before he actually died after falling off a truck. Some news organizations picked
up the tweet and reported it as news without first checking the validity of the
account.
On July 4, 2011, Fox News claimed its Twitter account had been hacked when
a tweet falsely reported that President Obama had been assassinated. A little over
a month earlier, Representative Anthony Weiner (D-NY) claimed that his Twitter
account had been hacked when one of his followers received lewd pictures of a man
in boxer shorts. In Weiner’s case, however, it turned out that he had actually been
taking indecent pictures of himself and sending them to some followers he was
flirting with online. The subsequent scandal forced Weiner, who is married, to
resign.
Transparency is starting to be built into some ratings and review systems.
Reviewers can state how long they have had a product, for example, which helps
readers gauge if the glowing review is about a product just out of the box or one
that has been used for a while.
The balancing act between privacy, transparency, and mining the rich data-
bases of compiled data from user interactions will continue to affect social-
networking sites. As a struggle about the rights of consumers versus business
interests, it raises this question: Who will watch the watchers? As we will see next,
that is not the only struggle we face in a social media world.

Social Media: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly

Every new medium has its share of detractors, and the complaints over the ages
are surprisingly similar. Real or perceived damage to youth ethics, attitudes, and
beliefs is one typical complaint, as is how the new media make us dumber. The
Internet and social media have not been immune to this, nor have other digital
media, such as video games.

ARE SOCIAL MEDIA MAKING US LESS SOCIAL?

In this book, we have discussed various ways that people have been able to become
more involved in media production and collaborate with each other on any number
of issues, ranging from traditional politics to social activism. However, a deeper
consideration of how we use social media raises questions. Are all your “friends”
on Facebook really your friends? How do you differentiate between Facebook
“friends” and friends you actually regularly see or talk to? Using the term “friend”
to refer to people one has never talked to directly or met face to face stretches the
definition of the word and can produce problems.
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 219

Consider what happens when friendship becomes romance online. In January

2013, the website Deadspin broke a story that tarnished not only mainstream
sports news organizations but the reputation of one of college football’s biggest
stars. Notre Dame linebacker Manti Te’o was a media darling throughout the 2012
college football season, especially with his heartbreaking story about his girlfriend
getting injured in a car accident and then later dying of cancer.
The only trouble was, there was no girlfriend. It was all an elaborate hoax
played on Te’o, although when exactly he learned of the hoax and how long he kept
silent about it remain open questions. The mainstream sports news journalists,
perhaps to cover their own embarrassment at not doing adequate research, ac-
cused him of concocting the story to win sympathy. It seemed to defy belief that
someone could claim a person was a girlfriend when their only communication
was online.
By expanding our ability to communicate and be social even when not actually
present, social media have made developing and maintaining relationships more catfish
complex, especially romantic relationships. The issue has entered pop culture, as
Someone who fakes an online
seen by MTV’s show Catfish. The show arranges meetings between people in rela- profile, usually to encourage
tionships who have communicated only online. A catfish is someone who fakes an another to fall in love with the false
online profile, usually to get someone else to fall in love with the fake persona. persona.

ETHICS IN MEDIA
Cyberbullying: New Twists on an Old Problem
Bullying is, unfortunately, not a new problem, and it is hard to online social network
prove that the rise in popularity of social media has increased rather than simply whis-
its frequency. What these communication tools have done, pered to a few close
however, is make bullying more public and reduce bullies’ friends. Other types of
inhibitions by offering anonymity. At the same time, social cyberbullying are more
media have increased public awareness of how widespread subtle. Sending frequent
bullying actually is and how damaging it can be to a young text messages or making
person’s self-esteem. repeated phone calls is a
Hurtful words formerly spoken in a school hallway can type of harassment every
now be written down and posted on social networks, encour- bit as damaging and anxi-
aging other nasty comments, as this story from a 12-year-old ety producing as more
Colorado girl demonstrates: blatant forms of bullying.
Some teens have
I posted a picture of myself on Instagram and people
killed themselves after
started commenting these awful things like “Eww ur
being bullied on social
so ugly” “Why don’t you go kill urslef everyone would
media. Education experts
be happier that way” And I KNOW these people . . .
understand that social
they go to my school. I cried for a good 2 hours. But
media are not causing
this wasn’t the first time this has happened on all my
the bullying, but they are
pictures at least 3 people say something like that. I’m
giving teens and others
never going on Instagram again. I wish I could disap-
a much wider platform to show the worst sides of human
pear so I don’t I have to go to school.20
nature as they struggle with forming their identities, build-
Many stories are similarly heartbreaking. Secrets can ing relationships, and learning to communicate in the
be exposed and broadcast to hundreds of peers in an modern world.
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Scholars have recently asked hard questions about how we actually use social
media. For example, a 2011 study looked at how college students defined the term
“hooking up” and found no consensus among students as to what it meant, other
than it involved some sort of face-to-face, as opposed to exclusively online, en-
counter.21 Hooking up could mean everything from simply meeting for drinks or
dinner to kissing to intercourse. What’s more, the ambiguity of the term was
thought to preserve some sense of privacy that helped give women the same kinds
of power that men normally enjoy in our society.
The MTV reality show Catfish helps In her book Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from
people in online relationships find out if
their partner is who he or she claims to
Each Other, MIT Professor Sherry Turkle examines how in many ways technology
be. has separated us from one another. It gives us the illusion of greater connections
and communication but actually makes us emotionally lazy and able to disengage
from relationships easily. According to Turkle, young people are not the only ones
to blame. Parents may send harmful social signals to their children by being phys-
ically but not emotionally present as they continually check their mobile phones
and respond to texts or messages. In 2012, one company executive, tired of the
barrage of emails, banned all internal emails for one week, forcing people either to
meet face to face or to phone each other. He noted that he was better able to focus
on big projects without the constant, distracting interruption of email.22
A Pew Research Center study in 2014 revealed that 67 percent of Internet
users in the United States say that online communications with family and friends
have strengthened their relations, with only 18 percent saying it has weakened
them. Whether this is actually the case, or a matter of self-delusion along the lines
of what Turkle has found, continues to be a matter of great debate.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Download an app like Checky, which counts how many times
you check your phone or tablet a day, and compare your numbers for the past few days
with your classmates. What, if anything, does this tell you about how much you rely on
your phone?

ARE SOCIAL MEDIA MAKING US DUMBER?

Scholars have looked at the effect of the Internet and social media on our levels of
knowledge and ways of thinking. A growing body of evidence suggests that despite
the unprecedented breadth and depth of information available on the Internet,
today’s young people are more ignorant than ever before about subjects such as
politics or history. Many seem to feel that they do not need to remember informa-
tion because they can always find it online.
In the book The Dumbest Generation, Emory University English professor
Mark Bauerlein chronicles case after case and numerous studies that indicate
American teens and young adults today demonstrate a worrisome lack of intel-
lectual curiosity and a dearth of knowledge about the world in general. They
spend much of their time on social media, mostly communicating about mun-
dane issues with each other and making sure they keep their circles of friends.
They have far more knowledge of pop culture than of politics, and they see noth-
ing wrong with the belief that pop culture is more important than politics.
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 221

Bauerlein states that less than 30 percent could say what Reconstruction was, and
in 2008, when the book came out, less than a quarter could identify Dick Cheney,
vice president at the time.
While Bauerlein highlights some bleak findings about social media and politi-
cal apathy, social media has also driven some recent political participation among
young voters. As we will see in Chapter 13, Barack Obama’s 2008 and 2012 presi-
dential campaigns used social media to build and coordinate a nationwide volun-
teer network. Strong support among previously unengaged young people played
an instrumental role in Obama’s victories.
A more significant concern is whether heavy Internet and social media use are
physically rewiring our brains and making us think differently. A 2007 UCLA
study that examined the cognitive differences between heavy and light multitask-
ers found that heavy multitaskers—those who typically had multiple web browser
tabs open, who frequently checked status updates, and who posted updates
themselves—performed more poorly on memory and task tests than the light
multitaskers.
Exploring these instances further, subsequent studies supported the early
evidence that social media use makes it harder for people to concentrate on longer
or more complex tasks and that social media users tend to get distracted more
easily by trivial matters and not understand or remember more important mate-
rial. The “always-on” nature of social media and mobile devices creates anxiety
when away from social media and a need to always “be present” by commenting to
others when connected.
A 2014 study titled “The Invisible Addiction:
Cellphone Activities and Addiction among Male and
Female College Students” found that college women
reported spending an average of ten hours a day on
their cell phones, while college men spend an aver-
age of seven and a half hours a day. The most fre-
quent activity is texting, taking nearly 95 minutes a
day, followed by emailing at 49 minutes a day and
checking Facebook at 39 minutes a day.
The public has a world of information at its fin-
gertips through the Internet, yet ironically, people
often squander their greater communicative power
on pop culture trivia and an incessant need to keep
in contact with others. The discovery of information
online does not necessarily equate with the acquisi-
tion of knowledge, and in fact, we may express less
interest in actual learning because we feel that we
can always just look something up.
People who have difficulty focusing their atten-
tion and who lack interest in politics may have diffi-
culty acting as informed citizens of a democracy.
A  perpetually distracted public is easily led—and
misled—because people lose the ability to think crit-
Growing research shows that heavy social media users are less able to
ically and question (or even recognize) abuses of concentrate and tend to get distracted by trivial issues. Yet social media also
power. connect people with the wider world and can enhance self-esteem.
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The fact that we may not always use social media wisely does not mean that
social media themselves are bad. They can be used to learn more about the world
or to improve one’s skills, such as with online training and free or low-cost online
courses. They can help us socialize, organize, create, and collaborate in ways
never before seen, just as they can isolate and alienate if used to excess or
inappropriately.

MEDIA CAREERS

With the rise in popularity of social media, companies of all kinds—not just media
companies—have realized they too need to be where their customers are. Al-
though companies often continue to see social media as simply another media
channel, savvy organizations understand that social media bring their own ways
of speaking and acting that differ from traditional media channels in which com-
panies essentially controlled their messages to a largely silent (and presumably
passive) audience.
Two new job titles have been created that did not exist several years ago, and
the level of confusion as to what each does is emblematic of the ever-changing and
chaotic world that is social media. Social media managers are responsible for the
brand on social media; they join in social media conversations, respond to com-
ments, create content, and generally act as the brand itself. They are also involved
in strategizing and planning for the brand through various social media, whose
performance they also analyze.
Community managers, on the other hand, are responsible for advocating for
the brand on social media, trying to reach people who are not familiar with it. A
community manager develops a persona as an individual, not as the brand itself,
and promotes the brand through social media conversations. Much of a commu-
nity manager’s time is spent simply participating in conversations online about
the brand and monitoring blogs or other social media sites where the brand is
being discussed. Both job types are well suited to graduates in English and com-
munications, given the emphasis on communicating to others in a natural and
conversational way.

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

Like much of new media, social media actually have firm roots and influences in
many aspects of old media, although in this case the term “old” refers more to the
earliest days of PCs and the Internet than to radio, TV, or print media. Even so, the
changes that social media have brought in a relatively short time have enduring
implications for culture, business, and society that researchers are only beginning
to explore.
One of the biggest changes, discussed throughout this book, is the difference
in the relationship between media producers and consumers. Even without the
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 223

large marketing and promotion budgets of major media companies, average people
have been able to create content that has been seen, heard, or read by millions or
even tens of millions of people worldwide.
Thanks to social-networking sites, the networks formed through online com-
munication have become ever more visible and empowering. Numerous projects
have demonstrated what can be accomplished when many work willingly together,
efforts that can benefit even greater numbers of people. Wikipedia is one such
project.
Perhaps even more significant over the long term, however, is how social
media have encouraged people to create and share knowledge structures, not
just knowledge. Sometimes-heated discussions in forums expose participants
to different viewpoints and attitudes. People in collaborative projects must
come to some sort of understanding or agreement, thus modifying what is
written to satisfy everyone. Although such exposure may not change our be-
liefs, it may broaden our perspective and make us more willing to accept other
positions.
Curation, such as tagging information or reviewing products or media con-
tent, also allows us to share knowledge structures or ways of looking at the world.
Providing information about information can reflect worldviews just as accurately
as direct comments on a discussion board. A user who tags a photo of fighting in
Syria as “genocide” may suddenly see connections to other photos with the same
tag and learn of past incidents elsewhere.
Following the actions of many users who are collaborating without even
knowing it by using automated systems can yield amazing results. One example is
Google flu trends, which uses aggregated data of search terms in the popular
search engine to predict flu outbreaks up to two weeks earlier than traditional
methods.
Of course, the social media tools available are only as good as the way they are
used. Arguably, a community of sorts exists around even frivolous sites, but its
value to all but a few may be questionable. Simply because we now have the tools
does not mean we will always use them productively or efficiently.
Media companies are struggling to adapt to the world of social media, with
mixed success. Companies not willing to give up control of their messages are
having more difficulty than those receptive to engaging in the conversational
chaos that is social media. Of bigger concern to companies, though, is how to earn
revenues from all this incessant chatter, conversations often based on content the
companies have spent money to create.
There are no easy answers to this question. Popular social-networking sites
are sitting on a gold mine of user data gleaned simply from the interactions and
behaviors of active users, data that advertisers are quite willing to pay for to
better target consumers. However, the high degree of surveillance we have
today does raise important questions about user rights and privacy. Some in-
dustries may find it easier to adapt to or to shape the social media landscape in
ways that benefit them, while others may be facing a future in which their pro-
fession or industry as currently practiced is barely recognizable in ten or twenty
years.
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MEDIA MATTERS HOW CONNECTED ARE YOU?

1. Estimate how much time you spend per day on more social. Agree or disagree with this
social media, via mobile phone, computer, or assertion, and defend your argument.
tablet. Which device do you typically use for 4. When considering a movie, TV series, or book,
social media? Do you use social media more or would you be more persuaded by a review
less often than your friends? from the New York Times, Rotten Tomatoes,
2. What is the longest time you have been your school paper, or a Facebook friend with
without access to social media? How did you whom you have interacted only casually once
feel when you were not connected? Did your or twice? What factors would influence your
patterns of social media use change afterward? decision?
3. Some researchers have claimed that social
media use has made us more isolated, not

FURTHER READING

Social Media: A Critical Introduction. Christian Fuchs (2013) Sage.

Socialnomics: How Social Media Transforms the Way We Live and Do Business, 2nd ed. Erik Qualman
(2013) Wiley.
Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything. Don Tapscott, Anthony Williams (2008)
Portfolio.
The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom. Yochai Benkler
(2006) Yale University Press.
Infotopia: How Many Minds Produce Knowledge. Cass Sunstein (2006) Oxford University Press.
Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations. Clay Shirky (2008) Penguin
Press.
Cognitive Surplus: How Technology Makes Consumers into Collaborators. Clay Shirky (2011) Penguin
Press.
How Open Is the Future? Economic, Social & Cultural Scenarios Inspired by Free & Open-Source Soft-
ware. Marleen Wynants, Jan Cornelis (eds.) (2005) VUB: Brussels University Press.
The Wisdom of Crowds. James Surowiecki (2005) Anchor Press.
Perspectives on Free and Open-Source Software. Joseph Feller, Brian Fitzgerald, Scott Hissam, Karim
Lakhani (eds.) (2007) MIT Press.
The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World’s Greatest Encyclopedia.
Andrew Lih (2009) Hyperion.
Wiki Government: How Technology Can Make Government Better, Democracy Stronger, and Citizens
More Powerful. Beth Simone Noveck (2010) Brookings Institution Press.
The Future of Ideas: The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World. Lawrence Lessig (2001) Random
House.
 CHAPTER 7 >> THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA 225

Remix: Making Art and Commerce Thrive in the Hybrid Economy. Lawrence Lessig (2008) Penguin
Press.
Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and Beyond: From Production to Produsage. Axel Bruns (2008) Peter
Lang.
Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work, and Think. Viktor Mayer-Schonberger,
Kenneth Cukier (2013) Eamon Dolan/Houghton Mifflin.
Audience Evolution: New Technologies and the Transformation of Media Audiences. Philip M. Napoli
(2010) Columbia University Press.
Groundswell: Winning in a World Transformed by Social Technologies. Charlene Li, Josh Bernoff
(2008) Harvard Business School Press.
Tribes: We Need You to Lead Us. Seth Godin (2008) Portfolio.
Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected Age. Duncan Watts (2004) W. W. Norton.
Cyber Bullying: Protecting Teens and Adults from Online Bullies. Samuel McQuade III, James Colt,
Nancy Meyer (2009) Praeger.
To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism. Evgeny Morozov (2014) Public
Affairs.
Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other. Sherry Turkle
(2012) Basic Books.
The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future
(Or, Don’t Trust Anyone Under 30). Mark Bauerlein (2009) Tarcher.
The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains. Nicholas Carr (2011) W. W. Norton.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

228 What Is News?

230 The Historical
Development of
Journalism
236 Foundations of
Journalism
239 From Event to Public Eye:
How News Is Created
243 Types of Journalism
248 Journalism in the Digital
World
252 The Business of
Journalism
 8

Journalism
FROM INFORMATION TO
PARTICIPATION

S
ocial and digital media continue to transform the world of journalism LEARNING OBJECTIVES
as an increasingly prominent vehicle for quality news and information.
In 2010, ProPublica was the first not-for-profit online news operation >> Describe journalism and its
awarded a Pulitzer Prize.1 In April 2012, the Huffington Post became the role in mass communication
first commercial news website and blog to win. 2 Founded by Arianna and society.
Huffington, Kenneth Lerer, Andrew Breitbart, and Jonah Peretti, the Huffington >> Outline important historical
Post launched on May 9, 2005, as a fully digital, U.S.-based, for-profit operation. developments in journalism
It provides original news, online commentary, and aggregated content from that affect how it is practiced
today.
other sites on a wide spectrum of subjects including politics, business, enter-
tainment, lifestyle, culture, and comedy. >> Discuss journalism today,
The Huffington Post received a Pulitzer for national reporting for an original series including different types, and
the effects of convergence.
on wounded veterans. In “Beyond the Battlefield,”3 experienced war correspondent
David Wood explores “the challenges that severely wounded veterans of Iraq and >> Outline legal and ethical issues
in the practice of journalism,
Afghanistan face after they return home, as well as what those struggles mean for
particularly ethical issues in
those close to them.” Debuting online, the ten-part series was subsequently ex-
the digital world.
panded and republished for Kindle and iBook.
>> Explain some aspects of the
The Huffington Post has evolved and matured since its introduction as largely an
business of journalism and
alternative to conservative online news such as the Drudge Report. In February 2011, how they affect the practice of
AOL acquired the site for $315 million,4 and founder Arianna Huffington became journalism.
editor-in-chief of The Huffington Post Media Group. The Huffington Post effectively >> Examine how convergence is
integrates social media both for reporting and for engaging citizens in an online affecting business models and
news community. Every story encourages readers to follow and participate on Face- careers in journalism.
book, Twitter, Google+, and more.
Upon the death of Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez in 2013, the lead story on
HuffPost featured a one-inch-tall headline in bold red—“He’s Dead”—evoking sen-
sationalist papers of a century ago. Yet the story also exhibited distinctly modern,
digital features. A “scroll-over” of Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez’s picture below
the banner headline provided a “quick read,” a paragraph summary of highlights.
Clicking on the photo or text below accessed the entire story, with multimedia and

227
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interactivity options. Readers could see the total number of social media shares to Face-
book, Twitter, Google+, and email as well as thousands of comments on HuffPost Social
News. Comments were polarized: for example, “Chavez will live forever in the hearts and
minds of his people. The boorish comments of the great unwashed will not survive the
night.” And, “It is about time this man died, too bad it was not at the end of a rope. And the
only thing he cared about was himself.”5 Within a few hours, a new blue headline ap-
peared, “Life After Hugo,” linking to a story speculating on the future of Venezuela. Clearly
the digital era offers journalists new opportunities both to react to a developing story and
to engage with their audience. Along with opportunities come new challenges.
Based in the United Kingdom, The Guardian in 2014 won a Pulitzer Prize for Public
Service for its ground-breaking reporting both online and in print of the revelations of the
secret surveillance program carried out digitally by the U.S. spy agency, the National Secu-
rity Agency (NSA). The Pulitzer was awarded as well to the Washington Post, which was an
international partner in the public service reporting project. This reporting demonstrated
the central role that digital journalism now plays in a contemporary, globalized media age.

News organizations walk a thin line between providing a vital public service and
thriving, or even surviving, as a business. Serving the public good does not pre-
clude pandering to baser tastes for financial gain, and news organizations run as
commercial enterprises have been accused of becoming too cozy with powerful
business and political interests. Some believe the purpose of journalism is to
“comfort the afflicted and afflict the comfortable.” How well it is fulfilling these
roles as public advocate and watchdog remains a topic of debate on print editorial
pages, online discussion boards, and call-in talk shows. This should be viewed as a
sign not of the profession’s inherent failure but, rather, of its enduring importance
in the digital age, where it is not enough simply to inform. Journalism today also
needs to encourage public participation, as attested to by the rise of citizen jour-
nalism and hyperlocal news.
In addition to mobilizing the public, news is integral to three of the four
surveillance main  functions of mass communication: surveillance, correlation, and
Primarily the journalism function
cultural transmission. To a lesser extent, journalism also serves the entertain-
of mass communication, which ment function. And because news consumption or participation is not a civic duty,
provides information about many will engage only if it is an enjoyable leisure activity.
processes, issues, events, and
other developments in society.

correlation What Is News?

Media interpretation ascribing “Man Bites Dog,” an oft-cited headline in introductory journalism classes, suggests
meaning to issues and events that that news becomes news when it is extraordinary. Reporting does indeed embrace
helps individuals understand their
roles within the larger society and
the unexpected. But most news is largely predictable a day, a week, a month, or
culture. sometimes years in advance. Consider the types of news stories about any annual
event, such as advice on holiday shopping or what the stars will be wearing to this
cultural transmission year’s Oscars—a glance at news archives will likely uncover a very similar story the
previous year and the year before that. Stories that affect the public interest also
The process of passing on culturally
relevant knowledge, skills, clearly constitute news: fires, accidents, recent discoveries, and corporate or political
attitudes, and values from person corruption, for example. Several issues arise when examining the nature of news.
to person or group to group. First is the frequent complaint that news dwells too much on the negative—
crime, accidents, wrongdoing, and so forth. Although positive news, such as
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 229

human-interest stories or new business openings, may also be criticized as public

relations pieces that do not adequately address significant concerns, negative
pieces may send a distorted message that things are worse than they actually are.
A focus on events rather than trends amplifies this problem. Although the overall
annual crime rate may be falling, coverage of particular crimes, especially sensa-
tional ones, will still be pervasive. Trends are not as readily accommodated by the
narrative structure of journalism that tends to rely on people, what they did or
had done to them, and the consequences. Trends involve data, which journalism
has not historically presented effectively, although this has improved with the pseudo-events
growth of data-driven reporting and effective graphics, supplemented by individ- Events staged specifically to
ual cases to illustrate a trend. attract media attention,
particularly the news.
Critical media consumers understand that diverse people and particular
forces, notably advertising and public relations, influence and manufacture the
soft news day
news. It doesn’t just happen. Historian and Pulitzer Prize–winning author Daniel
Boorstin describes what he calls pseudo-events, events staged to attract media A day in which not much has
attention and influence news coverage, such as press conferences, marches, and happened that is newsworthy,
entailing the addition of features
rallies. Story selection depends on various factors, including other events that with less real news value, such as
day, the type of news organization, and even the political views of the owner in human-interest stories.
some cases.
On a soft news day, when editors consider the day’s events
not especially newsworthy, they will air programming or in-
clude human-interest stories. A flood in a distant country kill-
ing hundreds may appear on a “World News Brief” page on a
slow news day but be omitted if there is important local news.
How do editors decide that a popular local high school athlete
killed in a traffic accident is more significant than five hundred
killed overseas? They try to determine what is of most interest
to their readership. Journalists have an agenda-setting func-
tion, meaning their news choices influence what the public will
deem important and discuss.
Despite its strong public service mission, journalism is nev-
ertheless subject to economic realities. Without significant au-
diences and substantial advertising revenues, most newspapers
and news magazines, whether print or digital, would cease to
exist, as would television and radio news programs. Most news-
papers and magazines actually have more space devoted to ad-
vertising than to news. The Internet has challenged many of
On slow news days, editors are more likely to include features
journalism’s traditional business models, and falling advertis- or photos that have little true news value.
ing revenues for traditional media outlets have still not been
outweighed by the gain in Internet advertising.
Let’s examine the history of journalism as both a profession and a business, agenda setting
particularly how technological change has driven innovation. Media’s role in deciding which
topics to cover and consequently
which topics the public deems
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Think about the predictability of much news. What stories or important and worthy of
story topics (e.g., elections, holidays, a follow-up to a story that broke yesterday) are cycli- discussion.
cal or predictable in some fashion? Look at today’s news and see how many stories you can
find that fall into this category. Are there more or fewer than likely occurred out of enter-
prise or investigative reporting or as a result of some unpredictable occurrence (e.g., a
natural disaster)?
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The Historical Development of Journalism

penny press The history of journalism has been synonymous with print, with the penny press
Newspapers that sold for a penny,
and mass distribution of newspapers in the early nineteenth century producing a
making them accessible to everyone. sea change in its theory and practice.
Supported by advertising rather To fill pages, editors, who had previ-
than subscriptions, they tried to ously relied largely on “news” prof-
attract as large an audience as
possible.
fered by citizens or gathered by a
small staff (as well as liberally copy-
ing from other newspapers, often
without crediting the sources) now
had to hire reporters who actively
pursued stories.
Articles were also typically or-
ganized chronologically, regardless
of the relative importance of the in-
formation, and the opinions of edi-
tors or publishers (often the same
person) mixed freely with other edi-
torial content. No thought was given
to presenting all sides of an issue
fairly. With the penny press’s need to
Newsboys helped mass distribute penny papers by attract as many readers as possible,
selling them throughout cities. however, publishers decided to con-
centrate more on sensational crimes
and events than on their personal
opinions. And to maintain objectivity or at least the appearance of such, editors
James Gordon Bennett began publishing their points of view exclusively on the “editorial” page, a tradi-
Founder of the New York Herald in tion the Western press maintains today to guide public opinion on important mat-
1835. He initiated features found in ters, such as candidates for office. James Gordon Bennett, who founded the New
modern newspapers including a York Herald in 1835, introduced, in addition to editorial commentary, a financial
financial page, editorial commentary,
and public-affairs reporting. page and public-affairs reporting, more staples of modern journalism.
Also important to the development of modern journalism were minority
objectivity newspapers. Among the earliest was El Misisipí, the first Spanish-language news-
paper in the United States and first published in 1808 in New Orleans;6 followed
Journalistic principle that says
reporting should be impartial and by the first Native American newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix (1828), and the first
free of bias. Because of the African American daily, the New Orleans Daily Creole (1856). Frederick Douglass,
difficulties involved in complete an American statesman, abolitionist, and former slave, was also a journalist who
objectivity, this principle has largely published an antislavery paper, the North Star. These minority voices introduced
been replaced by the concepts of
fairness and balance.
the value of diversity to journalism while promoting more nuanced and balanced
alternative perspectives.
Associated Press
Founded in 1848 as a not-for-profit NEWS VALUES AND THE ASSOCIATED PRESS
members’ cooperative by a group
of six New York newspaper News continued to evolve, shaped by the democratization of politics, the expan-
publishers to share the costs of sion of the market economy, and the growing impact of an entrepreneurial middle
gathering news by telegraph.
Today, some 1,500 newspapers and
class. One reason news became more impartial—a core value in journalism known
5,000 television and radio stations as objectivity—was the emergence of the news wire service in the 1840s. In
are members. 1846, publishers of six New York newspapers organized the Associated Press (AP),
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 231

in large part to take advantage of the telegraph, a high-speed communications

medium too expensive for any single newspaper to afford. Gathering news for half
a dozen papers with varying political viewpoints meant AP reports had to be po-
litically neutral; and by the dawn of the twentieth century, these dispatches were
virtually free of editorial comment.
Still based in New York, the AP provides textual, audio, and video news, photos,
and graphics for its not-for-profit members’ cooperative, including 1,500 newspa-
pers and 5,000 radio and television news operations. Members provide much of
the AP content, which in turn any member can use. It employs 3,200 people (two-
thirds of whom work as journalists) in over 280 locations worldwide.7
The AP maintains the highest standards in journalism, having received fifty
Pulitzer Prizes, including thirty for photos. As their website states, “More than 30
AP journalists have given their lives in this pursuit of the news. ‘I go with Custer
and will be at the death,’ AP reporter Mark Kellogg wrote before Custer’s final
stand against the Sioux. And so he was.”8
In addition to objectivity, the AP embodies at least four other core journalistic
values. Foremost among these is a commitment to truth and accuracy in reporting.
Quotations should be kept in context and reported accurately. Corrections that
improve public understanding should be published when errors are detected. AP
reporters, like all professional journalists, are committed to the integrity of the
news. They do not plagiarize, or copy, work. They avoid conflicts of interest. Busi-
ness reporters, for instance, must divulge their financial interest in a company
and abstain from reporting on it. Much of this involves a commitment to the value
of ethics, the moral basis for news. The AP tries to shield the identity of victims of
sexual assault. AP reporters do not misrepresent themselves to get a story. They do
not pay sources for an interview or a photo, a standard that certain tabloid and
television news operations reject. Source attribution is also an AP ethical man-
date. Anonymous sources, who erode credibility, can be used only when the mate-
rial is information and not opinion or speculation and is vital to the news report;
the information is not available except under the conditions of anonymity im-
posed by the source; and the source is reliable and in a position to have accurate
information.9

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Find an AP article on a major event or significant person and

compare its treatment of the topic to that of another news organization. What similarities
and differences did you observe? Did the AP demonstrate a greater commitment to its
core values?

PULITZER AND HEARST: THE CIRCULATION WARS,

SENSATIONALISM, AND STANDARDS
Although objective reporting soon became the AP norm, not until well into the
twentieth century did most newspapers adopt this model. Throughout the last sensational journalism
half of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century, sensational News that exaggerates or features
journalism, news that exaggerated or featured lurid details and depictions of lurid details and depictions of
crimes or other events, dominated content. Two of the greatest newspaper titans events to increase its audience.
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MEDIA PIONEERS
Mary Ann Shadd Cary and Ida B. Wells
was passed in the United States in 1850. In response to a
vigorous campaign to deter runaway slaves from escaping
to Canada, Mary wrote a forty-four-page pamphlet, “Notes
of Canada West,” outlining the opportunities for blacks
in Canada.
Building on the success of this widely read publication,
Mary established the Provincial Freeman, a weekly newspa-
per targeting blacks, especially fugitive slaves. She reported
on a variety of important topics, among them lies being
spread in the United States that African Americans in Canada
were starving. Shadd Cary’s father had worked for an aboli-
tionist newspaper called the Liberator; after her husband’s
death in 1860, Shadd Cary returned to America, where she
taught and wrote for the newspapers National Era and The
People’s Advocate.
Ida B. Wells was another important African American
female journalist in the nineteenth century. Born a slave in
1862, six months before the signing of the Emancipation
Proclamation, Wells spent her adult life fighting racism,
especially the lynching of African Americans. She wrote for
Mary Ann Shadd Cary
the religious weekly The Living Way and for various African
American newspapers, including Free Speech and Headlight.
She was elected secretary of the Afro-American Press
During the 1800s, as immigration increased and minorities Association in 1889.
began to identify as groups with shared interests and con-
cerns, various minority or ethnic newspapers appeared in
the United States. These papers served the needs of niche
audiences, including Native Americans, African Americans,
Jews, and immigrants whose native language was not
English.
Among the most notable minority newspapers of the
day was the Provincial Freeman. Founder, writer, and editor
Mary Ann Shadd Cary observed in her paper that “self-
reliance is the fine road to independence,” a principle that
her life strikingly exemplified. Shadd Cary was the first
African American woman to edit a weekly newspaper and
to publish in North America. She was also the first woman
publisher in Canada. In addition, she was a teacher and a
lawyer, only the second African American woman to earn
a law degree.
Born a free black in 1823 in Wilmington, Delaware, Mary,
the eldest of thirteen children, fled with her family to
Windsor, Canada, after the Fugitive Slave Act, threatening
the freedom of free northern blacks and escaped slaves, Ida B. Wells
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 233

of this era were Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, the St. Louis Joseph Pulitzer
Post-Dispatch, and other papers, and William Randolph Hearst, publisher of the American newspaper magnate
San Francisco Examiner and the New York Journal. whose publications competed
vigorously with those of Hearst.
Joseph Pulitzer After 1900, Pulitzer retreated from
sensational journalism, favoring
Born in 1847 in Budapest, Hungary, Joseph Pulitzer emigrated to the United States instead more socially conscious
in 1864, serving in the Union army during the Civil War. After moving to St. Louis reporting and muckraking. He
in 1868, he became a reporter for a German-language paper. Pulitzer purchased founded the Pulitzer Prizes, annual
the bankrupt St. Louis Dispatch in 1878, later merging it with the Evening Post to awards for outstanding journalism.
create the St. Louis Post-Dispatch. In
William Randolph Hearst
1883, he bought the New York Post and
then the New York World. American newspaper magnate
Embroiled with fellow newspaper during the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries whose
mogul Hearst in the circulation wars newspapers across the United
of the 1890s, Pulitzer used abundant States were noted for sensational
illustrations, a racy style, and colorful journalism and political influence.
headlines to promote the New York
World. He wanted a focus on city news,
compelling stories—humorous, odd,
romantic, or thrilling—and accurate
writing with attention to detail. By the
early 1890s, the World’s circulation
had risen to three hundred thousand
by mixing sensational photographs
with good, solid reporting, “crusades”
against corrupt politicians, support
for increased taxes, and civil service
reform, for example.
Color comics in the Sunday papers
were another of Pulitzer’s most success-
ful innovations. Although not the first
newspaper cartoon, The Yellow Kid, a Joseph Pulitzer was a Hungarian immigrant who
comic strip drawn as busy, single-panel founded a newspaper empire in St. Louis and
illustrations, contributed much to the New York.
format many today take for granted.10
Featuring brash and vulgar antics on the backstreets of the fictional Hogan’s Alley,
The Yellow Kid was in some ways a late-nineteenth-century precursor to the crude kids
of South Park, who debuted during more recent competition for television ratings. The
Yellow Kid quickly became a central figure in the circulation battles when Hearst
lured creator and cartoonist Richard Felton Outcault away from the World. Referring
to the Kid’s famous yellow shirt, critics coined the term yellow journalism to de- yellow journalism
scribe the sensational style of the of Pulitzer and Hearst newspapers. Style practiced notably by
After the four-month Spanish-American War in 1898, Pulitzer abandoned the publishers Pulitzer and Hearst
sensational style that had helped build his brand, developing a vision of journalis- during the late 1890s in which
tic excellence outlined in a 1904 article for the North American Review.11 Investiga- stories were sensationalized and
often partly or wholly fabricated for
tive stories that ran in his papers were instrumental in the passage of antitrust dramatic purposes.
legislation and regulation of the insurance industry. This emphasis on public ser-
vice journalism and accurate reporting remains a cornerstone of the annual
Pulitzer Prizes, which he bequeathed along with an endowment for the Columbia
University Graduate School of Journalism after his death in 1911.
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William Randolph Hearst

William Randolph Hearst, the son of a self-made multimillionaire miner and
rancher in northern California, studied at Harvard; and at the age of twenty-
three, in 1887, became proprietor of his first newspaper, the San Francisco
Examiner, payment his father had received for a gambling debt. In 1895,
the younger Hearst acquired the New York Morning Journal; he debuted
the Evening Journal a year later, enticing away many of Pulitzer’s best re-
porters and editors with higher pay while increasing his chain nation-
wide to include the Boston American and Chicago Examiner, as well as
Cosmopolitan and Harper’s Bazaar.
Circulation increased tremendously as the paper attracted readers
with colorful banner headlines, splashy photography, and, some say, fab-
ricated news. Hearst was often criticized for his sensational tactics, later
immortalized in the now-defunct News of the World, a print tabloid news-
paper in Orson Welles’ cinematic masterpiece Citizen Kane. Historian
Ernest L. Meyer characterizes his work as inflammatory:
Mr. Hearst in his long and not laudable career has inflamed Americans
against Spaniards, Americans against Japanese, Americans against
Filipinos, Americans against Russians, and in the pursuit of his in-
cendiary campaign he has printed downright lies, forged documents,
faked atrocity stories, inflammatory editorials, sensational cartoons
and photographs and other devices by which he abetted his jingoistic
ends.12
William Randolph Hearst’s newspapers often had
sensational coverage that helped give rise to the Nevertheless, his 1933 editorial guidelines articulate news stand-
term “yellow journalism.” ards that resonate today: “Make the news thorough. Print all the news.
Condense it if necessary. Frequently it is better when intelligently con-
densed. But get it in.” In 1945, six years before his death at age eighty-five, he es-
tablished the Hearst Foundation, which today provides important support for
journalism education and other concerns, including health and culture. His ornate
130-room mansion, San Simeon, nicknamed Hearst Castle, was built in the 1920s
and still stands as a California landmark.

THE RISE OF ELECTRONIC JOURNALISM

Newspapers began to suffer in the 1920s with the ascent of radio, which, sup-
ported entirely by advertising, offered news more quickly and for “free.” And when
television began broadcasting news in the late 1940s and early 1950s, newspa-
pers’ waning star was eclipsed. News was and still is an important part of how
television fulfills its federal mandate to serve the public interest.
Television network news divisions in New York produced many of the early
news programs. In 1947, NBC debuted Meet the Press, a made-for-TV news confer-
ence where journalists queried various newsmakers, often government officials.
Until his untimely death in 2008, Tim Russert had been the longest-serving host
of what has become the longest-running series on network TV. In the 1950s, NBC
introduced the first early-morning network news show. Host Dave Garroway and
chimpanzee sidekick J. Fred Muggs offered a decidedly entertaining approach
that the Today show still maintains.
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 235

Murrow and News in TV’s Golden Age

Setting the standard for television news during its golden age in the late 1940s
and the 1950s was distinguished journalist Edward R. Murrow, who first Edward R. Murrow
achieved fame with dramatic radio
A radio and, later, television
news broadcasts from London during journalist and announcer who set
World War II. Murrow produced the the standard for journalistic
popular television programs See It excellence during TV’s golden age.
Now and Person to Person at CBS
News.
Murrow’s comments on television
at the Radio-Television News Direc-
tors Association (RTNDA) meeting in
1958 ring equally true today for the
Internet: “This instrument can teach,
it can illuminate, and, yes, it can in-
spire. But it can do so only to the
extent that humans are determined to
use it to those ends. Otherwise it is
nothing but wires and lights in a box.”
In TV Guide the same year, he offered
another caveat: “Television in the Edward R. Murrow was a noted radio and television
main is being used to distract, delude, journalist in the earliest days of television.
amuse, and insulate us.”

Changes in Television News

Interesting visuals on which television news relies can often dictate the selection
and sequence of stories in a newscast. Perhaps because of its visual nature, televi-
sion news has always catered to our entertainment needs, evident as far back as
the early days of Today. Moreover, time constraints of less than thirty minutes or
an hour to cover local, national, and international news, business news, sports,
and weather constrict feature length.
The introduction of video cameras transformed television news. Electronic electronic news-
news-gathering (ENG) equipment allowed journalists in the field to capture gathering (ENG) equipment
and send videotaped news by satellite to the network, where it could be edited and Tools such as video cameras and
broadcast much more quickly than film. This process has influenced the nature of satellite dishes that allow
video storytelling. The late CBS news veteran Bud Benjamin called it “NTV,” the journalists to gather and broadcast
video-journalism equivalent of “MTV,” with rapid-paced cuts and strong enter- news much more quickly.
tainment values.
The rise of twenty-four-hour news channels means a much larger news hole news hole
to fill and consequently much lower standards for what stations deem news- Amount of total space available
worthy. Coverage of events that would not otherwise reach a televised audi- after advertisement space has
ence is not necessarily a bad thing, but often this material simply promotes or been blocked out, typically in
entertains. The prurient entertainment quality of much TV news was particu- newspapers.
larly evident in the weeks of almost nonstop coverage of the 2013 Jodi Arias
trial, for example, a lurid case in which a woman charged with first-degree
murder of her boyfriend testified on the stand about their often-bizarre sexual
exploits.
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In 2013, the launch of Al Jazeera America brought well-funded new competition from the Middle East to
U.S. 24-hour cable and satellite TV news.

Foundations of Journalism
Professional, mainstream journalism is still practiced largely conventionally.
Reporters cover events and write stories, and editors select what stories to assign
and whether they appear, depending on the available pages for print news, which
in turn depends on advertising revenue. Even digital-first news media (in which
news is reported first in digital format before going to traditional channels) are
constrained by screen size and audience attention spans. Digital technology does
not change the fact that reporters need to visit places and interview people. Nor
does digital technology replace an experienced editor’s judgment about what
makes a good story and how it should be edited.
To understand which aspects of journalism have already changed and which
will likely change more with convergence, we must first consider some of the foun-
dations of journalism.

THE HUTCHINS COMMISSION AND A FREE AND

RESPONSIBLE PRESS
In 1947, what became known as the Hutchins Commission published a landmark
133-page report on the American press, A Free and Responsible Press. Written by
Robert Maynard Hutchins and a dozen other leading intellectuals, this report of the
Commission on Freedom of the Press argued that the public has a right to informa-
tion that affects it and that the press has a responsibility, even a moral duty, to
present that information because of their constitutionally guaranteed freedom. The
commission indicated that the government, the public, and the press could all take
steps to improve the functioning of a healthy press. These included government
recognition of the same constitutional guarantees for all media, not just print.
The commission recommended that agencies of mass communication finance
new, experimental activities in their fields and that members of the press engage
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 237

in rigorous reciprocal criticism. The commission called on the public to create

academic-professional centers for advanced communications study, research, and
publication. Among the first such centers was the Media Studies Center, founded
by the Freedom Forum in 1984, nearly forty years after the report. The commis-
sion also encouraged schools to exploit the total resources of their universities to
ensure that their students obtain the broadest and most liberal training. Finally,
the commission proposed the establishment of an independent agency to appraise
and report annually on press performance. A National Press Council failed, how-
ever, although a similar idea has had marginal success in some states.

SEPARATION OF EDITORIAL AND BUSINESS OPERATIONS

Dubbed the “separation of church and state” in newsroom parlance, this basic
principle entails that news coverage not be influenced by business decisions or
advertisers, a separation intended to be reflected in page
layout that clearly distinguishes between advertising and edi-
torial content. At the New York Times headquarters, business
and editorial staff even take separate elevators to their offices
to avoid potential contact.
Yet many media critics complain that this separation has
eroded in recent years as publishers and large media corpora-
tions increasingly let commercial concerns influence editorial
content. A blatant example was when the owner of the Los
Angeles Times demanded a special “news” section on the Staples
Center, without explicitly informing staff that Staples both
sponsored and approved the content. A more insidious exam-
ple involves management layoffs that hamper original local
reporting and force the paper to rely on cheaper but perhaps
less relevant wire service news. Advertorials are designed and written to look like news content
but are in fact paid advertisements.

FAIRNESS AND BALANCE IN NEWS COVERAGE

Fairness and balance in news coverage have increasingly replaced objectivity, a fairness
goal that has been questioned in recent years. Critics argue that reporter bias News reporting on all relevant
cannot be avoided, and to claim objectivity in a given situation simply masks par- sides of an issue that allows
tiality. Even if the reporter has no strong personal opinion when writing a story, representatives of those various
subsequent editing and placement in a newspaper or news broadcast can still re- sides the same coverage.
flect bias. Unintended biases can also inform an editor’s choice of assignments and
a reporter’s choice of sources. balance
“Fairness” and “balance” mean equal and just consideration of all sides of a Presenting sides equally and
topic. This does not mean equal space, however. Support for a fringe candidate from reporting on a broad range of news
events.
a small group of fifty people, however vocal, would not receive the same amount of
coverage as a popular candidate from a major political party. A journalist must con-
sider factors such as contextual importance and source validity or authority.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Look at the front page of your favorite newspaper app or
website and assess the placement of stories and photos. What reasons might account for
such placement? How would moving a story onto the front page or from the front to an-
other page change your impression of its importance?
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FRAMING THE NEWS

frame Traditional news media often decide how they will frame a story before the re-
Structure or angle given a news
porting is completed and sometimes before it has even begun. Forcing facts to fit
story that influences reader a preconceived frame is one of the biggest threats to fairness and balance. Yet this
understanding covering the event. tendency cannot be wholly avoided, partly because it makes writing a news story
easier and faster and partly because it helps us make sense of the world. Journal-
ists, who often believe their work simply reflects reality, may not even aware be
aware of their frame.
This can create problems, especially when treating more ambiguous and com-
plicated situations that tend to defy simple framing. Consider, for example, the
media’s tendency to demonize, reducing complex events and people to “good” and
“bad” and reporting accordingly. Depending on one’s loyalties, a “terrorist attack”
could also be described as “armed resistance.”

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Discuss a current event in the news and how it is framed. How
does this framing affect the way the topic is being covered? Suggest frames that may allow
for more balanced, complete coverage.

EXPERT SOURCES
Another problematic issue related to framing is the use of expert sources to en-
hance story credibility, sources that by and large are white and male. A September

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Covering Islam
Framing in the news occurs everywhere, but it is argu- self-proclaimed “Islamic experts” who pontificate on
ably most prevalent in coverage of international news. In the Middle East and who often equate fundamentalism
the 1980s, when Japanese companies with Islam, even though Judaism and
were buying American companies, the Christianity face similar fundamentalist
American media often depicted the movements.
trend in warlike terms such as “invasion.” The depictions feed into a national-
This was echoed in recent years as China istic “us-versus-them” mentality that is
gained economic might and has wanted similar to the anti-Communist fervor
to buy American companies, such as during the Cold War. Not only do these
Smithfield Foods, America’s biggest inaccurate portrayals of Muslims hurt
pork producer; yet similar language is our ability to see them on equal or hu-
not seen when a Canadian or British manistic terms, they provide a cover for
company buys an American company. repressive regimes that use Islam as an
Due partly to the terrorist attacks excuse for their policies.
on September 11, 2001, Islam has largely Framing, in other words, paints
been framed in the U.S. media as a monolithic religion over a complex reality and, more importantly, shapes
advocating violence and repression of human rights, our reactions and beliefs to the new reality that it cre-
argues scholar Edward Said in his book Covering Islam. ates. This in turn can affect how we interact with the
Said says that the inaccurate depictions of Islam groups that have been framed and can perpetuate neg-
are created by a complex web of media that rely on ative stereotypes and discrimination.
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 239

2012 study found that particularly underrepresented are Latinos, a population

that has more than doubled since 1990, comprising approximately 17 percent of
the total population. Yet expert Latino voices are almost never heard in American
English-language news media. In 2006, only 2 percent of the U.S. experts who ap-
peared on PBS NewsHour were Latino, and President George W. Bush’s Attorney
General Alberto Gonzalez himself constituted 30 percent of those appearances. A
2014 investigation by Columbia University’s Center for the Study of Ethnicity and
Race revealed network TV to be even worse, with less than 1 percent of all stories
on the nightly news programs highlighting Latinos.13
“Individuals of either sex, any age, and all races can be heard from on the net-
work news, as long as they are not wielding power or offering expertise. The net-
works’ ‘golden rolodexes’ of expert consultants are badly in need of updating,”
observes Andrew Tyndall, who directed a study called Who Speaks for America? Sex,
Age and Race on the Network News.14

From Event to Public Eye: How News

Is Created
News is regularly required to fill the scheduled evening TV broadcast, the morn-
ing paper, or the weekly news magazine. Like an accordion, news can expand or
contract with the day’s events, but only to a limited degree. And whether any-
thing of import occurs today, networks will still air at least a thirty-minute news-
cast (twenty-two minutes, after subtracting time for commercials). Sometimes,
during a major breaking news event—such as the September 11, 2001, World
Trade Center and Pentagon attacks—they expand to an hour or even to continu-
ous coverage.
In the past thirty years, hard news has yielded to lighter fare. In 1980, one
of three front-page news stories dealt with government or public affairs, includ-
ing international events, compared to just one in five today. In 1980, only one in
fifty front-page daily newspaper stories featured celebrities, popular entertain-
ment, and related subjects. Today, it’s one in fourteen, not including the various
teasers and blurbs promoting other parts of the paper. Television news is follow-
ing print trends, with shorter stories and reduced coverage of politics and gov-
ernment. Forty percent of local TV “news” is now weather, sports, and traffic
reporting.
This dramatic and inexorable shift has occurred for a number of reasons.
One is an increasingly competitive environment in which newspapers vie with
electronic entertainment media for audiences. Also important are changing
ownership structure and business models. The resulting staff cutbacks in the
past two decades have been substantial and wrought other changes, including
the closure of foreign bureaus. News media are struggling to reinvent them-
selves in an online, digital age. Although TV is still the number one news
source for most Americans, Pew Research found that as of 2013, nearly half of
Americans turn daily to digital news sources, especially via smartphones and
tablets.15
Regardless of news format, news techniques of gathering, reporting, and pre-
senting information to the public, although refined over the years, have changed
surprisingly little. Certain variations exist among print, broadcast, and online
journalism; but the basics, which we look at now, remain largely the same.
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GATHERING THE NEWS

The AP publishes for members a daily listing of upcoming
events, such as important court cases, demonstrations, and
press conferences. Most journalists or their assignment edi-
tors refer to the AP daybook at night for tomorrow’s story
ideas, and the daybook remains a good predictor of the next
day’s news. Some media critics claim that much news is ac-
tually manufactured by media organizations aided and
abetted by public relations news releases or video news re-
leases (VNRs) and that press conferences, awards ceremo-
nies, and the like are staged solely to attract public and press
attention.
Although news about pseudo-events or based on public-
ity releases may well be “manufactured,” the fact is that
journalists must rely heavily on certain sources to stay in-
formed. Reporters also develop sources when covering a
beat, an area originally structured by geography, much like
a police officer’s, but now largely defined by subject, such as
Sometimes during protests or demonstrations, people act up when
they see TV news cameras.
education, city hall, the state capital, or science. Beats facili-
tate the cultivation of valuable sources and access to news-
worthy developments. Small hyperlocal news sites, which
beat cannot afford specialized reporters, often have general-assignment reporters who
Reporter’s specialized area of
cover a range of topics.
coverage based on geography or Moreover, the media spotlight tends to create more news. A big story such as
subject. Common beats in large or a natural disaster or a U.S. presidential election resonates through the entire
medium-sized newspapers include system. Yet even an unusual movie advertising campaign, for example, may trig-
education, crime, and state politics.
ger more stories about the campaign and its impact on the film’s success, which in
turn generate more publicity, making the movie more popular and more newswor-
thy. Some news filters up through the media network. A story in a local paper may
be covered by a regional television station where a reporter for a national publica-
tion sees it and brings it to the national stage.

PRODUCING THE NEWS

Once a story has been assigned or selected and the raw material gathered, the re-
porter has to make sense out of all the interviews, background facts, video, and so
forth, shaping these into a compelling story. Yet few journalists have the luxury of
putting a story aside for a week to ponder word choice or polish prose. And if the
story is breaking news, the reporter will have even less time.
In meetings usually several hours before deadline, newspaper editors decide
which stories are most important and where they will be placed in print or online;
these spaces are blocked out (advertising space has been blocked out first), an ar-
rangement subject to change in the event of breaking news.
Editors look for logical weaknesses, errors, and gaps in stories, often asking
reporters to get more information. Fact checkers research stories for accuracy and
sometimes have to replace TKs (meaning “to come”) with information they have
sought out. Copyeditors correct writing and in-house style errors. In larger news
organizations, headline and caption writers create apt headlines and photo cap-
tions to fit the space allotted. In smaller news outlets, a journalist may wear a
number of these hats.
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 241

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
Platypus Journalism: The Future, or Evolutionary
Dead End?
tools, such as wireless Internet connections and more
powerful computers, could enable journalists on the
road to shoot video, record audio, write a story, and
possibly create an interactive multimedia graphic. This
scenario appeals to management, for one reporter
would now be doing the work of at least three. Some
early experiments in one-person news operations
seemed promising, such as Kevin Sites’s reporting for
Yahoo! News from a number of global hotspots.
By 2013, the required gadgetry had been dramati-
cally streamlined and mainstreamed. Today, most jour-
nalists routinely go out into the field equipped with a
smartphone or tablet device or wearable camera not
only connected to the Internet wirelessly but also ca-
pable of capturing audio and video, doing online re-
With thirty years of experience, Bill Gentile is one of the foremost search, editing stories in multimedia format, and filing
practitioners of backpack journalism, using small, affordable digital cameras them from the field or posting them directly to a
as well as online digital editing and distribution platforms to work effectively digital-first news site. The reporter can also use social
as a solo journalist. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: What impact do media to facilitate audience engagement.
you think backpack journalism has on news reporting? Does it produce
The model has been mocked, however, as “platy-
better stories? Why or why not?
pus journalism” or “Inspector Gadget journalism,”
News organizations have been slow to realize how drastically with critics arguing that journalists cannot do the same in-
digital media are changing their business and the nature of depth coverage when juggling all the tech gadgets as they
the profession itself, but the grave consequences of this could if they focused on one medium, such as writing or
change in the form of lost advertising revenues, lower reader- video. Critics claim the future of reporting more likely lies in
ship, and job cuts have made this situation impossible to some form of crowdsourcing—utilizing raw data gathered
ignore. from the public—and citizen reporting rather than a one-
As news organizations scramble to reinvent themselves man band of technology gadgetry. In this model, journalists
in the digital news environment, one new model of the future may act more as curators than news gatherers for some
of journalism has seemed particularly appealing: a single cor- types of stories, directing the flow of data feeds and choos-
respondent in sole possession of all the tools to report, pro- ing and interpreting accurate and relevant information to
duce, and file stories from the field. Newer, cheaper digital create compelling stories.

Design and page-layout artists create digital versions of copyedited articles in crowdsourcing
a page-layout program such as Adobe InDesign or online via WordPress. Proof- Using raw data gathered from the
readers check for errors; after an editor approves an issue, it is sent to the printer, public and citizen-journalists to
formerly as negative photographs of page hard copies but now entirely as digital help create a news report.
pages received electronically.
TV camera crews and reporters usually return to the station to edit footage
shot on location and to add voice-overs and graphics. Because time is so critical,
news segments are rehearsed and edited down to the second. Breaking or inter-
national news is reported live from location, often broadcasting via satellite.
Advances in mobile, digital technology have made it increasingly practical to do
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nonlinear video editing from the field and then transmit a completed video pack-
age or story wirelessly, even high-resolution, broadcast-quality material.
Digital video technology has reduced the requirements for shooting broadcast-
quality video to a single cameraperson and a reporter, but producing a television
news package still involves more technically than writing a print story. Many
print news operations now have converged newsrooms. At TimesCast from the
New York Times, for example, reporters produce digital video versions of stories
they are working on for the paper, mobile apps, or the Web.
At a TV station, the producer and reporter decide what to edit and how the
story will be put together, usually working with video editors or other technicians
who carry out their instructions. Some news anchors also have a role in editorial
decisions, whereas others simply deliver the news.

DISTRIBUTING THE NEWS

The goal of both print and electronic news distribution is the same: to attract as
large an audience as possible, which means a higher advertising rate and more
income for the media organization. To that end, newspapers and magazines use
colorful or dramatic photos on their front pages or
covers, often featuring what the editors have de-
cided is the most enticing story. Some magazines
may send press releases about particularly note-
worthy stories in the next issue, with the hope
that other media outlets will report on these and
generate more sales. Particular stories can be syn-
dicated and appear in other print-media outlets.
Print media are distributed through subscrip-
tions and newsstand sales. Subscribers are more
valuable to media organizations because they rep-
resent a stable revenue base and provide mailing
lists that can be sold or rented to other organiza-
tions. Material costs for print media, ranging from
paper to ink to delivery trucks, can be quite high.
Television stations have short teasers during
commercial breaks throughout the evening, usu-
ally a provocative question such as “Could the food
In 2015, Jon Stewart announced his departure from the satirical news show The you are eating be dangerous? Find out at eleven.”
Daily Show, disappointing legions of fans, particularly college students, who To keep people watching, stories that served as
stayed on top of current events with his program. bait typically appear later in the program, as does
the weather. Networks transmit national news
shows to affiliate stations, sometimes with time slots available for additional local
news content. They also send video feeds of international and national news
coverage.
Whether produced originally for print or broadcast, most news is also pack-
aged for digital distribution direct to the consumer. Most news organizations,
even those with traditional news products, are committed to digital-first publica-
tion to get their stories out to the public quickly before the competition does.
Moreover, most if not all news media today engage audiences via social network-
ing. Through a combination of Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, Google+, and more,
they share news stories and invite readers to share, expanding their audience and
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 243

the digital dialog on news. Editors who complain about news aggregators such as
Google using their material for free still benefit from the increased online traffic.

Types of Journalism
Much serious questioning of journalism took place during the widespread challeng-
ing of societal norms in the 1960s. Leading reporters such as James “Scottie” Reston
of the New York Times and Paul Anderson of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, perceiving
the limits of objective news reportage, developed interpretive reporting that interpretive reporting
attempted to situate the facts of a story in a broader context. Although critics Reporting that places the facts
argue that this approach represents life’s complexities no better than does objec- of a story in a broader context
tive reporting, interpretive reporting opened the door to a variety of new styles, by relying on the reporter’s
including New Journalism, literary journalism, and advocacy journalism. knowledge and experience.
New Journalism developed in the 1960s and 1970s during a period of great
social, political, and economic upheaval in the United States that included both
the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal. Reporters striving to capture the
spirit of these complex times and explore current social issues, such as the drug
culture, often used literary techniques such as point of view, description of char-
acters’ emotions, and first-person narrative. Truman Capote, Tom Wolfe, and
Norman Mailer were three prominent authors associated with New Journalism, a
style that critics charged blurred the line between fact and fiction.
The roots of literary journalism go back to muckraking, although this modern
form does not always tackle social problems with the same fervor. Literary jour-
nalism stays closer to true, observable narrative, and its pace may be slow, with
frequent, lengthy digressions. Because of standard article length and topic, liter-
ary journalism generally does not deal with breaking news, although such events
may inspire subsequent stories. John McPhee employs immersive reporting, solid
research, and excellent writing to create literary journalism. Other practitioners
include Joan Didion, James Fallows, and Robert Kaplan, all of whom write on a
range of issues, including foreign affairs and politics.
Another descendent of the muckrakers, one that maintains its critique of so-
ciety and commitment to political and social reform, is advocacy journalism.
Prominent practitioners include Gloria Steinem (founder of the magazine Ms. and
a leader of the women’s movement), Pete Hamill (one-time editor of the Daily News
in New York), and Nicholas von Hoffman. Much of early environmental journal-
ism was advocacy journalism.

ALTERNATIVE JOURNALISM
Alternative journalism, or, as it was often called, radical journalism, departed
considerably from the traditions of objective reporting. Its roots go farther back to
radical and socialist UK newspapers published in the nineteenth century to ex-
press workers’ united voice and shared sense of injustice. Some radical papers had
large circulations in their heyday, comparable to popular traditional papers. But
because advertisers wanted neither to attract the working-class market nor to be
associated with radical political movements, these papers struggled to stay afloat
or ended up toning down their political rhetoric.
As an outlet for stories not seen elsewhere, alternative journalism often
purposely defied professional conventions, in both tone and topic, much as New
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Journalism did decades later. Despite alternative journal-

ism’s fringe status throughout most of the twentieth cen-
tury, some of its material would make its way into the
mainstream. Magazines such as Mother Jones, The Progres-
sive, and The Nation straddle the gap between radical and
conventional. And alternative urban weeklies with edgy,
contrarian coverage often geared to a younger audience,
such as the Boston Phoenix and the Houston Press, exemplify
the genre.
Alternative journalism was given a new lease on life in
1999 during the World Trade Organization protests in Se-
attle when an ad hoc group of protesters, who felt the main-
stream press was misreporting or underreporting, created
their own independent media movement. Indymedia
The Indypendent is a print and digital newspaper published by the
Indymedia group in New York. quickly spread worldwide with the growth of the Internet.
Although most Indymedia groups remain small, their de-
centralized structure and open publishing systems facili-
tate the contribution of stories by people who may not otherwise get involved in
journalism. Indymedia NYC publishes professional-quality newspapers along
with maintaining a robust website.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Describe the potential pitfalls of one of the alternative jour-
nalism types and how these may be avoided or overcome—if possible.

PUBLIC JOURNALISM
Public journalism, or civic journalism, developed in the early 1990s in response to
dissatisfaction with media treatment of social and political issues and concern
about the apathy and cynicism among the general public this coverage possibly
fostered—including an increasing distrust of journalists. Originating with long-
time and respected professionals, public journalism takes a less radical approach
that expands the watchdog role of the press while engaging the citizenry more
actively in news creation and discussion. Public journalism strives for more nu-
anced reporting that avoids framing stories in terms of conflict and extremes.
Various newspapers experimenting with public journalism have reported a
higher level of readership trust in the press as well as some signs of increased civic
participation and awareness of social and political issues. Some critics argue these
efforts are insufficient to break down the barrier between professional journalists
and public audiences; others claim they represent little more than boosterism, or
advocacy. Partly because of this criticism from peers as well as citizens, public
journalism has waned in recent years. Later studies in communities with papers
that followed public-journalism principles noted no significant increase in politi-
cal awareness or public participation.
In the digital world, however, public journalism has thrived in the form of
ProPublica, the first digital-only, not-for-profit news organization to win a Pu-
litzer Prize. Known for its investigative reporting and enterprise journalism, Pro-
Publica has produced extensive interactive and multimedia public service coverage
of critical topics like the impact of Hurricane Katrina on doctors at a hospital cut
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 245

off by floodwaters. ProPublica has also part-

nered with more than ninety news organiza-
tions, including the New York Times, USA
Today, and Salon.com, to extend its reach and
capabilities. It also features an ongoing col-
lection of watchdog reporting titled, in
homage to the past, MuckReads. In addition,
ProPublica provides interactive tutorials on
digital reporting techniques, such as using
Google Docs as a news-gathering tool.
Debates on public journalism have also
been an entree to further discussion of the
challenges professionals face in the early
twenty-first century with the rise of citizen
journalism.

CITIZEN JOURNALISM
The Internet and social media have acceler-
ated the growth of citizen journalism, a broad
With the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, the U.S. military introduced a new approach
field encompassing everything from blogging to managing journalists in the theater of war by requiring all 775 reporters and
to Slashdot to more formal ventures that em- photographers to be embedded, meaning attached to military units. CRITICAL
ulate professional journalism in important THINKING QUESTIONS: How does the practice of embedding journalists affect the
aspects, such as Allvoices, OhmyNews, quality of news reporting? Does being embedded help or hinder journalists’ pursuit
of the truth?
Meporter, Examiner, and Wikinews. Some
scholars even include consumer product-
review sites as a form of citizen journalism.
Unlike advocacy or alternative journalism, citizen journalism is usually not
associated with an explicitly political or radical agenda, and its driving force
has been citizens rather than professional journalists, as in public journalism.
Consequently, mainstream journalism has been more willing to welcome these
efforts, even if cautiously. Many news organizations, CNN’s iReport, for exam-
ple, have tried to cultivate their audiences as sources of raw news footage. Other
news organizations, notably newspapers, have adopted a more integrated and
thorough approach in which citizen-journalists post news and stories on a
stand-alone website or mobile app, perhaps partially cobranded with the news-
paper, which publishes the best stories in a weekly edition. Still other organiza-
tions have conducted training sessions for citizen-journalists, teaching them
interviewing, reporting, and writing skills. Mainstream critics claim that citi-
zens are being used as unpaid reporters to fill holes in local news coverage re-
sulting from staff cutbacks. AOL’s Patch, for example, employs a model in which
thousands of unpaid citizen reporters cover more than 1,000 communities
across the United States under the direction of hundreds of professional AOL
editors.
The track records of original citizen-journalism sites vary. OhmyNews, a
South Korea-based site that operates much like a traditional news organization
with paid editors and a hierarchical editing structure, has had mixed success. Al-
though very popular and financially strong in South Korea, the English-language
website version lost money and had to shut down, as did the Japanese OhmyNews.
In 2005, citizen-journalism advocate Dan Gillmor launched Bayosphere to cover
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Wikinews is a citizen-journalism site that users can edit, as they can with Wikipedia.

the San Francisco Bay Area, but seven difficult months later he largely abandoned
the project for practical and economic reasons.
Citizen-journalism sites all emphasize participant conversation and interac-
tion. As gatekeeping becomes gatewatching, and the line between the professional
practitioner and the audience blurs, the journalist’s privileged position as arbiter of
the news is undermined. The role of citizen journalism during the Arab Spring of
2011 illustrates the potential impact of such reporting. Videos uploaded to YouTube
and reports provided via mobile social media proved pivotal in quickly getting out
to the world firsthand eyewitness accounts from Tahrir Square and elsewhere.
Despite the great potential to increase citizen engagement on local, national,
and international levels, citizen journalism lacks a business model to promote
sustainability and support paid reporters and editors. Nevertheless, it signals a
shift toward more interactive citizen participation. As NYU journalism professor
Jay Rosen observes, “Journalism should be a conversation, not a lecture.”

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Go to a citizen-journalism site such as Wikinews and compare

its news coverage with that of mainstream news sites. How are they similar, and how are
they different?

AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
There is nothing sacred about the inverted-pyramid structure of news stories or
the emphasis on fairness and balance. Most Americans do not realize that jour-
nalism can be practiced in various ways because any experience they might have
with foreign news is likely limited to the English-language BBC, whose treatment
resembles American coverage.
An examination of news styles, from Europe to Asia and the Middle East, re-
veals a remarkable diversity in the writing, editing, and even selection of news.
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 247

“Je suis Charlie” (“I am Charlie”) became a motto for freedom of speech and the press in the wake of the Charlie Hebdo massacre. CRITICAL
THINKING QUESTIONS: How did religious leaders of different faiths respond to this particular massacre and to the general practice of
religious satire? Do you agree or disagree with their positions and beliefs?

Reporters’ opinions and feelings may be more prevalent or obvious in ostensibly

factual news accounts. Since the Arab Spring, for instance, the volume of news
sources from the Middle East has expanded. Some new voices present a narrative
of sympathy for Arab suffering and popular rage against U.S.-backed Arab govern-
ments, such as the ousted Hosni Mubarak in Egypt.
In many countries, journalists still face censorship or licensing restrictions
that naturally shape the kind of news produced. Journalists in many monarchies,
from Norway to Jordan, for instance, are prohibited from publishing anything
that might be deemed critical of the royal family. Dubbed “lèse majesté,” meaning
“injured majesty” in Latin, these laws often carry stiff penalties for infringements,
including prison sentences and harsh fines. In such environments, journalists may
act more like government stenographers, simply recording meetings and events
that the state deems important to publicize, with a state-approved editorial voice.
For instance, a Muscat, Oman, court in 2012 sentenced four bloggers to jail for
allegedly insulting the Sultan. Such penalties can have a chilling effect on journal-
ism, even in a hot desert climate. As seen in early 2015 in Paris, objections to press
coverage can even take the form of violent assaults on journalists. On January 7,
2015, Muslim extremists attacked a Paris publication, Charlie Hebdo (or Charlie
Weekly), known for its satirical coverage of Islam, killing at least a dozen persons.
Such terrorist attacks pose a threat to free and independent journalism everywhere.
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Journalism in the Digital World

Mainstream news organizations have not always been quick to adopt new digital
resources. Busy work schedules and corporate reluctance to subsidize professional
training and development have contributed to this resistance. Clearly, journalists
recognize the value of the Internet. And mobile devices, especially the multifunc-
tion smartphone, soon became a second vital device in the digital reporter’s
toolkit. Some organizations are experimenting with far more radical digital in-
novation. Pew reports that as of 2013 “a growing list of media outlets, such as
Forbes magazine, use technology by a company called Narrative Science to pro-
duce  content by way of algorithm [computer], no human reporting [writing]
necessary.”16
At present, however, journalists confront a more pressing threat than the
computer algorithm. The increased power of human audience members to com-
municate with journalists and with one another in a public forum, whether as a
citizen-journalist or simply as a participant on a blog, is undermining the journal-
ist’s traditional role of authority and gatekeeper. Now online readers can point
out, quite publicly, when a journalist errs. News sites have found that if they do
not provide a discussion forum, readers will simply go elsewhere to discuss stories
and point out mistakes.
As Table 8-1 illustrates, four of the top ten global news sites in July 2013 were
based on print publications and three on television news networks or partner-
ships. Three originated online: Google News and Yahoo! News are essentially news
aggregators, publishing stories composed by other outlets. The Huffington Post has
developed acclaimed original reporting. The large online audience for news, al-
though a good thing, presents challenges for the news industry in the form of in-
creased competition and decreased advertising revenues.
Digital platforms such as tablets and smartphones are also breathing new life
into long-form journalism and nonfiction storytelling. The Atavist app features
original text and multimedia nonfiction as well as award-winning magazine or
book-length material from a variety of sources. Partners publishing via The Atavist
include the Wall Street Journal; the Paris Review; and TED (Technology, Enter-
tainment and Design), a not-for-profit organization that shares provocative ideas.
In one such TED story, the nonfiction tale The Sinking of the Bounty, Matthew Shaer
investigates the tragic sinking of the ship used in the 1962 movie “Mutiny on the
Bounty.”
Advances in technology that have threatened traditional business models
continue to change the role of digital news in overall patterns of media use. We
can observe certain trends, however, that help us predict the future of online jour-
nalism in public news consumption.

NONTRADITIONAL SOURCES
There are two types of nontraditional news sources: traditional outlets not typi-
cally viewed by the public and nonjournalism sites such as blogs and discussion
groups. Reading an Indian newspaper online or viewing an Al Arabiya newscast to
see how they cover a story exemplifies the former. The growth of the Internet and
mobile media has made it substantially easier for the public to access these alter-
native news voices. Even looking at UK media coverage of international issues
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 249

TABLE 81 Top Global News Sites

RANK TITLE UNIQUE VISITORS

1 175,000,000

2 150,000,000

3 110,000,000

4 95,000,000

5 70,000,000

6 65,000,000

7 63,000,000

8 53,000,000

9 47,000,000

10 42,000,000

Source: eBizMBA, http://www.ebizmba.com/articles/news-websites

can  often be a valuable and educational experience for Americans, especially

English-only speakers, who often receive a fairly narrow range of international
news. A high degree of media literacy is especially helpful when assessing news
sources and potential biases of alternative media.
Social movements and activism inform the perspectives of certain Native
American newspapers. Akwesasne Notes originated in 1968 partially in protest
against a government-mandated toll on a bridge the Mohawks used to travel
from one part of their reservation, or Nation, to another. The production of news
in the United States in other languages, particularly Spanish, continues to flour-
ish as the U.S. population becomes more diverse. American Spanish-language
TV and online news media generally subscribe to the values and practices of
mainstream English-language journalism but feature much greater interna-
tional coverage.
Some news sources, such as The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, The Colbert Report,
Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, and The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore, fea-
tured satire, typically of politics or of mainstream news media. Although the crea-
tors and hosts of these kinds of programs do not call themselves journalists, their
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viewers often admit getting much of their daily “news” from these enormously
popular shows. Viewers, often young and highly educated, appreciate the less main-
stream, commercial, and parochial mindset that characterizes these programs.
Nontraditional digital news sources increasingly view themselves as content
providers unfettered by traditional publishers and gatekeepers. NBA.com, for exam-
ple, publishes extensive news accompanied by video clips. Why would viewers go to
CNN or ESPN when they can go straight to the source? Tweeting allows users to write
and control their own personal narratives. Subscribing to an influential person’s
Twitter account or blog can also point people to news that they would otherwise not
discover. Celebrity tweets or blog posts often become news stories themselves.
As personal control over one’s own narrative increases, however, professional
objectivity and critical evaluation tend to decrease. You are unlikely to find, for
example, an exposé on NBA.com about the league’s financial wrongdoing. Still,
NBA.com will meet the needs of people who do not care about such news and
simply want basketball scores and information on the latest trades.

ONLINE USER HABITS

Online media use differs from traditional use in a number of ways. First, users are
generally more active, visiting multiple websites for information. In addition, most
prefer to skim material rather than read at length. Shorter attention spans mean
greater competition to attract attention to a particular news story. Stories often
feature less text and more interactive graphics or multimedia. Whereas top news
sites might attract large numbers of viewers, these viewers don’t stay for long. View-
ers spend on average only eighteen minutes a month, about half a minute a day, on
Yahoo! News, for instance. NYTimes.com is a site considered especially “sticky” be-
cause paid subscriptions are generally required, and the quality of journalism is
high. However, its visitors stay an average of only nineteen minutes a month, the
equivalent of spending only thirty-five seconds a day with a paper for which you pay
a daily newspaper subscription. USAToday.com keeps visitors an average of only
nine minutes a month, twenty seconds a day. The stickiest site, CNN Digital Net-
work, keeps its visitors thirty-five minutes a month, about a minute a day. Overall,
these numbers suggest that the digital news experience may lack depth.
Readers accustomed to receiving regular news alerts via text and social media
may visit a website or news app only when an alert pops up. This pattern fuels a 24/7
news cycle, forcing newspapers to publish frequent updates to keep up with the
competition and capture at least a moment of a frenzied multitasker’s attention.
Digital tracking of developments throughout the day allows broadcasters to plan
accordingly for evening newscasts that offer both fresh material to viewers who are
already familiar with a story and sufficient background for those who are not.
Users who want not only essential facts but also context eagerly follow links
accompanying stories to related stories or other websites. Story mentions and
Slashdot effect
links on popular websites can end up generating massive volume that crashes a
When a smaller news site’s Web smaller news site’s web server—the Slashdot effect, named for a frequent occur-
server crashes because of increased rence on this very popular technology news site. From a business standpoint,
traffic after its mention on popular
websites, named for a frequent
though, media organizations want visitors to remain on their site. This raises the
occurrence on the very popular question of what hyperlinks to provide and how to provide them so that users are
technology news site Slashdot.org. encouraged to linger or to explore and return.
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PERSONALIZATION
The Internet allows users to personalize content, ranging from news on local
weather to favorite sports teams to stock portfolios. Personalization, an engaging
feature unique to online or mobile media, is transforming the way journalists
write or produce stories. For example, a standard version of a story can be en-
hanced with database information on a user’s online behavior, location, or stated
interests.
Personalization is not without its downside, however. Personalized versions
of the news may omit other important information without even identifying such
omissions or changes. Highly personalized “Daily Me” news digests may also
narrow people’s range of interests to such an extent that they have difficulty talk-
ing about other topics.

CONTEXTUALIZATION
Users able to access a reporter’s raw material will still want someone to provide
necessary context and interpretation. They prefer not to read an entire political
speech or government report, for instance, to determine what, if anything, is im-
portant. Although users, for example, may be able to find an interactive map indi-
cating the frequency and type of crime in their neighborhood within the past year,
most crime-mapping sites do not provide any context. Users will not learn from
mapping sites whether crime rates are increasing or decreasing or what happened
to people charged with those crimes. Ideally, a site could provide all this informa-
tion, along with links to past news stories on specific crimes and other relevant
information.
Mash-ups that combine geographic data overlaid with editorial content are
becoming increasingly popular and easy to create. The real estate site Zillow, for Mash-ups like this one signal an
example, lets users see house locations, estimated values, asking prices, and final emerging form of media content
selling prices. blended from multiple images.

CONVERGENCE
Increasingly, video, audio, and interactive graphics supplement and enhance
online text; similarly, text can enrich primarily video stories by providing greater
depth and context and different access to information. Truly interactive multime-
dia experiences that allow the user to stop or replay segments at will, skip familiar
information, and learn background information as needed clearly distinguish
online journalism from print predecessors.
Technology has changed not only how news is produced and presented but
how it is gathered. Digital and video cameras have made photography and videog-
raphy much easier for journalists, so much so that a single reporter can easily
video-record interviews or events for a multimedia news story. Voice of America
radio journalists, having been trained in digital-video shooting and editing, can
enhance their online stories with video. Other news organizations, such as the
BBC, are training many of their journalists in video techniques. Convergence re-
quires journalists to be competent, if not necessarily expert, with the range of
tools in the digital toolkit.
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ETHICS IN MEDIA
Maintaining Standards in the Digital Age
One of the challenges of digital convergence is maintaining the In August of 2014, an unarmed black man, Michael Brown,
highest ethical standards in journalism and media when condi- age 18, was involved in an interaction on the street with
tions are changing constantly and rapidly. Journalists and other police officer Darren Wilson. A struggle ensued and Brown
media professionals often have to operate quickly with fewer was shot and killed. Widespread protests erupted shortly
resources to support their efforts and decisions and where digi- after objecting to police violence against black men, not only
tal technology has sometimes laid hidden ethical traps. in Ferguson but across the nation.
Covering the event and subsequent protests, on
November 30, 2014, the New York Times ran online a digital
photo of the home of the police officer at the heart of the
controversy. Times policy normally prohibits publication of a
home address of a law enforcement officer, especially during
an ongoing situation. But encoded in the digital image were
the precise geographic coordinates of the officer’s home,
giving anyone with some digital savvy the ability to extract
the address.
The Times quickly retracted the photo in response to ob-
jections, but the Internet genie is not easily put back in the
digital bottle. Once on the Web, the photo was widely ac-
cessed and distributed, and the officer began to receive
death threats linked to his home address.
The Times claims the release of the home address was an
Widespread protests erupted in August 2014 after a police officer
inadvertent mistake, and it no doubt was. But the bigger
in Ferguson, MO, shot and killed unarmed black teenager Michael
Brown. question is whether in the age of digital connectivity and Big
Data, news and media organizations in general need to take
One such instance occurred during coverage of the ongo- their ethics game to an entirely new level to maintain high
ing social movement inspired by events in Ferguson, Missouri. ethical standards.

The Business of Journalism

The early years of the twenty-first century have been challenging for the media,
particularly news organizations. Companies that predicted new business opportu-
nities in convergence, such as the former AOL Time Warner or Bertelsmann, in-
vested greatly in developing media services that never made a profit. Those that
adopted a more cautious approach see even fewer reasons to invest in new media
technologies. Nevertheless, even executives who have been burned say that they
simply moved too quickly and that change will inevitably occur.
Advertising revenues have steadily declined for the past several years, pro-
foundly so in print media; and, although growing, online advertising still com-
prises only a fraction of overall revenues. These losses, combined with a recession
that began in December 2007, have strained news organizations severely. In
2008, the American Society of News Editors (ASNE) found that the newspaper
industry had suffered its largest drop in thirty years, with a 4.4 percent work-
force decrease from 2007. Jobs continue to be cut, although more recently at a
reduced rate.
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 253

In a 2011 ASNE survey, newspaper editors cited three main challenges: (1) how
to maintain quality writing and editing despite staff and budget cutbacks,
(2) how to adapt roles and workflow processes rapidly to the 24/7 newsroom, and
(3) how to take advantage of mobile media to generate revenue opportunities and
reach more readers. The spread of the digital metered paywall as introduced by the
New York Times in March 2011 signals a likely direction for the twenty-first-century
business model. In 1997, the Wall Street Journal became the first major newspaper
to require users to pay for digital content. However, until the New York Times
adopted a limited version of this model, few followed suit.
Not only are layoffs common, but entire news bureaus are closing down. In
2000, Cox newspapers had thirty correspondents in Washington, DC, to cover the
inauguration of President George Bush. In 2009, it closed its Washington bureau.
Some news organizations have taken what are considered even more drastic steps.
In 2009, the respected Christian Science Monitor and the 146-year-old Seattle Post-
Intelligencer, a Hearst paper, opted for digital rather than print editions. A growing
number of newspapers have reduced their print publication schedule to three times
a week, publishing only digital news the remainder of the week. These trends will
continue with newspapers, especially as tablet computers become more popular.

SALARIES
Salaries for journalism professionals vary with the medium (television is the high-
est paid, print media the lowest, digital in between); location or market (the larger
the market, the higher the pay); position (ownership, higher management, or ce-
lebrity status correlates positively with pay); experience; and a variety of other
factors, including sex (men are generally paid more than women, as unfair as that
may be). Because salaries and overall compensation vary so widely—from $15,000
a year to many millions of dollars—crude averages are relatively meaningless.
In general, network television offers the highest salaries for midlevel produc-
ers. National magazines and newspapers pay fairly well, whereas papers in mid-
and small-sized markets pay poorly relative to similar-level jobs in public relations,

FIGURE 81 Salary Range for Journalists by Experience

Less than a year $18,000–

$37,000

$20,000–
1–4 years $50,000

$23,000–
5–9 years $69,000

$28,000–
10–19 years $83,000

$35,000–
20 years and above $120,000

Source: Payscale.com
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for example. Internet media salaries are good, and stock option plans made a few
journalists instant millionaires when the companies went public. Many more,
however, missed that gravy train in the dot-com bust.

DIVERSITY IN THE NEWSROOM

American newsrooms have been slow to change. In 1950, African American jour-
nalist Marvel Cooke (1903–2000) was hired as a reporter and feature writer for
the New York Daily Compass. She was the only woman and the only black person on
the paper’s staff and among the first blacks to work for any white-owned daily
newspaper.
The ASNE regularly conducts a survey on employment in U.S. daily newspa-
pers. The numbers of minority and women hires have fallen short of mirroring the
percentages found in the general population and fall shorter still when it comes to
management. Because of layoffs and hiring freezes throughout the newspaper in-
dustry in recent years, the percentage of minority employees has actually risen
Bob Butler, reporter at KCBS radio, is slightly, to just over 13 percent. Industry watchers worry that the persistent domi-
president of the National Association of nance of white males in newsrooms skews news coverage toward material that
Black Journalists, 2013–2015.
appeals to them, content that does not reflect the communities of readers or view-
ers accurately. A 2012 Extra! study found that on the opinion pages of the New York
Times, the Washington Post, and the Wall Street Journal, Latinos had less than 2
percent of the bylines. None of these papers even had a Latino staff columnist. In
more than a year of political book reviews on C-SPAN or the New York Times Book
Review, not one of the 432 authors, reviewers, or interviewers was Latino.17

MEDIA CAREERS

The employment outlook for journalists in the digital age is generally not good,
largely a reflection of the state of the overall economy and related budget and staff
cutbacks. After a decade of strong employment and business growth, the twenty-
first century got off to a troubled start that hit media and technology companies
especially hard. Still, research from the University of Georgia on employment
trends in journalism and media fields showed a slight uptick in 2011 and 2012
that stalled in 2013. Although the 2013 launch of Al Jazeera America provided
new employment opportunities for some two hundred journalists, it was not
enough to offset the overall stagnant job market for journalists. Moreover, sala-
ries are flat, as data from the University of Georgia’s annual survey shows.18
Still, these are exciting times for journalists, especially those with an entre-
preneurial and innovative spirit. Online and mobile journalism, still in their in-
fancy, will play an increasingly prominent role, and possibilities remain for
journalists in traditional print, radio, and television if they are willing to adopt
new methods and approaches utilizing the digital tools available. Even in tradi-
tional newsrooms, journalists now need a wide variety of digital skills and a solid
understanding of online and mobile media’s unique characteristics. Today’s jour-
nalists must be as comfortable telling a story through an interactive, multimedia
graphic as they are through a traditional text narrative. They may not need the
same depth of technical knowledge as programmers or Web designers, but they
need to be able to converse intelligently with them as stories are produced. In
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 255

addition to strong writing and storytelling skills, contemporary journalists will

benefit from knowing how to use spreadsheets, statistics, databases, code, algo-
rithms, and social media to craft stories from complex raw information, such as
Twitter feeds on breaking news events.
No specific college major is necessarily best for journalists, although most
have degrees in the humanities or social sciences or journalism itself. A double
major in journalism and the natural or physical sciences, or business is a great
advantage for journalists specializing in those fields. Yet regardless of undergrad-
uate major, a focus on writing, editing, and storytelling is crucial for a successful
career. Students working at a college newspaper or digital news operation have the
opportunity to experience this profession firsthand and publish stories, valuable
clips that news organizations will expect job candidates to supply.

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

Today’s 24/7 news cycle and recent budget and staff cuts mean less time to polish
the final product and increased dependence on other sources to provide news. Yet
despite its various perceived weaknesses and evident challenges, news remains
the bedrock of journalism in its mission not only to inform the public of signifi-
cant events but also to provide important context that helps people better under-
stand these events.
The Internet and digital media are transforming journalism, change that the
profession initially resisted rather than embraced. Consequently, many news or-
ganizations, especially newspapers, have only recently begun trying to figure out
ways to live in the digital world. As advertisers go elsewhere to find audiences,
news media are left scrambling to stay afloat and adjust to new realities. Foremost
among these is a shift toward audience participation, now considered crucial to
the practice of journalism and key to a truly healthy democracy.
Despite all this turmoil, the employment picture for journalism graduates has
brightened. Rapid industry change has created new jobs for candidates with “the
right stuff” for the convergent newsroom, where professionals no longer declare
themselves to be a either a print journalist or a broadcast journalist. The former
may be expected to shoot or record multimedia with a digital-video camera or
audio recorder. Similarly, the latter are being asked to write text stories to accom-
pany video. The convergent journalist, although not an expert in every type of
media, is comfortable with various technologies and with social media.
Although increasingly important, technical expertise alone does not guaran-
tee a successful career. Internalizing and practicing the values of journalism, espe-
cially a commitment to truth, accuracy, and fairness, is still paramount. Quality
writing and compelling storytelling, especially if enriched with multimedia, are
also essential. Whereas knowing how to use certain multimedia tools, such as
basic image editing, is required, knowing which digital tool to use and when is
even more important.
Journalism has always been fundamentally concerned with knowledge crea-
tion and management. Good reporters have extensive files of sources and contacts
they can turn to when they need to know something quickly, and they have devel-
oped a sense for discerning good information from bad. In the world of convergent
journalism, this ability becomes even more important. With the proliferation of
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potential sources for information, the public needs to hear trusted editorial voices
that can identify and interpret who and what is reliable and significant and why.
More than any other media professionals, journalists are equipped to serve this
function, perhaps in closer collaboration with citizen-journalists or in new story-
telling formats that invite audience participation.

MEDIA MATTERS A NOSE FOR NEWS

1. (T/F) The FCC must license broadcast journalists, 7. (T/F) Some of the most popular news websites
unlike their mobile news counterparts. now are citizen-journalism sites.
2. How would you define “news” in one sentence? 8. How does a 24/7 news cycle affect news
3. What publisher was the model for Orson organizations?
Welles’ classic movie Citizen Kane? 9. (T/F) Employment trends show signs of
4. What two values have begun to replace the improvement in many news organizations.
goal of objectivity in journalism today? 10. On average and other things being equal,
5. What is a pseudo-event, and how does it relate including years of experience and media
to news? market size, who makes more money—a
6. How has digital-first publishing affected journalist or a PR professional?
journalism?

10. PR professional.
conference. 7. False. 8. A bigger news hole to fill, shorter and continuous deadlines, and changes in roles and work-flow processes. 9. True.
ANSWERS: 1. False. 3. William Randolph Hearst. 4. Fairness and balance. 5. An event created to attract media attention, such as a press

FURTHER READING

The Elements of Journalism: What Newspeople Should Know and the Public Should Expect. Bill
Kovach, Tom Rosenstiel (2001) Three Rivers Press.
Slow News. Peter Laufer (2011) Sironi Editore.
News About News: American Journalism in Peril. Leonard Downie Jr., Robert G. Kaiser (2002) Knopf.
Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy. James Fallows (1997) Vintage.
Custodians of Conscience. Theodore Lewis Glasser (1998) Columbia University Press.
Why Democracies Need an Unlovable Press. Michael Schudson (2008) Polity.
The Vanishing Newspaper: Saving Journalism in the Information Age. Philip Meyer (2004) University
of Missouri Press.
The Death and Life of American Journalism: The Media Revolution That Will Begin the World Again.
Robert McChesney, John Nichols (2011) Nation Books.
Digitizing the News: Innovation in Online Newspapers. Pablo Boczkowski (2005) MIT Press.
Convergent Journalism: The Fundamentals of Multimedia Reporting. Stephen Quinn (2005) Peter
Lang Publishers.
 CHAPTER 8 >> JOURNALISM: FROM INFORMATION TO PARTICIPATION 257

Convergent Journalism: An Introduction. Stephen Quinn, Vincent F. Filak (2005) Focal Press.
The Elements of Online Journalism. Rey Rosales (2006) iUniverse.
We the Media: Grassroots Journalism by the People, for the People. Dan Gillmor (2006) O’Reilly
Media.
Losing the News: The Future of the News That Feeds Democracy. Alex Jones (2011) Oxford University
Press.
Page One: Inside the New York Times and the Future of Journalism. David Folkenflik (2011) Public
Affairs.
Literary Journalism. Norm Sims, Mark Kramer (1995) Ballantine Books.
Tell Me No Lies: Investigative Journalism That Changed the World. John Pilger (2005) Thunder’s
Mouth Press.
The News Sorority: Diane Sawyer, Katie Couric, Christiane Amanpour—and the (Ongoing, Imperfect,
Complicated) Triumph of Women in TV News. Sheila Weller (2014) Penguin Press.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

261 Strategic
Communications
264 Advertising
282 Public Relations
288 Changing Trends in
Advertising and PR
 9

Advertising and
Public Relations
THE POWER OF PERSUASION

P
ositioning a company, product, or person is a challenging core activ- LEARNING OBJECTIVES
ity in public relations (PR); crisis response to a position in peril, an
onerous one. Untoward events that swiftly sully a carefully cultivated >> Describe the overview of
image test the mettle of even the most seasoned and accomplished strategic communications.
PR professionals. For high-profile figures, whose every move is scrutinized by >> Explain the theoretical
fans and critics alike, damage control can prove especially problematic. And foundations of advertising
when the documented missteps of a politician, actor, or athlete surface in the and public relations.
media and go viral, as is so often the case in our digital age, a crisis can quickly >> Describe the purpose and
escalate into a disaster whose effective management may offer the only hope form of advertising and
for salvaging reputations and careers. public relations.
Enter or, rather, exit Ray Rice, from an Atlantic City elevator, dragging his appar- >> Outline the history and
ently unconscious fiancé, Janelle Palmer, by her shoulders. Naturally, a witness re- structure of the advertising
corded the horrific incident, and naturally, TMZ, a media outlet that traffics in and public relations industries.
Hollywood scandal and gossip, broke the news, complete with damning footage. As >> Identify various new types of
NFL training camps started in the summer of 2014, when conversation on sports and advertising and PR strategies
social media typically turns to early predictions about winners and losers, the spot- with digital media.
light shone brightly instead on the disgraced running back for the Baltimore Ravens >> Examine the impact of digital
and the disgraceful NFL reaction to a shocking video that provided seemingly incon- technologies on advertising
trovertible evidence of abuse. and public relations.
The initial NFL response appeared woefully insufficient, an assessment sup-
ported by a subsequent recording released in September (again by TMZ). The NFL
commissioner claimed to have no prior knowledge of this second video that showed
Rice knocking his fiancé unconscious in the elevator, and the leading rusher for the
Ravens, who had initially only been suspended, was promptly fired.1
It was too little, too late, for most. The reputation of professional sports has long
suffered for failing to satisfactorily address acts of domestic violence committed by
its players. And the handling of the Ray Rice situation was no exception. The man-
agement of this crisis did not succeed in improving relations with a skeptical and
outraged public, leaving the NFL with a metaphorical black eye.

259
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Antidomestic-violence activists felt compelled to take matters into their own hands,
featuring a physical black eye to a powerful effect on social media in an effort to pressure
NFL advertisers. Cover Girl had launched a “Get Your Game Face On” campaign portraying
female fans sporting jerseys and makeup in the various team colors. A digitally doctored
Ravens image dramatically transformed the model’s look and the ad’s message. Beneath
the purple eye shadow appeared a huge reddish black eye, an image that quickly became
a meme, often with the hashtag #Goodellmustgo.2
Cover Girl did not withdraw its NFL sponsorship, nor did NFL commissioner Roger
Goodell resign. Nevertheless, this digital grassroots movement succeeded in increasing
public awareness and meaningful dialog about domestic abuse.

Many diverse forces shape mass-communication media. Among the most impor-
tant are advertising and public relations (PR), types of strategic communications
linked by an emphasis on persuasion as well as a big-picture view informed by re-
search. In this chapter, we examine the nature and history of these two essential
media industries and their adaptation to the age of digitization and convergence.
Advertising has traditionally been the method by which companies or stores
reach a mass audience, utilizing the distribution system newspapers or electronic
media outlets have created. Public relations has typically involved managing the
public persona or reputation of a company, also typically through media outlets
and their mass-distribution networks.
In a digital, networked world, however, almost anyone can distribute informa-
tion cheaply. It would seem that companies could now eliminate advertising costs
by contacting audiences directly. Although true to some extent, the practice is less
prevalent than one would think. Companies may have expertise in their fields, but
they do not always understand how best to persuade their target audiences or how
to best produce media content. The expertise of strategic-communications profes-
sionals is often needed to reach audiences with powerful, persuasive messages and
to create an enduring brand or company image.
Advertising, the most prevalent form of media content, is paid for by a for-
profit or not-for-profit organization, a political campaign, or a wealthy individual.
Advertisements, whether in print, on broadcast radio and television, on bill-
boards, online, or via mobile devices, provide much of the
basic financial revenue that pays for the creation and deliv-
ery of media content. Two-thirds of most newspapers and
magazines are filled with advertisements (not including ad-
vertising inserts). Even though most television program-
ming time is devoted to content rather than commercials,
consider the number of times the audience sees the same
commercial during the course of a program, what advertis-
ing media planners call “frequency of exposure.” Studies
have shown that children tend to remember commercial jin-
gles and catchphrases better than basic facts about U.S. gov-
ernment or history.3
PR has become increasingly important for all types of
organizations and for famous individuals. Historically, many
News conferences or other scheduled PR announcements intended organizations have sought to influence media content and
to attract favorable publicity are examples of earned media. thus public opinion. Positive media coverage can increase
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 261

knowledge of a company while enhancing its image and credibility. Contempo-

rary public relations uses social media to engage the public or stakeholders in
timely and interactive discourse in ways that were not possible in the mass-
communication era.
Unlike advertisements, public relations material is not purchased content but
rather earned media. A staged event or press release may become the basis of a earned media
news story. Awards ceremonies or news conferences, for example, suggest article Favorable publicity prompted by a
ideas to journalists. Public relations professionals generate favorable publicity for public relations source rather than
clients and ensure that any potentially damaging information is framed in the advertising, such as a news
least harmful way. During crisis communications situations, such as the disas- conference, an event, or a press
release; the opposite of paid media,
trous 2010 BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, PR people work to mitigate negative such as advertising or product
press coverage. placements.
Most news media depend on the PR function of corporate, government, or
not-for-profit organizations for information in various forms such as scheduled
announcements, research studies or reports, corporate financial statements, in-
terviews with executives and employees, and so forth. One measure of the effec-
tiveness of PR is how many news outlets publish or air material based on what the
organization has produced.

Strategic Communications
Central to a range of fields, including advertising, PR, and internal or corporate
communications, strategic communications aim to persuade an audience to think
or behave as the communicator wishes. Part of what makes this task challenging
is knowing which media channel will be most effective for delivering a particular
message to a particular audience. Some companies, for example, have been heavily The U.S. television industry
criticized in the media for delivering notices of layoffs via emails rather than face holds its annual TV upfronts in
May, when the industry pitches
to face—or even worse, employees hearing about layoffs in the media before they upcoming new shows to
are informed from management. advertisers.
Research on persuasion has identified various types of appeals, ranging from
presenting scientific evidence to celebrity endorsement to attractive colors in the
company logo. Perhaps the most important factor in successful persuasion is the
audience, or, more accurately, knowing and understanding the audience, what
they think and feel, their likes and dislikes, and many other factors about them.
A large direct-email campaign, for example, does little good if your audience com-
municates primarily through text messaging or Facebook. Of course, audiences
are evolving. Digital, networked media increasingly enable the public to be active
participants in a dialog rather than merely passive receivers of messages from
large organizations.
Strategic communications attempt to persuade target audiences to act in a
certain way. Perhaps you want them to change their behavior by quitting smoking
or eating more healthfully. Or maybe you want them to donate to a cause, email
their senator, vote for a political candidate, buy your product (or buy more of your
product), or maybe just “Like” you on Facebook. What kind of message will most
likely persuade people to take the desired action? Will a personalized message be
most effective, or will an advertising campaign on TV or online be the best way to
reach and convince them? How should the message be crafted, and what tone
should it convey? Can it be done in such a way that encourages people to send the
message to others in their social network?
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Strategic communications increasingly use social media to reach their audience. Companies like
Dunkin Donuts use their Facebook pages to highlight pictures of their customers.

These concerns apply equally to an executive proposing com-

pany expansion to the board of directors as to a company launch-
ing a new product or a not-for-profit seeking more volunteers or
donors. Here, we will focus on advertising and PR and leave inter-
nal corporate communications aside, but the principles are largely
the same in terms of the need to know your audience and what will
best influence them.

PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATIONS
The most effective campaigns use persuasive techniques that en-
courage audiences to agree with the persuader’s point in an appar-
ently natural or commonsense way. Audience members may have
started out thinking one thing before being exposed to the mes-
sage, but afterward think differently, often feeling like they came
to the conclusion themselves. Unlike coercion, in which people are
forced to change because of a real or perceived threat, persuasion
often involves people freely persuading themselves. We may think
of persuasive communications as a modern phenomenon that de-
veloped along with the rise of mass communications. Its roots go
back, however, to at least the time of the Greek philosophers and
their study of rhetoric, the art of persuasion.
Advertisers carefully consider a range of factors to make ads
Rhetoric was one of the three classical areas of learning that
as persuasive as possible. any educated person should know, along with logic and grammar.
Despite strong objections by the likes of Socrates, Plato, and Aris-
rhetoric totle, who valued truth, the Sophists, a group of Greek philosophers focused en-
One of the ancient arts of discourse
tirely on rhetoric, taught whomever could pay them and saw the truth as largely
that focuses on the art of persuasion. unimportant, something even perhaps in the eye of the beholder: the most impor-
tant aspect of an argument was whether it was persuasive. Rhetoric remains a
foundation of politics, business, and life. In an age when more people than ever
can speak publicly, the ability to persuade and make your voice heard above other
voices becomes even more vital.
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 263

At least two dozen major modern scientific theories of persuasive communica-

tion and audience decision making help explain or provide models of persuasion
that guide the media campaigns of advertising and public relations. Most such
theories include certain assumptions about how our thoughts and emotions affect
our behavior. These can be broadly categorized as follows:

1. People’s behavior and actions are somehow linked to their cognitions about
the world, which generally include attitudes, beliefs, and values, as well as
their general knowledge and social influences.
2. How people process information about the world (thinking deeply about
issues or only looking at superficial cues) affects what messages they find
most persuasive.
3. A persuader’s credibility, authority, and attractiveness all can contribute to
successful persuasion, although which is most effective depends on the
type of message and audience.

One theory of note takes a different viewpoint. The theory of cognitive theory of cognitive
dissonance claims that we act first and then rationalize or create reasons for our dissonance
behavior afterward to make our actions consistent with self-perceived notions of Theory of persuasion that states we
who we are. This theory helps explain a range of otherwise puzzling behaviors, act first and then rationalize our
such as why freshmen subject themselves to humiliating hazing rituals to join a behavior afterward to make our
fraternity or sorority to which they become intensely loyal. actions consistent with self-
perceived notions of who we are.

THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN PERSUASION

Because people can only experience so many things di-
rectly, media are the obvious means by which the public
becomes aware of a product or an issue. Getting an ad-
vertisement on national television seen by millions si-
multaneously may have a certain effect, but mere
awareness is not enough. Too often, marketers assume
that once people know about their merchandise or
cause, they will want to buy it or participate. This is not
the case. Awareness is only the first—and in many
ways, the easiest—step in the process of persuasion.
Still, the media often have their own kind of credi-
bility. An appearance on national television may confer
on someone an air of authority as an expert. You are
more likely to watch a YouTube video received from a
trusted friend than from someone you do not know. So
effective are the media in creating and establishing Jade Goody used her fame as a reality TV star in the UK to publicize the
need for women to test for cervical cancer, from which she eventually
fame that many celebrities are now known simply for died.
being celebrities and not for being singers, actors, or
another kind of talented performer.
direct effects model
Although the direct effects model of media influence has been largely dis-
proved, we still believe that media can influence the public in certain ways. From Model of mass communication that
claims media have direct and
this assumption, it follows that media-based communications campaigns can be measurable effects on audiences,
strategically designed to produce the attitude and behavior shifts that persuaders such as encouraging them to buy
desire. products or to become violent.
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: If you are a member of a fraternity or sorority, consider your

initiation ritual when becoming a member. Did the ceremony or ritual make you feel more
loyal to the group or less loyal? Why do you think that is so? If you live in a dorm or off
campus, what are your thoughts on initiation ceremonies or rituals for the Greek system?

Advertising
advertising Advertising is an ancient form of human communication whose modern incar-
An ancient form of human nation features typically sponsored or paid-for commercial messages designed to
communication designed to inform and persuade others to buy a good or service, accept a point of view, or act
inform or persuade members of in some fashion desired by the sender. Print and electronic media that developed
the public with regard to some around this advertising model are in the business of selling mass audiences to
product or service.
advertisers. From an advertiser’s perspective, the media exist primarily as the
means to gather an audience. Communications professionals, while recognizing
some truth in this view, would counter that media content must still be interest-
ing, useful, or entertaining to attract an audience.
Media organizations determine how much they can charge advertisers for
space in their print or digital publication or airtime on their station based on the
number of audience members reached or delivered to the advertiser. In broadcast-
rating ing, this number is the rating. In print and online media, it is the CPM, or cost
Used in broadcast media to explain
per thousand audience members. The online model is still evolving, however; and
the number of households that CPM may include the cost per thousand page views or unique visitors to a site, a
watched a particular show. Web page, or a mobile app. In performance-based advertising, also used online,
advertisers pay for results only, such as actual “click-throughs” to the advertiser’s
cost per thousand (CPM) site rather than total page views. One of the largest areas of online advertising has
Standard unit for measuring become search-engine marketing, discussed in more detail later.
advertising rates for publications Advertising rates vary according to the size and quality of the target audience.
based on circulation. In radio, for example, the most expensive time to purchase advertising is “a.m.
and p.m. drive time” when audiences are at their peak as drivers commute to and
performance-based from work. An advertiser for a youth-oriented product may choose to show its
advertising
commercial on prime-time MTV rather than a late-night network slot because,
Any form of online ad buying in although smaller, the audience is a better fit for their product. A media outlet
which an advertiser pays for results whose audience is upscale and has disposable income would generally be more ap-
rather than paying for the size of
the publisher’s audience or the
pealing to an advertiser than an audience without much spending power.
CPM.

search-engine marketing THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADVERTISING

Paying for certain keywords to In its earliest form, advertising was conducted as face-to-face, word-of-mouth
show up high in rankings in a communication in which buyers and sellers negotiated and bartered for goods and
search engine, such as Google services. In ancient Egypt, papyrus advertisements were posted in common, public
or Bing.
areas. The printing press gave rise in the fifteenth century to advertising in mass-
communication settings, usually in the form of posters, flyers, or broadsheets.
Broadsheet advertisements were a popular technique to attract people to emigrate
to the New World. Colonists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries could
obtain information, from where to buy groceries and patent medicines to when a
ship was sailing.
By the mid-1800s, ads had become a mainstay for U.S. firms marketing prod-
ucts and services, designed to stand out more prominently from surrounding
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 265

MEDIA PIONEERS
Madam C. J. Walker
for black women through her
company, the Madam C. J.
Walker Manufacturing Com-
pany, using the name by which
she was known.
Walker’s ads were distinctive
and effective for several rea-
sons, including their sensitive
and attractive portrayals of
black women, with Walker her-
self often serving as the model.
At the time, most other ads tar-
geting black women used
whites to sell the products or
featured unfavorable, stereo-
typical depictions of African
Americans. Walker’s ads encour-
aged sales of the product lines
and invited readers to apply to
be a local company representa-
tive, much like Avon today.
Madam Walker was not just a
pioneer of advertising but also a
champion of social causes. After
the East St. Louis Race Riot of
1917, which resulted in the
deaths of an estimated two
hundred blacks, Walker joined
in a national effort to pass legis-
Born on a Louisiana cotton plantation in 1867 to former lation making lynching a federal crime. Walker was also a
slaves, Sara Breedlove became the first female African philanthropist and an inspiration to others, especially
American self-made millionaire in the United States. At the women. In one of her many lectures, she once said, “I want
time of her death in 1919, she was also the richest African to say to every woman present, don’t sit down and wait
American woman. She made her fortune creating and effec- for the opportunities to come . . . you have to get up and
tively promoting her own line of beauty and hair products make them.”

editorial content. Individuals also advertised their unique services. In 1856, pub-
lisher Robert Bonner ran the first full-page advertisement to promote his own
literary paper, the New York Ledger.4 At this time there were no standards in adver-
tising, and medicinal advertisers often made extravagant and untrue claims about
a product’s curative powers.
The early twentieth century saw the number of mass-produced and packaged
goods expand along with the automobile industry. Today, the automobile industry
is the largest advertiser, followed by retail, business, and consumer services.
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Advertising for cigarettes and other tobacco products grew during the twentieth
century, but not without criticism. In 1919, the magazine Printer’s Ink warned
against “an insidious campaign to create women smokers” in reaction to the por-
trayal of women smoking in cigarette ads.

Advertising Agencies
Early advertisers bought newspaper space and targeted local audiences primarily.
Not until the 1860s did ads appear in nationally distributed monthly magazines.
Among the most successful early sellers of newspaper advertising space was
Volney B. Palmer, who created both the first advertising agency in 1841 and the
long-standing business model for the industry, providing his advertising clients
ad-agency commission with circulation data and copies of the ads in addition to deducting an ad-agency
A percentage amount of the cost commission from the advertising publication fee as compensation for his
of an advertisement taken by the efforts.
advertising agency that helped When the penny press lowered the cost of purchasing a newspaper to a penny
create and sell the ad. from six cents, advertising had to make up for the lost subscription revenues, and
the advertising business grew quickly. By the 1860s, there were more than twenty
advertising agencies in New York City. When N. W. Ayer & Son, founded in 1869,
bought Palmer’s firm, the trend toward consolidation began. Ayer built on Palm-
er’s basic media-billing model, which charged clients a fee for placing ads in news-
papers and magazines, and he established a standardized ad-agency commission:
15 percent of the total media billings. This agency also set the standard for crea-
tive services, with some of the most famous ad slogans of the twentieth century
including the De Beers tagline “A diamond is forever”; AT&T’s “Reach out and
touch someone”; and Camel cigarettes’ “I’d walk a mile for a Camel.” In 2002,
parent group Bcom3 reluctantly retired the venerable Ayer name.
The new electronic media in the twentieth century drew heavily on the re-
sources of the advertising industry, which used radio and television effectively to
promote a wide variety of products and services throughout the United States and
internationally. Television quickly surpassed print media as the main vehicle for
reaching a national advertising market. Online advertising is today the fastest-
growing segment, second in volume only to combined cable and broadcast TV ad-
vertising. In 2013, for the first time ever, online advertising surpassed broadcast
TV advertising. Mobile advertising and video continue to be large and show strong
growth.

Commercial Television
Because three of the four early TV networks were affiliated with the radio net-
works, questions arose: not about whether to support television through advertis-
ing, as had been the case originally with radio, but about the best way to do it.
Commercials quickly became a mainstay on television. The year 1948 established
an early high-water mark for advertising, with 933 sponsors buying TV time. Con-
sidering the relatively small number of television sets sold at the time, this indi-
cates how eager advertisers were to reach mass audiences in the new medium.
Variety reported in 1957 that during a typical week, viewers saw 420 commer-
cials totaling five hours, eight minutes. In the early days of television, the names
of advertisers, who often sponsored whole shows, were included as part of the
title, such as Texaco Star Theater. The not-for-profit Television Bureau of Advertis-
ing, founded in 1953, responded to the emergence of television as the leading
medium for advertising with a variety of tools and resources.
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Tony Schwartz created “The Daisy Spot,” a TV commercial that aired only once as a paid spot but is considered by many the most influential
commercial of all time.

One of the most talented advertising professionals in the audiovisual realm

was Tony Schwartz, who died in 2008 and whose career spanned most of the twen-
tieth century. A master of implied messages, he became famous for “The Daisy
Spot,” a 1964 advertisement considered among the most powerful political ads
ever aired.5 It cleverly suggested that Republican presidential candidate Barry
Goldwater would likely get the United States embroiled in a nuclear war.
Commercial developments continued to reshape the TV landscape. In the
1960s, ABC extended the station break between programs from thirty to forty
seconds to increase profits, and other networks soon followed suit. Within a few
years, standard commercial lengths reached one minute. By 1971, networks in-
creased profits further by cutting the length from sixty seconds to thirty without
reducing rates a corresponding 50 percent. Networks began the practice of adver-
tising “piggybacking,” running messages for two related products from one com-
pany in the same one-minute commercial. In 1969, New York’s WOR-TV became
the first station to air an infomercial, a thirty- or sixty-minute program of exclu- infomercial
sively commercial content. Also called “paid programming,”
Also in 1969, the U.S. Supreme Court applied the Fairness Doctrine to ciga- a thirty- or sixty-minute television
rette advertising, giving antismoking groups equal air time to reply to tobacco show that seeks to sell a product
commercials. In 1970, a congressional ban on radio and TV cigarette advertising and that usually involves a celebrity
spokesperson and customer
took effect, costing the broadcast business roughly $220 million in revenues. The testimonials.
hard-liquor industry voluntarily banned TV advertising for sixty years, and initial
attempts in the early 2000s to advertise hard liquor drew heated criticism. Despite Fairness Doctrine
public disapproval, advertising continued; and today, such commercials, often tar-
Adopted by the FCC in 1949, it
geting an audience in their twenties or early thirties, can frequently be seen during
required broadcasters to seek
prime time. out and present all sides of a
controversial issue they were
Internet covering. It was discarded by
the FCC in 1987.
Although today we are accustomed to a range of advertisements on the Web, the
Internet began as a resolutely noncommercial space, created with taxpayers’
money by engineers and computer scientists motivated more by its potential for spam
expanding communication and knowledge than by profit. The first email market- Unwanted mass emailing from
ing message, commonly called spam, after the processed meat (whose inspiration advertisers.
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was a Monty Python sketch that uses the term), was sent on May 3, 1978, by DEC,
a now-defunct computer maker to all of four hundred people on ARPANET, the
precursor to the Internet. In 1994, immigration lawyers Canter and Siegel sent an
email advertisement to over six thousand on Usenet. Prompting harsh backlash
from the online community, this event is now widely held to be the start of the
commercialization of the Internet, although seemingly quaint in comparison to
the billions of spam messages sent worldwide today.
The first advertisements on the Web appeared on Hotwired in 1994, the online
version of Wired magazine. Hotwired offered space on the website to fourteen ad-
banner ad vertisers in the form of the now-familiar banner ad. However, because online
Original form of advertising on the connection speeds were slow in 1994, the ads could not be large graphics and re-
Web, it appears across the top of a mained fairly small, with HTML text primarily. Today, increased bandwidth
website. allows for multimedia ads, and advertisers are considering new types of advertis-
ing, including increased use of video, to further attract the consumer’s attention.

THE RISE OF BRANDING

branding Branding, a process intertwined with the growth of advertising, creates in the
Process of creating in the consumer’s consumer’s mind a clear identity for a particular company’s product or trademark.
mind a clear identity for a particular Derived from the Old Norse word “brandr,” branding means literally “to burn” and
company’s product, logo, or came to mean burning a mark or brand into a product.6 Branding via advertising
trademark. developed in the 1890s and early 1900s as companies sought to distinguish their
products in an increasingly cluttered and competitive marketplace. With little dif-
ferentiation among similar products in terms of what they provided or the ingre-
dients they contained, the only way to appear different was to present a memorable
brand, or identity, to consumers.
To establish a brand’s uniqueness, a catchy slogan and distinctive visual iden-
tity are created and then advertised across multiple media, with frequent expo-
sure to the desired audience segment or target group. Among the first to do this
successfully was Campbell’s soup, which featured the artwork of Grace Weidersein
in 1904 depicting “The Campbell’s Kids,” images that appear in its advertising to
this day. Another highly successful campaign was launched in 1970 to promote
Coca-Cola, whose “I’d Like to Teach the World to Sing” commercial became an in-
stant hit. The popular song even sold a million records.
Brands are especially powerful tools to help distinguish among very similar
competitors. Although Pepsi has traditionally been behind Coke in sales, in the
1970s, Pepsi’s double-blind taste test (neither the tester nor the person running
the test knew which was Coke or Pepsi) found, surprisingly, that more people pre-
ferred the taste of Pepsi over Coke if they did not know the brands. The subse-
quent advertising campaign touting this increased Pepsi’s sales while Coke sales
declined.
This prompted Coke in 1985 to introduce a new, sweeter formula—New
Coke—which was soundly rejected by loyal Coke drinkers. Within three months,
the company reintroduced and rebranded original Coke as Coca-Cola Classic, de-
ciding to call the new formula Coke II. Ironically, after the reintroduction of the
original Coke, sales outpaced both the new formula and Pepsi. By the mid-1980s,
Coke II was only sold in the United States and Canada; and by 2002, it was discon-
Some products highlight their name to
enhance brand recognition, whereas tinued entirely. The whole episode is considered a cautionary tale for marketers
others are easily identified simply by about branding and about fierce consumer loyalties that may not be apparent from
their logo. typical market research.
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So hugely successful are some advertising campaigns that their brand names
become synonymous with the product itself. Many consumers consider “Kleenex”
(introduced in 1924) simply the generic name for facial tissue and “Xerox” generic
for photocopy. This can be both good and bad for the advertiser. Consumers with
extremely high brand-name awareness who go shopping for a particular product
whose name has come to represent generic alternatives may actually end up
buying another brand.
Brands are almost always trademarked. Companies can sue for trademark in-
fringement, claiming that the copycat brand is stealing business by confusing
consumers and perhaps hurting the company’s reputation with inferior products.
Companies may protect their brands zealously, such as when Coca-Cola forced a
small café in a remote town in Yunnan Province, China, to change its name from
Coca-Cola Café. Companies also attempt to associate themselves with a more
famous brand by using a similar logo, colors, or name, such as the cheap electron- In 2014, a federal appeals court upheld
a decision in favor of 5-hour Energy for
ics maker Coby, whose font is similar to Sony’s, and the Northeast-based, urban trademark infringement. 6 Hour Energy
fast-food chain Kennedy Fried Chicken. Shot (note this brand does not use
Protecting a brand is not only about enforcing intellectual property. As much hyphens in their name) has since been
rebranded and relabeled as 6 Hour
as 70 percent of a company’s value may be in its brand rather than in its physical
Power.
property, such as factories and products. Table 9-1 shows the estimated brand
valuation of some major companies. “Buying the brand” can be a strong incentive
in company mergers.
Branding is important to individuals as well, says personal-branding guru
Dan Schawbel, author of Me 2.0: Build a Powerful Brand to Achieve Career Success.
According to Schawbel and dozens of leading technology thinkers he has inter-
viewed, creating a strong personal brand will help define and differentiate the new
employee from the competition. Brands will become even more important in the
digital age, especially in media industries.

TABLE 91 Top Six U.S. Companies by Brand Valuations

2014 BRAND VALUE BRAND CONTRIBUTION TO MARKET
COMPANY $ MILLION CAPITALIZATION OF PARENT COMPANY %

118,863 18

107,439 30

81,563 44

72,244 45

61,154 16

45,480 18

Source: “Best Global Brands, 2014,” Interbrand, 2014, accessed June 10, 2015, http://www.bestglobalbrands.com/2014/ranking/
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Celebrities fiercely guard their brands, likenesses, and even their names from
infringement by others. In 2008, Curtis Jackson—aka 50 Cent—sued Taco Bell
for using his stage name, a registered trademark, to promote its value menu. In
2014, an Indiana corporation that owns the likeness rights and other intellectual
property related to the James Dean estate sued Twitter for allowing a user to
create the account @James Dean without their permission. Keeping Up with the
Kardashians sisters Kendall and Kylie have filed to protect “Kendall and Kylie,” as
well as “Kendall & Kylie.”

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider both a familiar and an unfamiliar industry or category

(e.g., cars, entertainment companies, airlines, hotels). Name three brands within each cat-
egory. How did you become familiar with the brand, through direct use or only through
advertising?

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
MMORPG, FPS—and IGA
In-game advertising (IGA) has been growing rapidly, both in have increased not only the prevalence of IGA but greatly
dollars spent by advertisers and in the volume of ads them- added to game and in-app purchases as well.
selves. IGA, advertising that occurs inside either online or Research suggests IGAs have mixed value. A 2009 study
stand-alone video games for desktop or mobile devices, is showed that 80 percent of gamers could correctly recall a
distinct from advergaming, games produced only to adver- product advertised in IGAs, and 56 percent viewed advertis-
tise a product. ers favorably if an IGA allowed them to play for free.7 A 2010
In-game advertising debuted in 1978 in Adventureland, study indicated that only 36 percent of gamers could cor-
which included an ad, in essence a product placement, for rectly identify products promoted in IGAs in car-racing
the company’s next game, Pirate Adventure. In 1991, Penguin games.8 Most gamers dislike IGAs that distract them from
biscuits inserted the first commercially sponsored IGA for its game play itself.9
product in James Pond: CodenameRoboCod.
IGAs can be static or dynamic. A static ad is typically
shown as a display in the background, much like an in-game
billboard. For example, an Adidas billboard appears in FIFA
International Soccer. It might also appear during a pause in
game play while a game is loading. If a static IGA is integrated
deeply, the player may have to view or interact with the ad to
complete the game. Static IGAs cannot be changed once a
game is produced and distributed.
As the popularity of online games has grown, so has the
placement of dynamic IGAs. Advertisers can update these
ads remotely, inserting newer versions over time. Such IGAs
can be tied to specific campaigns or marketing offers. Presi-
dent Barack Obama’s 2008 campaign inserted dynamic IGAs
in several Xbox games.
Some companies offer free versions of games with IGAs,
such as Age of Conan, whose embedded enticements lure Ads for the candy company Chupa Chups appear in the background
gamers to purchase the premium version. Mobile games of the video game Zool.
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SELLING PRODUCTS, SELLING IDEAS

social marketing
Advertising techniques such as branding can sell more than products or services;
they can sell images, ideas, political candidates, or lifestyles. Social marketing Advertising and marketing
applies the lessons learned from years of advertising activities and theories of per- techniques that persuade
people to change bad or
suasive communications to encourage the public to transform behaviors positively destructive behaviors or
through public information campaigns. adopt good behaviors.
Efforts to change attitudes can be an uphill battle, however. First, behaviors
that social marketers seek to change, such as drinking or smoking, often involve public information
powerful physical addictions or psychological perceptions (teens may think it’s campaign
cool to drink or smoke). Second, determining which advertising channels and Media program funded by the
types of messages will be most effective for the targeted group can be difficult. government and designed to
Third, ethical questions sometimes arise when it comes to which group is deciding achieve some social goal.
what exactly constitutes a “pro-social” message and why other groups may not be
targeted. Finally, assessing the success of a social-marketing campaign is prob- fear appeal
lematic, for its effects will generally not be immediately seen, and larger sociocul- Advertising technique that attempts
tural forces may influence how the target audience interprets the message. to persuade the audience by scaring
Some social-marketing campaigns will use fear appeals to shock people into them, such as antismoking ads that
show disfigured former smokers.
changing behavior. Television ads, for example, feature smokers who have had
surgery for throat or mouth cancer or show graphic images of automobile acci-
public service
dents caused by drunk driving. Fear appeals can be tricky, however. Graphic
announcement (PSA)
images may offend some while not being effective for young people who think
“that will never happen to me.” Advertising-like message from an
organization with a worthy purpose
An effective social-marketing campaign for the National Crime Prevention that ostensibly benefits the public
Council used the tagline “Take a bite out of crime” and featured a cartoon dog, and for which the media donate
McGruff, dressed as a detective. A series of public service announcements time or space.
(PSAs) covering a range of crime-related issues were widely aired on different
media channels. Various surveys indicated a high awareness of the cam-
paign and its anticrime points by adults and children, accompanied by a
rise in crime-prevention measures like special locks on doors and win-
dows and security lights.
Today, a digital McGruff offers advice on an interactive website, online
safety games, and videos about how to use the Internet safely, not to men-
tion an app to help parents safeguard their children’s Internet activity,
including social media filters. Ironically, the actor who played McGruff the
Crime Dog evidently did not learn much from his character. In 2014, he
was sentenced to sixteen years in federal prison for drug and weapons
charges. Nevertheless, the uncorrupted animated version of the crime-
fighting canine, who celebrated his 35th birthday in 2015, lives on online.
Social-marketing campaigns play an important role in educating
people in developed and developing countries about a range of issues to
prevent disease and to raise the general standard of living, including safe
sex and proper sanitizing techniques to ensure clean water and untainted
food. Because of high illiteracy rates and limited access to mass media in
some regions, such campaigns must use visual symbols in powerful yet
easily understood ways.

ADVERTISING CHANNELS
Advertising takes a variety of media formats or channels, including some Creating persuasive messages can be especially
important types that we may not normally consider mass communications. difficult in countries with low literacy rates.
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Each channel has certain characteristics that influence how advertising is imple-
mented and how its effects are measured. The type of product or service being adver-
tised helps determine which audience to target, and certain channels are more
effective at reaching certain types of audiences. Here we will look at some of the tra-
classified advertising ditional advertising channels, all of which are still in use, after which we will consider
Advertising traditionally found in
how online and digital advertising are changing these.
print media, especially newspapers
but also in some magazines and Print Media
now increasingly online, that
consists of messages posted by In newspapers and magazines, commercial messages come in either of two forms:
individuals and organizations to sell classified advertising or display advertising. Classifieds appear together in a
specific goods or services. special section posted by individuals and organizations to sell specific goods or
services. Because customers pay by the word or pay a rate up to a certain word
display advertising limit, messages are usually short and use abbreviations. Despite their small indi-
Advertising in print media that vidual size, their large numbers in most papers used to comprise a significant por-
usually consists of illustrations or tion of advertising revenue. Most newspapers now put their classifieds online to
images and text that can occupy a
compete with other online classifieds, auction sites, and discount sites such as
small section of a page, a full page,
or multiple pages. Craigslist, eBay, Groupon, and Living Social—sites that have largely decimated
the classified advertising revenues of most newspapers.
rate card Display ads are much larger, anywhere from one-eighth of a page to a full page
or occasionally foldouts with multiple pages. They often contain images or other
List of advertising rates by size,
placement, and other characteristics, graphic elements that help them stand out. Costs vary by size, color, and location
such as whether ads are black and (back-cover placement is usually the most expensive). Publishing companies
white or full color. Frequency create a rate card of the various costs, which may be negotiated by those who
discounts are also usually offered, advertise multiple times in a highly competitive market. An advertorial, a dis-
and the listed rates are usually
negotiable, especially for large play ad created to look like an actual article in the publication, usually has tiny
advertisers. print on the top or the bottom of the page that says “paid advertisement.”

advertorial
Electronic Media
Display advertisement created to Despite decreased commercial time and fragmented audiences, advertising costs
look like an article within the
in electronic media, which can command larger audiences than print, are gener-
publication, although most
publications have the words ally high compared to those for print media. Even large-circulation magazines of
“advertisement” or “paid over a million readers reach a relatively small audience by network-television
advertisement” in tiny print standards. Radio or television commercials, “spots,” typically run for thirty sec-
somewhere nearby. onds. Infomercials are paid programming in which a product is demonstrated and
promoted for purchase, often with endorsements from a celebrity or satisfied con-
subliminal advertising
sumers, who are typically paid or otherwise compensated. Pleased “customers” are
Persuasive messages that have often professional actors.
supposedly unconscious effects on Subliminal advertising, a subject of controversy for some time, supposedly
the audience, such as an image or
word flashed almost imperceptibly flashes messages or images briefly to produce an unconscious effect on the viewer.
on a screen. Despite no firm proof that subliminal advertising has any effect at all, it is illegal,
and no advertisers have ever admitted to its use.
product placement Another way advertisers attract attention is through product placement—
A form of advertising in which
products displayed or used by characters in television programs or movies. Prod-
brand-name goods or services are uct placement has become more important since the arrival of the digital video
placed prominently within recorder (DVR), which allows viewers to skip commercials. Critics argue that most
programming or movie content viewers do not notice that a product is being advertised, while proponents say this
that is otherwise devoid of
advertising, demonstrating the
is exactly what makes it an effective technique. Perhaps the most famous case of
convergence of programming with successful product placement occurred with the blockbuster movie E.T. After
advertising content. M&M’s refused to allow their famous candy product to be E.T.’s snack of choice,
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Product placement has become a more widely used advertising technique since the arrival of
the DVR, which allows viewers to skip commercials.

filmmakers opted for Reese’s Pieces, a new candy whose sales shot up as the film
became a global hit.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: In the first report about subliminal advertising, a drive-in

movie owner in New Jersey claimed that after flashing subliminal images of soft drinks and
popcorn during a movie, sales increased. What other factors might explain the increase in
sales?

outdoor advertising
Outdoor Billboards and other forms of public
Outdoor advertising on billboards, taxis, buses, and bus stops, among other advertising, such as on buses or
places, bombards the public. Store signs are among the oldest forms of public ad- taxis.
vertising, although their reach is limited to pas-
sersby. Even brand-name clothing effectively
makes the wearer a walking advertisement—paid
for by the consumer who purchased the clothing!
Increasingly, municipalities are allowing corpo-
rate sponsorship of public vehicles and spaces to
help shore up government budgets. Low-power
video monitors with advertisements accompanied
by news content appear in new public spaces, such
as above cash registers and in elevators.
Interactive floor-based displays in airports or
malls react to activities like footsteps, creating
interesting games that people can play and others
can watch—all the while engaging with an
advertisement. Interactive outdoor advertising
will continue to grow as technology such as face The Federal Trade Commission allows puffery in advertising, exaggerated
recognition is incorporated into street-level advertising claims that “reasonable” audiences would not likely perceive as facts.
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billboards, enabling the real-time display of messages customized to each passing

pedestrian.

Direct Mail
Direct mail marketing, commonly called “junk mail” by recipients, advertises eve-
rything from lower insurance rates to credit card offers to pleas to donate to vari-
ous charities or subscribe to magazines. Some companies make it appear that you
have been specially selected or won a lottery and need to send in the material
ASAP to claim your prize.
Many organizations rent their subscriber lists on a per-thousand basis; the
more detailed the demographic data, the higher the cost. These lists become effec-
tive tools in the hands of advertisers who send targeted messages. List owners
often seed them with false names to ensure that list renters are only using the list
one time. Some savvy citizens use similar techniques to determine who is selling
their name. Subsequent mailings in your pet’s name, for example, could help iden-
tify the culprit.
Telemarketing involves phoning people at home, typically intrusive and an-
noying calls that many actively screen with voicemail or caller ID. These sales
pitches are highly scripted, complete with prepared responses to a range of antici-
pated answers. The Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991 lays out strict
guidelines on the times telemarketers may call and requires companies to remove
people who request such removal from call lists. Some states have implemented
“Do Not Call” registries that serve the same purpose. Exempted from the act, po-
litical campaigns may contact those registered on the do-not-call list, even on
their cell phones.

ADVERTISING IN A DIGITAL WORLD

Traditionally, 70 percent or more of commercial-media revenues come from adver-
tising, an economic foundation being transformed by digital technology. Adver-
tisers have a greater capacity to track consumers and identify the most effective
advertisements. They are also discovering that many traditional advertising tech-
niques do not work well on the Web. Changes in technology and in online user
behavior complicate the picture further.

Cookies
Web experiences, compared to other media, can be personalized for the user, a key
aspect for both advertisers and media-content companies. Almost all websites
cookie leave a cookie, a small text file loaded onto a computer that identifies specific
Information that a website puts on
users who visit a site and where they go afterward. Cookies and Web analytics are
a user’s local hard drive so that it able to tell what page someone came from before arriving at a page with an ad and
can recognize when that computer how long the person spent on that page. They can “remember” visitors who return
accesses the website again. Cookies and can determine their computer operating system, their Web browser and,
also allow for conveniences like
often, their approximate location.
password recognition and
personalization. Cookies not inserted by the content provider are called third-party cookies,
like those advertisers place in ads. These cookies can both track and customize
advertising messages as well as engage in “cookie pricing.” Travel sites, for in-
stance, will sometimes nudge up ticket prices if a pattern of browsing behavior
reveals a traveler highly motivated to get a particular route. Cookies are just one
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of the new, unique advertising techniques. Still, some of the “old” digital media
remain remarkably effective.

Email Marketing
Until the rise of social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter, email was the
most used application on the Internet; and despite spam, it continues to be an in-
credibly powerful tool for advertising. Like direct mail, email can reach highly
targeted audiences who, better yet, have the choice to opt in to receive emails, opt in
showing their willingness to hear from certain companies. When consumers choose to receive
Email also has the advantage of being cheap to produce and send, especially if mailings or marketing material,
the message is text only, without any design or graphics. Free email advertise- usually by checking a box on a
ments are also lucrative for the companies that offer this service, such as Yahoo! website when registering for the
site.
Mail, Hotmail, and Gmail. Google uses software that scans each email sent via
Gmail, analyzes the text, and inserts ads it deems most relevant to the topic.

Banner Ads
In the early days of the Web, most online advertising tended to follow the tradi-
tional advertising formats—particularly the display-ad model commonly found
in print. Banner advertising, online ads spanning the top of a page like a banner,
could be clicked on to visit the advertiser’s website. Today, there are a variety of
shapes and sizes of banner ads, including tower ads that take advantage of the
tendency for users to scroll down. Such ads may also contain interactive quizzes,
video, or other animation.
Studies tracking consumers online, however, indicate that banner ads have a
very low click-through rate (CTR), meaning a low percentage of users—in this click-through rate (CTR)
case, an average of 0.06 percent—actually click on them. These disappointing Rate at which people click on an
numbers caused advertisers to doubt their effectiveness and seemed to stall the online advertisement to access
budding online ad industry. more information.

Pop-Ups and Video

Initially viewed as the salvation for online advertising, pop-ups can be intersti- interstitial ad
tial ads or superstitial ads. Interstitial ads have proven unpopular because Online advertisement that opens in
users must close the ad browser window to see the website they originally wanted. a new window from the one the
To get around this, some ads take up most of a page rather than the whole screen. user was in.
Perceived as less obtrusive, superstitial ads have become more widespread. These
ads crawl across a screen or appear in a corner and can be created with a variety of superstitial ad
multimedia programs and effects. Online advertisement that covers
Ads in videos have grown quickly in recent years. It became clear that online part of the existing screen or moves
users did not want to watch a standard thirty-second commercial before a short over part of it without opening a
new window.
video, so online videos tend to be ten or fifteen seconds at most and sometimes
give users the option to click off the ad after only five seconds. Sites such as
YouTube have tried overlays at the bottom of screens, like those that promote
upcoming shows on network television, and these have also made their way to
mobile apps.

Classifieds and Auction Sites

Online classifieds have been able to take a large chunk of newspaper revenue
because they offer several advantages. First, there is little or no need to squeeze
text to fit within some predefined word and cost limit. Second, geographic
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limitations are no longer an issue as long as

what is being advertised can be shipped or
mailed. This vastly increases the potential au-
dience. Craigslist and other online classifieds
websites have been immensely successful for
many traditional businesses as well as for small
entrepreneurs, who can generate national or
international business online with very little
overhead or infrastructure cost.
Auction sites have also become popular for
many of the same reasons, starting with eBay,
founded in 1995. Seller rating and review sys-
tems, easy online payment methods, and a
high volume of sellers and buyers have created
A human assists the computer algorithm “comparison engine” at FindTheBest, a a thriving marketplace, especially useful for
privately held research company that allows users to research, filter, and compare small businesses or those working from home.
more than 2,000 topics. Many unusual items have come up for sale on
eBay, including the case of a British man who
in 2008 put his entire life—worldly possessions, job, and even friends—up for
sale after a bitter divorce. The winning bid was about $380,000, considerably short
of what he was asking.10

Search-Engine Ads
Advertising with popular search-engine sites such as Google, Bing, and Yahoo! has
become one of the most important vehicles for advertisers in recent years. The two
main methods of search-engine advertising—search-engine optimization (SEO)
and search-engine marketing (SEM)—are unpaid and paid forms of advertising,
respectively, yet their goal is the same: to appear as the first entry in a search-
engine search.
SEO techniques involve website design, keywords, and links. SEM advertisers
either pay a search-engine company for a sponsored link, usually clearly labeled as
such (with a colored panel or the words “sponsored links”), or buy keywords sold at
auction, paying the search-engine company a set amount every time its site is
clicked on when that search term is used. These search engines and other digital
media utilize algorithms or computer programs to aid in rapidly targeting ads,
tracking consumer online behavior, and more, although a human assistant often
makes the process more nuanced.11

Mobile Advertising
The dramatic growth of mobile media since 2000 has altered the advertising land-
scape fundamentally. The volume of text messaging, especially among the young,
exceeds that of voice calls. With an estimated 2 billion smartphone users world-
wide by 2016 and 1 billion tablet users worldwide by the end of 2015, mobile has
emerged as a powerful new advertising channel. Facebook has been especially suc-
cessful at inserting mobile ads between entries on newsfeeds that get users’ atten-
tion without annoying them.12 Google announced in mid-2015 that it had changed
its search-engine algorithms so that mobile-friendly websites would show up
higher in the rankings.
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 277

Five trends characterize the mobile advertising marketplace. First, the

geo-location capability of mobile technology increasingly enables advertisers to
customize messages to the consumer’s location. Second, mcommerce, or mobile
commerce, is growing rapidly and targeting consumers with real-time messages
updated to their current mobile purchases. Consumers out shopping, for instance,
use their mobile device to aid in comparative shopping and even price bargaining.
Third, real-time mobile billing (RTB) is facilitating a new advertising pricing
system optimized by mobile demand. Fourth, as mobile broadband access rises,
video ads gain traction even on mobile devices. Fifth, ads tied to in-app downloads
such as mobile games have increased greatly, with consumers seemingly willing to
accept ads for free apps.

Behavioral Advertising
Behavioral advertising tracks user behavior and then inserts banner ads on simi-
lar topics on subsequent websites visited, which is why, after shopping for items
on a site like Amazon, you start to see ads for the products you looked at on web-
sites you visit later. Advertisers claim it offers users more relevant Web ads, but
many consider this an invasion of privacy.
Although the behavioral advertising industry has outlined various principles
and procedures in attempts to self-regulate, consumer groups and the govern-
ment have found fault with this rapidly expanding area of advertising. Some com- viral marketing
panies do not stop tracking online users even after they have opted out. Another Promoting a product, service, or
problem has been the use of Flash cookies that secretly reinsert a cookie even after brand online through word of
the user has cleared her computer of all cookies. Coming years will likely see ten- mouth, usually via online discussion
groups, chats, and emails.
sions increase between advertisers and government and consumer watchdog
groups regarding best practices and consumer safeguards.

Viral Marketing
Some of the most successful advertising online is unaided by advertising agencies
or expensive marketing campaigns. Viral marketing, sometimes called buzz
marketing, guerrilla marketing, or word-of-mouth (WOM) marketing, promotes a
product, service, or brand through natural online channels; people spread a mes-
sage because they want to, not because they are being paid to. Humorous or strange
videos often work best for this; but such videos, whose appeal is often their unpol-
ished, amateurish quality, are not always a good fit for all brands.
Predicting content that will actually go viral is difficult. The ALS Ice Bucket
Challenge, in which people challenged three friends to video themselves dumping
a bucket of ice water on their heads, or donate to the ALS Association, became
wildly and unexpectedly popular in the summer of 2014, especially in the United
States. According to the ALS Association, it received over $100 million in July
alone, and several other ALS organizations also saw large increases in donations The ALS Ice Bucket Challenge became
wildly popular on social media in the
during the latter half of the year. late summer of 2014. CRITICAL
THINKING QUESTIONS: ALS recently
managed to raise a significant sum of
Native Advertising money through donations, but do you
One of the largest growth areas in advertising for online publications is native know what ALS stands for or what its
advertising of several different but related types, including sponsored posts on symptoms are? Have you followed any
progress in research on ALS since then?
Facebook or Twitter. Basically, native advertising (sometimes called content mar- Do you consider the Ice Bucket
keting) is the online version of the print advertorial. In other words, the editorial Challenge a success?
278 PART 3 >> MEDIA PERSPECTIVES www.oup.com/us/pavlik

staff of the site or a marketer produces advertising content made to appear like
actual content within the publication.
One type of native advertising is indicated by the small “sponsored by” or
“promoted by” tags in pieces that usually have attention-getting headlines about
celebrities or odd news events. Many large online publications have adopted some
form of native advertising, including The New York Times, Time, Forbes, and The
Atlantic. In 2013, The Atlantic was rebuked for how it handled a self-congratulatory
piece sponsored by the Church of Scientology. The article itself was of poor quality,
and The Atlantic later admitted to also deleting negative user comments it
elicited.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider articles on sites or suggested posts you may have
clicked on in Facebook or other social media. How many of these did you recognize as
sponsored content, or did you care? What are the dangers of blurring the lines between
editorial and advertising content?

THE ADVERTISING BUSINESS

Worldwide ad spending for 2015 is estimated to be $578 billion, up from $546 bil-
lion in 2014, according to eMarketer.13 Table 9-2 estimates advertising spending
by medium to 2015. According to this forecast, in 2015, television still sits atop
the media food chain, with about 40 percent of total ad dollars. Since 2011, TV’s
share of ad dollars remains relatively constant, while the relative position of the
other media shift significantly. Newspapers see their relative share decline by

TABLE 92 Share of Global Advertising Expenditure (%)

MEDIUM 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Newspapers 19.9% 18.1% 16.3% 14.5% 13.0%

Magazines 9.3% 8.5% 7.8% 7.2% 6.6%

Television 39.4% 39.6% 39.5% 38.8% 37.7%

Radio 7.0% 6.9% 6.8% 6.7% 6.6%

Cinema 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6%

Outdoor 6.7% 6.8% 6.8% 6.8% 6.7%

Internet 17.1% 19.5% 22.3% 25.5% 28.8%

Source: ZenithOptimedia, Advertising Expenditure Forecasts, September 2015

 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 279

some 20 percent, from 20.3 percent in 2011 to less than 16 percent in 2015; and
magazines by some 25 percent, from 9.4 percent in 2011 to 7.3 percent in 2015.
Radio dips almost 10 percent, from 7.1 percent in 2011 to 6.6 percent in 2015.
Outdoor drops about 5 percent, from 6.7 percent to 6.3 percent between 2011 and
2015. Bucking the downward trend is cinema (ads that run before a movie starts),
which sees a 20 percent increase, from 0.5 percent to 0.6 percent between 2011
and 2015.
The big winner, however, is Internet advertising, which grows more than
45 percent between 2011 and 2015, from 16.1 percent to 23.4 percent of global
advertising spending. Spending on Internet advertising is today greater than
newspaper advertising spending and greater than outdoor, cinema, radio, and
magazine ad spending combined. Internet ad spending, including $42.6 billion
worldwide for mobile ($18.9 billion in the United States), continues to rise, and
industry experts believe it still has lots of room for rapid growth. Although adver-
tisers are of course looking to advertise across media or channels, the fact is that
an increase in ad spending in one medium, such as the Internet, generally means
a decrease elsewhere, such as in newspapers. This has made it especially challeng-
ing for the main player in the advertising world today, the advertising agency.

ADVERTISING AGENCIES
Advertising agencies perform many important functions, creating and selling ad-
vertising while linking various media with the many companies seeking to sell a
product or service. The more than five hundred advertising agencies in the United
States, which collectively employ more than seventy thousand people, have four
main areas of operation:
1. Creative: copywriters and creative and art directors producing advertising
content
2. Client management: account executives working with clients
3. Media buying: media planners and buyers determining and purchasing
media time or space, the area that has traditionally produced agency
revenues
4. Research: researchers collecting and analyzing media data on consumer
characteristics and purchase behaviors
A number of Internet-original firms emerged in the late 1990s. Some have
survived as boutique or specialized firms, but many have been bought by larger
agencies for their interactive expertise. This follows the trend toward consolida-
tion seen with traditional advertising agencies that still dominate the field. Today,
much larger advertising and media-services companies own most of the world’s
leading advertising agencies, and ninety of the top one hundred firms have
international operations. Most of these firms operate both advertising and public
relations enterprises. These full-service companies handle all aspects of the com-
munications business, from campaign planning to creative execution and media
buying.
Table 9-3 presents data on the world’s five largest advertising and media-
services firms, ranked by their estimated revenue in 2014, and some of their big-
gest advertising and public relations subsidiaries, which are themselves often
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INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Hair-Raising Subway Billboard
Ad Gets Noticed
Subway commuters in most major cities take the pleth- platform billboards to sense when trains were ap-
ora of billboards on walls and platforms for granted, per- proaching the platform (for commuters on the platform,
haps making a mental note of an upcoming film they’d the wind coming before the train alerts them to an
like to see but, for the most part, ignoring the ads. arrival).
To help a billboard ad stand out from the crowd, The image on the billboard was a photo of a young
advertisers have been incorporating interactive techno- woman with a full head of hair. As the train approached
logies to draw greater attention to otherwise static bill- and the wind kicked up, the model’s hair suddenly
boards. One notable example occurred in Stockholm, started to blow around wildly, seemingly in response to
Sweden, where the pharmacy brand Apotek equipped the train. Then the words “Make your hair come alive”
and the brand name came on screen. The ad, which can
be seen on YouTube, garnered international attention—
along with surprise from commuters who suddenly saw
a billboard with a moving image.
Later in the year a similar ad appeared on Stock-
holm’s subway platforms, except this time instead, the
wind blew off a wig off the model, revealing her bald
head. This ad for a cancer charity was also a successful
attention getter.
Different kinds of interactive billboards can be
used to far different effect. A 2013 ad for The Curse of
Chucky looked much like any other film poster at a bus
stop in Brazil until the lights began to flicker and
Chucky smashed through the fake glass of the poster
box wielding a fake knife. The terrified occupants of
the bus stop, however, appeared not to immediately
comprehend that they had suddenly become part of
an outrageous publicity stunt and were being chased
not by the world’s most deviant doll but by a small
actor made up as Chucky. All the horror, both scripted
and apparently genuine, was recorded, of course, and
can still be seen on YouTube. As if simply waiting at a
bus stop at night isn’t creepy enough.

global operations. In 2013, Omnicom and Publicis planned to merge to form the
world’s largest advertising agency, but nearly a year later the deal was abruptly
called off. Tokyo-based Dentsu, although a global player in terms of size, is typi-
cally not considered one of the “big four” of advertising agencies, as it focuses
primarily on Japan, where it dominates the advertising industry.
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 281

TABLE 93 World’s Five Largest Advertising and Media-Services Companies

WORLDWIDE REVENUES,
AGENCY MAJOR SUBSIDIARY GROUPS HEADQUARTERS 2014 $ BILLION

London, United 19.0

Kingdom

Netherlands, 15.3
operational offices
in New York, United
States, and Paris,
France

Paris, France 9.6

New York, United 7.5

States

Tokyo, Japan 6.0

Source: http://adage.coverleaf.com/advertisingage/20150504?pg=71#pg72
 282 PART 3 >> MEDIA PERSPECTIVES www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Public Relations
Just as advertising agencies straddle the ad-
vertising and media worlds, public relations
firms straddle the worlds of companies
wishing to enhance their reputations and of
media organizations that can widely distrib-
ute company messages and publicity. Unlike
advertisers, however, public relations agen-
cies do not pay media companies to place
content. Rather, these professionals attempt
to persuade important gatekeepers, such as
editors, journalists, or influential bloggers,
that information about their client is suffi-
ciently newsworthy to be published or
Advertising for children’s toys often perpetuates gender stereotypes and promotes broadcast.
unrealistic lifestyles and body images. A recent analysis of Barbie’s proportions revealed Public relations firms are ideally posi-
the world’s best-selling doll to be anatomically impossible.
tioned to understand some of the new
interactive dynamics in today’s world of
social media. Increasingly, these firms, while seeking to mitigate negative news
and promote positive information, help companies navigate social media and
provide guidance on policies such as having a Facebook page, creating a YouTube
channel, and talking with consumers on fan pages or Twitter. Some have dubbed
this new, more interactive public relations PR 2.0.
To many journalists, PR is a necessary evil. To others, it’s just plain evil. Nev-
ertheless, journalists rely heavily on the information PR firms provide for stories.
Public relations is a vital part of the three-way relationship among the media, or-
ganizations, and the public, including employees, consumers, shareholders, activ-
ists (who might oppose certain corporate policies), and regulators. Edward L.
Bernays, the late father of modern public relations, used to say that propaganda
was better than “impropaganda.” The same might be said of public relations. It all
depends on how it’s done.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider the concept of reputation for companies. How would
you define reputation and how do you think it could be measured and given some sort of
monetary value? Are there similarities between the concept of reputation with humans
and with companies?

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Modern public relations has evolved rapidly and in unique ways, informed by the
rise of mass communications and technological advances. Some say PR is the world’s
second-oldest profession. But it was not recognized as a separate activity until the
early twentieth century when a number of publishing activities began to be catego-
rized discretely as either journalism or public relations. Thomas Paine’s influential
pro-Revolution pamphlets in the 1770s, such as Common Sense, and the sympathetic
newspaper pieces on the Boston Massacre, for example, would be considered public
relations or even propaganda by today’s standards rather than journalism.
The first stage of public relations occurred during the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries. Getting publicity in the press (or other media) for a client was
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 283

a central practice in age of press agentry. As newspapers developed into a form press agentry
of mass communication, publicity as part of a news story meant increased expo- Getting media attention for a client,
sure for a product or a company without needing to pay for an advertisement. often by creating outrageous
Press agentry flourished as practiced by Phineas Taylor “P. T.” Barnum, who en- stunts to attract journalists.
tered the world of promotion, press manipulation, and show business in the 1830s,
creating the famous American circus in 1870. A great showman, Barnum used
various techniques to communicate with the public. His staged events, publicity
stunts to attract attention, were particularly successful.
Although the term “public relations” had not yet been coined, former journal-
ist Ivy Ledbetter Lee was perhaps its first true modern practitioner. (Muckraking
journalist Upton Sinclair, author of The Jungle, called Lee “Poison Ivy.”) A master
of managing the press, Lee once observed, “Crowds are led by symbols and
phrases.” Many of his innovations became staples of modern public relations prac-
tice, including press conferences and newsreels, known today as video news re-
leases (VNRs), where PR firms provide video footage for television stations to use
in their news broadcasts.
One of Lee’s most visible clients was John D. Rockefeller Sr., the founder of
the Standard Oil Trust and the world’s first billionaire, who managed his compa-
nies and employees ruthlessly, even by the standards of the day. After Rockefeller
had the Colorado state militia put down a miners’ strike, resulting in dozens of
deaths, Lee produced reports stating that an overturned stove had started a house
fire that killed dozens of women and children. Lee was also behind the photo-
graphs and newsreels of Rockefeller handing out dimes to poor children wherever
he went. So legendary was his ability to manipulate the media, that in the early
1930s, the Nazis hired Lee to present a more favorable face for the “New Germany”
in the United States.14
Press agentry was known for special events and publicity stunts. In 1928, deb- General Tom Thumb achieved
widespread fame as a performer
utantes were invited to march in the Easter Parade in New York City, holding their with master showman P. T. Barnum.
“torches of freedom”—that is, lit cigarettes. This performance was intended to
attract media attention and build support for women smoking in public at a time
when society frowned on it. The American Tobacco Company, manufacturer of
Lucky Strike cigarettes, sponsored the event, created by a man many consider the
founder of modern public relations, Edward L. Bernays.
Edward L. Bernays managed some of the earliest and most famous PR
campaigns of the twentieth century. He trained during World War I as a member
of the Foreign Press Bureau of the U.S. Committee on Public Information (CPI),
essentially the propaganda arm of the U.S. government. Bernays often dined with
his famous uncle, Sigmund Freud, whose theories he mastered and whose first
English-language translations he produced. After the war, Bernays applied the
principles of both Freudian psychology and social science, a then-budding field, to
the strategic influence and shaping of public opinion. His book The Engineering of
Consent, a collection of essays by him and associates on the theory and practice of
public relations, became a classic.
Arthur W. Page was the vice president of public relations for AT&T from
1927 to 1946, the first PR person on the board of a major public corporation. He
also served on many boards of charities and other organizations. Page helped
create ethical guidelines for public relations with his Page Principles, such as
“tell the truth,” “prove it with action,” and “listen to the customer.” Today, the
Arthur W. Page Society continues his work through various educational pro-
grams, networking events, forums for PR executives, and sponsored PR research
initiatives.
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MEDIA PIONEERS
Doris E. Fleischman
Much has been written about Edward L. Bernays, celebrated women in the public
as the father of public relations in eulogies upon his death at sphere. She received a
the age of 103 in 1995. Much less, however, has been pub- BA (1913) from Barnard
lished about his wife, Doris E. Fleischman, despite her status College, where she
as an equal partner in their storied PR firm, whose clients won varsity letters in
included President Calvin Coolidge, Procter & Gamble, softball, basketball,
General Electric, the U.S. War Department, the American and tennis while a
Tobacco Company, and Sigmund Freud, Bernays’s uncle. member of Theta
Although integral to their joint enterprise, her role was Sigma Phi, the national
played largely behind the scenes, while her husband re- sorority of women in
mained the face and principal name of the business, the communications. She
man who worked in person with their clients, even on cam- subsequently worked at the New York Tribune as a reporter
paigns she had developed or press releases and speeches and an editor for the women's pages and the Sunday edi-
she had ghostwritten. tion. Among her more notable assignments were an inter-
Whereas many of her pioneering PR achievements went view with Theodore Roosevelt and—another first for a
unnoticed at the time, her earlier feminist activities did not, woman—covering a prizefight, albeit accompanied by her
some even garnering widespread newspaper headlines. She father, who feared for her safety. Her writings frequently
and her husband were members of the Lucy Stone League, a considered the challenges women of her day faced in their
civil rights organization founded in 1921 dedicated to pro- domestic and professional lives, a balancing act also sug-
moting the legal use of a woman’s maiden name, a radical gested by the title of her memoir, “A Wife Is Many Women.”
initiative for the time. In September, 1922, the newlyweds Her essay “Notes of a Retiring Feminist” implies that
checked into their hotel as Bernays and Fleischman, a first these tensions, acute for many early feminists, were never
for the Waldorf Astoria register.15 Three years later, she fully resolved: “Mrs. stands to the right of me, and Miss
became the first married woman ever issued a U.S. passport stands to the left. Me is a ghost ego nowhere in the middle.”
in her birth name. For pragmatic reasons later in life, Fleischman, weary of
Young Doris seemed poised to accomplish great things having to explain herself, increasingly adopted the use of
in an era that did not always encourage greatness from Bernays.

TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

One continuing trend as public relations has developed as a profession is estab-
lishing a dialog with the public, no longer considered a mute and passive mass
audience. In the earliest forms of PR during much of the nineteenth century, com-
munication was largely asymmetric, from the public relations agent through the
media to the audience. Audience feedback was not sought. In the early twentieth
century, a limited symmetric model of communications was espoused, with the
public providing feedback on the efficacy of a campaign. Although this appeared
superficially to be dialog, PR representatives still controlled the flow of
two-way
communications.
symmetric model
Many of the principles espoused by Page and since adopted by most firms
Model of public relations that belong to a two-way symmetric model of public relations, articulated by pio-
emphasizes the profession as a
system of managing relationships
neering PR educator James E. Grunig. This model emphasizes public relations as a
among organizations, individuals, system of managing relationships among organizations and individuals and their
and their many publics. many publics, internal and external. Mass communication and social media are
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 285

key, and building mutual understanding and good relationships is emphasized as

much as influencing public opinion.
Research shows that organizational excellence (as defined in terms of accom-
plishing both short- and long-term objectives) can be achieved with a two-way
symmetric model that incorporates the public relations function into senior man-
agement and organizational decision making. The two-way symmetric model for-
mally and informally assesses the attitudes, knowledge, behaviors, and intentions
of various publics or stakeholders, and it also places a premium on the ethical
practice of public relations.
One of the best examples remains Johnson & Johnson’s handling of the infa-
mous Tylenol tampering case in 1982, when seven people died of cyanide poison-
ing from tainted Extra-Strength Tylenol capsules. After the first reported
poisoning in the Chicago, Illinois, area, Johnson & Johnson took immediate steps
to prevent further tragedy while maintaining clear and open lines of communica-
tion with both the media and the public. Along with its parent, McNeil Consumer
Products Company, it offered a $100,000 reward, established a hotline, and opened
regional poison-control centers to dispense information and assistance.
After a nationwide recall of all Extra-Strength Tylenol capsules, at a cost of
some $100 million to remove and destroy all 31 million bottles, in January 1983,
the capsules were successfully reintroduced with a triple-sealed, tamper-resistant
packaging warning. Johnson & Johnson and McNeil Consumer Products Co. were
cleared of any legal liability, although in 1991, they provided the victims’ families
with an undisclosed settlement, estimated to be as much as $50 million.
Despite the tragedy, Tylenol sales recovered. Journalists often criticize compa-
nies in crisis for hiding information from the press and the public, but Johnson &
Johnson was praised for its open and immediate responses. “The public relations
people were knowledgeable and available when the media needed to talk to them,”
said John O’Brien of the Chicago Tribune. “They didn’t try to sugar-coat anything.”
Citizens have been empowered to engage in two-way or multidirectional com-
munication with organizations and their stakeholders, and social media such as
Twitter, Facebook, and the blogosphere have nurtured a more organic form of par-
ticipatory public relations. Launched in 2000, the American Legacy Foundation’s
national “Truth” campaign, engages the public in an antismoking dialog with edgy
mass media messages and social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube.16
One study found that smoking rates among teens in Florida dropped significantly
as a result of the Truth campaign, with only 6.6 percent of Florida teens reporting
smoking in the previous thirty days as compared to the national average of
14.4 percent.17

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: If you were running a PR firm, would you accept a company
that makes harmful products, such as tobacco, as a client? What about a political group
known for its extreme views? Explain your decisions.

PR AND MEDIA RELATIONS

Although public relations professionals engage in a wide range of activities, they
typically devote most of their time to the media, including journalists, producers,
and others responsible for content. Developing and maintaining these working
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relationships increases the possibility of obtaining fair or positive coverage of

their organizations. When a negative story does occur, the PR professional should
be able to communicate clearly and responsibly with the media, and several impor-
tant tools in the PR toolbox aid in the pursuit of desired media coverage.

Pseudo-Events
One of the most enduring legacies from the early days of modern public relations
is the pseudo-event, manufactured by individuals or organizations to capture the
“The Donald” first announced that he attention of the media and consequently the public. Press conferences, protests,
might run for president in 1988, a
parades, and even award ceremonies are all pseudo-events, arguably forms of
possibility he tantalized the press with
again in the 2000, 2004, 2008, and 2012 media manipulation on which the media have become dependent. In fact, as much
election cycles. “The only one who can as 75 percent of news content in even the nation’s best newspapers, such as the
make America truly great again” (his Washington Post, is in some way influenced by pseudo-events. Only occasionally is
words), he finally made it official for
2016, and even his earlier pseudo- a story generated through pure enterprise or original reporting without public
events succeeded in making national relations influence.18
and international headlines.
Distributing News to the Media in the Digital Age
An important development in media relations is the distribution of corporate or
other organizational news, information, and data (whether statistical or multime-
dia, including audio and video) through news releases or press releases. Formerly
typed stories sent through the mail, these are now primarily emailed or posted
directly to the Web.
Given that influential bloggers and others using social media may be as impor-
tant as professional journalists in terms of reaching audiences, a press release at
pitch times is not even needed. Rather, a well-placed pitch, a request to review a client’s
Request to review a client’s new
new product, may be enough to get people writing about it and then get main-
product or do a story about the stream media attention.
client or the product.
Finding Sources Online
Similar to classified advertising, expert-source clearinghouses that have enhanced
the media–PR relationship over the years continue to thrive on the Web, which
allows highly efficient targeting of communications and searching. The Yearbook of
Experts, Authorities & Spokespersons is now available online, greatly facilitating,
especially when on deadline, such identifications. Perhaps the largest of these
clearinghouses is ProfNet, an online service that connects more than 14,000 news
and information officers at colleges and universities, businesses, research centers,
medical centers, not-for-profits, and public relations agencies with journalists and
bloggers around the world.

PR FIRMS AND THE PR INDUSTRY

Like other American industries, the business of public relations is tied to the gen-
eral economy. Financial difficulties have caused companies to cut back on adver-
tising and PR, even though this is arguably when they most need such services. In
public relations, revenues are based on a combination of sources: primarily fees for
Press kits have transitioned from consulting and services; income from specialized communications services such
analog to digital multimedia, enabling as research, interactive communications, and employee communications; and
journalists, bloggers, and other
content creators to tell stories markups for production services and other media materials.
interactively. In the 1990s, public relations firms consolidated, but acquisition slowed con-
siderably in the early years of the twenty-first century. Most acquisitions still
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 287

occurred internationally among European holding companies such as Incepta

Group, Havas, Publicis Groupe, and Cordiant. Omnicom is the one major U.S.
communications firm that acquired several technology firms for its subsidiary
Fleishman-Hillard.
Although most organizations of any size maintain their own internal PR
units, many hire firms to aid their efforts with more specialized services. Media
relations during campaigns or crises can be extremely complex, requiring exten-
sive experience with local, national, and global media. PR firms are organized into
three main areas:
1. Core practice areas: stakeholder relationships the client needs managed, in-
cluding marketing communications or consumer relations; investor rela-
tions; public, not-for-profit, and governmental affairs; corporate and
employee communications; political communications; and community
relations
2. Services: activities the firm provides for clients, including media relations,
research, interactive or online communications, writing, lobbying, fund-
raising, and crisis management
3. Industries: business sectors within which the clients operate, including
utilities, technology, retail, manufacturing, health care, financial services,
and consumer products
Many firms specialize in one or more core practice areas, services, or indus-
tries. This enables them to focus resources yet achieve sufficient expertise to serve
clients operating on a national or global scale. Most of the larger PR firms offer
integrated communication programs (sometimes called integrated marketing
communications), a comprehensive set of communication management services,
including both public relations and advertising activities.
Table 9-4 provides data on the top five independent U.S. public relations firms
according to total worldwide revenues for 2014. Some of the PR firms that are part

TABLE 94 Top Five Independent Public Relations Firms

NUMBER OF
FIRM HEADQUARTERS EMPLOYEES 2014 NET FEES % CHANGE FROM 2013

New York, New York 5,308 $797,328,238 +8.6

Washington, DC 635 $118,112,600 –1.9

Bellevue, Washington 705 $106,676,000 –9.3

San Francisco, California 402 $82,625,000 +10.1

New York, New York 522 $73,891,000 +16.8

Source: O’Dwyer’s PR Firms Database, 2015, accessed June 12, 2015, http://www.odwyerpr.com/pr_firm_rankings/independents.htm. Used with
permission of Jack O’Dwyer, Publisher, O’Dwyer Co.
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of the larger agencies include WPP’s Hill & Knowlton (approximately $384 mil-
lion) and Omnicom Group’s Fleishman Hillard (approximately $605 million),
Ketchum (approximately $505 million), and Porter Novelli (approximately $126
million).19 These PR agencies are all bigger than any of the independent PR firms
except for Edelman. Founded in 1952 by former journalist Daniel Edelman, his
firm, now run by his son Richard, has more than 5,000 employees in 65 cities.

Changing Trends in Advertising and PR

Clearly, the professional divisions between advertising and PR are blurring. In the
integrated analog age, PR practitioners, unconcerned with brand strategy or other aspects of
communications advertising, dealt primarily with media relations. But today, PR and advertising
professionals have to know what the other is doing to maximize the effectiveness
All channels of communication
about a company or brand working
of campaigns.
together to create a cohesive Integrated communications try to determine the best ways to manage a
message. brand’s image across media channels while learning what the public is saying

ETHICS IN MEDIA
Fooling Most of the People Most of the Time . . .
Digitally
Online shoppers increasingly rely on reviews on websites
such as Amazon, Yelp, and TripAdvisor for information about
new books, hotels, restaurants, and much more. But how
trustworthy are these sources of information? Increasing evi-
dence suggests that many people writing these reviews are
in fact paid $5 to $10 to write favorable appraisals by the com-
panies and products being evaluated.20 Following are two
reviews from a Cornell study designed to help ferret out fab-
ricated reviews from honest ones. One is genuine, the other
fake. Can you tell which is which?

1. I have stayed at many hotels traveling for both business

and pleasure, and I can honestly say that The James is
tops. The service at the hotel is first class. The rooms are
BEAUTIFUL and the staff very attentive and wonderful!!
modern and very comfortable. The location is perfect,
The area of the hotel is great, since I love to shop—I
within walking distance to all of the great sights and res-
couldn’t ask for more!! We will definitely be back to Chi-
taurants. Highly recommend to both business travelers
cago and we will for sure be back to the James Chicago.21
and couples.
2. My husband and I stayed at the James Chicago Hotel for Don’t feel bad if you couldn’t tell the real review from the fake
our anniversary. This place is fantastic! We knew as soon one; neither could most people in the study. (Review #2 is the
as we arrived we made the right choice! The rooms are phony one.)
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 289

about the brand through blogs, websites, and other social media, called social
media listening. Advertising agencies are acknowledging what public relations pro-
fessionals have long known—a company cannot send a message without consider-
ing audience response and what it may mean for a company’s reputation. Similarly,
public relations professionals are understanding that a company or brand exists
within a network of relationships and that thinking on a larger, strategic level can
help them integrate their messages better to various stakeholders.
Companies are learning—sometimes the hard way—that the online public
demands more transparency. Attempts at deception in any manner will likely
elicit a strong backlash that will hurt the brand or company. More equitable, sym-
metrical dialog is occurring as companies learn to talk with their clients or publics
through forums, blogs, and social media, a shift from “controlling the message” to
“guiding the conversation.”

FIGURE 91 Salaries for Advertising Account Managers by Experience

$65,653

Entry-Level 0–5 years $44,326

$31,073

$76,457

Mid-Career 5–10 years $52,531

$38,564

$107,894

Experienced 10–20 years

$56,601

$37,277

$121,198

Late-Career >20 years

$57,391

$41,372
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FIGURE 92 Salaries for Corporate PR Specialists by Experience

$57,737

Entry-Level 0–5 years $40,758

$29,029

$76,758

Mid-Career 5–10 years $50,406

$35,818

$96,507

Experienced 10–20 years

$54,608

$35,372

$154,954

Late-Career >20 years

$59,665

$34,786

MEDIA CAREERS

A wide variety of interesting and increasingly overlapping jobs exist in both

advertising and PR. The trends in media production and consumption tend to
favor strategic communications over fields like journalism (which has seen drastic
cuts  throughout the industry), and the salaries are generally better than in
journalism.
Young people often find rewarding careers in a number of areas in advertising
and PR, ranging from the creative side to account management to market research.
Larger firms allow greater scope for changing career tracks and industry clients.
Someone working in pharmaceuticals for a few years may switch to telecommuni-
cations or consumer packaged goods, starting in effect a different career in a new
industry.
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 291

Social media are creating new job opportunities in advertising agencies and
PR firms as well as in large companies with internal marketing or PR departments.
Keeping track of what is being said about a company and reaching influential
members of the audience through social media are increasingly vital. More impor-
tantly, knowing what tool to use when, why a company or client should use (or not
use) a particular social media tool such as Instagram or Twitter, is a skill compa-
nies are actively seeking.
The not-for-profit sector should not be ignored when considering a job in
public relations or advertising. Although salaries are generally lower than in cor-
porations, not-for-profit foundations, charities, and research institutes need the
skills of strategic communications just as much as for-profit companies, if not
more so. The not-for-profit sector is often particularly focused on issues of social
responsibility and benefit, although most corporate PR efforts maintain a com-
mitment in this regard as well, especially those practicing symmetrical public
relations.

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

Although news and entertainment are the most popular media content, advertis-
ing is the most pervasive, and much editorial content and programming are in-
spired or influenced by public relations. Underlying advertising and PR, both
forms of strategic communications, is the desire to persuade an audience to change
an attitude or belief or to take some action. Persuasive communication, histori-
cally called rhetoric, has long played a role in human affairs, and today dozens of
theories attempt to explain how persuasion works.
As public reliance on online and mobile media grows, so does advertising on
the Web and via mobile, a substantial part of total advertising spending world-
wide, surpassing that of newspapers. Consumer research targeting and tracking
media behavior has also increased. Technology allows for greater accountability of
response rates to advertisements, and advertising agencies have been trying new
types of online advertisements that link advertising with ecommerce and mcom-
merce better.
Advertising revenues support the majority of content we see today. Advertis-
ing helps pay journalist salaries and keeps television studios operating. Histori-
cally, few people have been willing to pay the full price for the content they get
largely for “free,” although this is beginning to change as increasing numbers of
consumers pay for subscriptions to media or buy content for digital download.
Of course, content has never been truly free. Consumers pay in the form of
higher prices for goods, corporate expenses for advertising and marketing being
passed on to consumers. Moreover, digital consumers are increasingly and often
unwittingly “selling” their personal information online in exchange for “free” dig-
ital content. Because such costs are largely hidden from the public, the adoption of
subscription-based or pay-per-use models seems less attractive by comparison.
Social media will continue to greatly affect strategic-communications profes-
sionals, who must keep in mind that transparency and engagement with their
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audiences will enhance their credibility. Monitoring online conversations about

companies—and, more importantly, joining those conversations—has become an
imperative for advertising and public relations professionals.
One thing is increasingly clear: The democratization of media and the capacity
for more people than ever before to create and distribute messages makes it in
some ways harder than ever to be heard. Knowing how to speak clearly above the
digital din, how to persuade, how to craft powerful messages, and how to under-
stand audiences are all requisite skills in today’s fields of advertising and public
relations.

MEDIA MATTERS THE DYNAMICS OF PERSUASION

1. If you participated in a blind taste test with viewing experience when you notice one
your favorite brand of cola, do you think you of these products?
could tell which is yours? 5. Name the five major trends in mobile
2. Identify the main differences and similarities advertising. Which ads do you find most
between advertising and public relations. effective?
Which field would you prefer to work in and 6. Compare the branding and advertising for a
why? major consumer brand with that of a large
3. What is the difference between SEO, SEM, and nonprofit organization, noting similarities and
social media optimization (SMO)? Why are they differences. Which branding is more
important? effective?
4. Which shows do you watch where product 7. How does a viral video work? Identify your top
placement is apparent? How does it affect your five favorites and explain your selection.

FURTHER READING

The Skinny on the Art of Persuasion: How to Move Minds. Jim Randel (2010) Rand Media Company.
Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of
Persuasion. Jay Heinrichs (2007) Three Rivers Press.
Ad Land: A Global History of Advertising. Mark Tungate (2007) Kogan Page.
A History of Advertising. Stephane Pincas, Marc Loiseau (2008) Taschen.
The Advertising Concept Book. Pete Barry (2008) Thames & Hudson.
Advertising, the Uneasy Persuasion: Its Dubious Impact on American Society. Michael Schudson
(1987) Basic Books.
Guerrilla Advertising: Unconventional Brand Communication. Gavin Lucas, Michael Dorrian (2006)
Laurence King Publishers.
Ogilvy on Advertising. David Ogilvy (1987) Vintage Books.
The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism. Thomas
Frank (1998) University of Chicago Press.
 CHAPTER 9 >> ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE POWER OF PERSUASION 293

PR! A Social History of Spin. Stuart Ewen (1996) Basic Books.

The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. Larry Tye (2002) Holt.
Spin Sucks: Communication and Reputation Management in the Digital Age. Gini Dietrich (2014)
Que Publishing.
Unconscious Branding: How Neuroscience Can Empower (and Inspire) Marketing. Douglas Van Praet
(2014) Palgrave Macmillan Trade.
The Art of Social Media: Power Tips for Power Users. Guy Kawasaki, Peg Fitzpatrick (2014) Portfolio.
Social Media: Usage and Impact. Hana S. Noor Al-Deen, John Allen Hendricks (eds.) (2012) Lexington
Books.
Social Media: Dominating Strategies for Social Media Marketing with Twitter, Facebook, YouTube,
LinkedIn and Instagram. Michael Richards (2015) CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
The Daily You: How the New Advertising Industry Is Defining Your Identity and Your Worth. Joseph
Turow (2013) Yale University Press.
Return on Engagement: Content Strategy and Web Design Techniques for Digital Marketing, 2nd ed.
Tim Frick, Kate Eyler-Werve (2014) Focal Press.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

296 Ethics, Morals, and Laws

297 Major Systems of Ethical
Reasoning
306 Issues in Ethical Decision
Making
308 Role of Commercialism
in Media Ethics
310 Ethics in Journalism
313 Ethical Issues in
Advertising
315 Ethics in Public Relations
318 Ethics in Entertainment
 10

Media Ethics
L
ong famous for pop culture pieces and music criticism, Rolling Stone LEARNING OBJECTIVES
has more recently developed a reputation for hard-hitting, investiga-
tive reporting, articles such as the provocatively titled “A Rape on >> Define basic elements
Campus: A Brutal Assault and Struggle for Justice at UVA.” The 9,000- in media ethics.
word, in-depth feature, published in November 2014, described the alleged >> Outline the major systems
2012 gang rape of a University of Virginia freshman at a fraternity house party, of ethical reasoning.
its subsequent mishandling by the administration, and the pervasive culture of >> Explain the main issues
rape on college campuses nationwide. involved in ethical decision
Author Sabrina Rubin Erdely’s story quickly went viral while increasing coveted making.
clicks to rollingstone.com. Three days after the story broke, in response to mounting >> Discuss the role of
public outrage, the UVA president suspended all Greek activities and called for an commercialism in media
official police investigation.1 This striking example of news-media agenda setting ethics.
promoted a national conversation about sexual assault and society’s indifference >> Describe the major ethical
when confronted with what many consider a hidden epidemic of these brutal issues in journalism,
crimes. advertising, PR, and
On closer inspection, however, the initially persuasive and compelling exposé entertainment.
began to unravel at the seams as other media professionals advanced critiques that
held Rolling Stone accountable for a journalistic account that flouted best practices.
The essential fabric of the story had been spun from a single thread, relying on one
unidentified, uncorroborated source, “Jackie.”
At this point, discussion in the public sphere turned swiftly from the subject of
sexual assault to the topic of media ethics. More careful reporting, critics argued,
would have revealed discrepancies in Jackie’s description of events. Yet neither the
friends who came to her rescue after the alleged attack nor the alleged attackers
were ever interviewed, despite the damning article having quoted them according
to Jackie’s recollection of what had been said.
Rolling Stone announced that their trust in Jackie had been misplaced, a state-
ment that incited even more controversy for its apparent victim blaming. An inde-
pendent analysis, subsequently conducted at Rolling Stone’s request, blamed

295
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“avoidable” lapses in the fundamentals of reporting, editing, and fact checking. It also
mentioned “the problem of confirmation bias—the tendency of people to be trapped by
pre-existing assumptions and to select facts that support their own views while overlook-
ing contradictory ones.”2 In other words, the reporter’s search for an emblematic case
became at some point the construction of one.
In April 2015, the magazine published the “painful” findings of a team from the
Columbia School of Journalism. No one was fired, but the “anatomy of a journalistic fail-
ure” was preceded by an official retraction of the original story and an apology to readers,
to the Phi Kappa Psi house, to UVA administrators and students, and to rape victims, who
might now be more reluctant to step forward.

Media ethics is not truly a stand-alone subject, for ethical decision-making skills
should be part of media professionals’ daily practices. Ethical reasoning should be
a primary component when considering actions.
To do that, however, requires a solid understanding of ethics and the strengths
and weaknesses of various ethical frameworks. This knowledge helps us recognize
ethical problems before they arise and deal with them once they do. By focusing
on ethics as a separate subject, this chapter gives you the basic tools to make ethi-
cal decisions. Anybody working in media should be mindful of how ethics in gen-
eral and media ethics in particular are integral to our personal and professional
lives, and how the decisions of media professionals can have far-reaching conse-
quences for many others.

Ethics, Morals, and Laws

Technically, ethics is a branch of philosophy that examines moral questions, or
questions of right and wrong, and thus is also called moral philosophy. There are
many specialties within ethics. One of the main branches attempts to answer
moral questions in both theory (moral theory) and practice (applied ethics). An-
other branch, metaethics, deals with nonmoral questions about morality, such as
the nature of moral facts and the meanings of moral statements. In this chapter,
we will first look at some moral theories and then examine applied ethics as it re-
lates to mass communication and journalism, advertising, PR, and entertainment
in particular.
Although ethics actually refers to the branch of philosophy that examines
questions of morality, in common usage, the term “ethics” is often used synony-
mously with “morals.” Morals are what we believe to be right or wrong. The ques-
tion of why we consider an action such as lying to be wrong is a matter for
metaethics and not something we address here. Although it may seem impossible
to dictate what is right or wrong for a person in a given situation, ethics provides
us with a framework and method for good moral reasoning.
Ethics and laws are not the same. Many of our basic laws are based on moral
precepts, but many unethical actions are not illegal. Similarly, many laws are not
based on moral precepts (consider traffic parking laws, e.g.). Some laws, such as
segregation in the United States or apartheid in South Africa, have been deemed
immoral and have eventually been reformed, through civil disobedience and other
means, to better reflect what is considered right and good.
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 297

Major Systems of Ethical Reasoning

There is no single underlying and unified ethical system that all people can follow
for complete justice and peace. That does not mean, however, we will not benefit
from examining the thinking of philosophers, religious leaders, and scholars, and
the different ethical systems that have been developed, some over thousands of
years. Various classifications of ethical reasoning and moral theories exist, but
here we will use a system employed by William Neher and Paul Sandin in their
book Communicating Ethically. In some ways matching that of noted media ethics
scholar Clifford Christians,3 their classification also diverges to highlight the role
of communication in ethics.
Neher and Sandin group the four major systems within the categories of char-
acter, duties, consequences, and relationships. We will look at these and also ex-
amine the issue of moral relativism.

CHARACTER, OR VIRTUE ETHICS

Virtue ethics is the oldest of the ethical systems, with roots in some of our earliest
religions. The Greeks believed strongly in the notion of virtue and the role of char-
acter in living a virtuous life. They aspired to virtues such as courage, modesty,
stoicism, and honesty, among other character traits. In virtue ethics, a virtuous
character lets you live a virtuous life. Simply acting modest or selfless, when in
fact you do not really feel those traits, does not make you virtuous (partly because
you are breaking another virtue, that of honesty).
Many great thinkers have given us lists of virtues, sometimes falling short of
meeting their own standards. Benjamin Franklin famously made a list of thirteen
virtues and vowed to focus on a different item every week, dutifully logging in a
notebook how he did each day. He soon gave up, though, after realizing he could
not practice the virtue of order, or keeping things in their place, only the third
virtue on his list.4 He was also famous for not following his twelfth virtue, chas-
tity. Virtue ethics can give us a framework for the best way to live our lives, but it
does not tell us exactly how to do that.
Although virtue ethics may seem old-fashioned, given its long religious and
philosophical history, it has become more important in recent years among media
ethicists. Its stress on character touches on fundamental aspects of what makes
us human, a compelling emphasis absent in some later ethical systems.
There are two virtue-based ethics you are probably familiar with: the Golden
Rule and the Golden Mean.

The Golden Rule

A basic ethical principle in Judeo-Christian belief, which dominates most Western
societies, is often cited as “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.”
Another way to express the same idea is “Love thy neighbor as thyself.”
This principle could be applied by a journalist when interviewing a grieving
relative, for example. By treating the person with respect and dignity and asking
themselves how they would want to be treated in the same situation, journalists
can perhaps avoid some of the charges of invasion of privacy or tastelessness
in  coverage often leveled at the media. Some journalists, when interviewed in
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similar situations, have expressed shock at the realization of how insensitive and
intrusive the news media can be during trying times of personal grief.

The Golden Mean

One of the oldest ethical principles, the Golden Mean, was espoused in different
forms by Aristotle and Confucius, each of whom said that finding a balance be-
tween two extremes is the most ethical way. This “middle way” may well shift as
the extremes shift, of course, and even this principle has to be taken in modera-
tion. Stealing only half, rather than all, the money from a cash register would not
be ethical, for example, because stealing is wrong in the first place.
Applying the Golden Mean to news stories would involve trying to find bal-
ance and fairness among all sides of an issue. It does not mean automatically
giving each side the same amount of coverage or space in the newspaper, however,
because the relative importance of the groups must be judged. For example, an
extreme fringe group with only a few hundred vocal members should not receive
the same amount of coverage on a controversial issue as a long-standing national
organization with tens of thousands of members.
According to Aristotle, the process of deciding on a mean is one way we deter-
mine what constitutes virtue, and the mean becomes the standard by which ethi-
cal acts are judged. This is part of the reason that acts typically deemed wrong,
such as stealing, should not be considered one extreme.

Virtue Ethics in Action

Taking today’s much-touted notion of transparency as a virtue, we can see where
unethical actions may occur when companies try to hide information or mislead
the public. One such case is when the major networks, of which news organiza-
tions are a part, fought a proposed regulation that would require television
stations to disclose the sources and amounts of political advertising they received.
If transparency is a virtue that news organizations demand of other companies,
then these networks were acting unethically—if not hypocritically—when trying
to keep the information secret. In the end, a kind of golden mean was reached
in that only the four major networks and stations in the top markets would have
to disclose the information, whereas cable networks and smaller-market stations
would not.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Discuss what virtues you think are most admirable in today’s
world. Why do you think so? How many of those can you honestly say you practice?

DUTIES
As the name suggests, duty-based ethical systems state that we must follow a pre-
scribed set of rules, or duties, regardless of the outcome. It is our moral obligation
to follow these duties, no matter what. Duty theories provide basic principles for
moral obligations in life. These may spring from religious beliefs (duties to God),
but duties to others and oneself may also be embraced.
Duty-based approaches differ from virtue-based ethical systems in important
ways. The virtue-based approach emphasizes the individual’s choices within a
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 299

prescribed framework. In a duty-based approach, individual choice is eliminated

in favor of a set of rules that apply equally to everybody.

The Categorical Imperative

Immanuel Kant was an influential German philosopher in the eighteenth century
categorical imperative
whose duty-based ethical system stated that actions should be decided on moral
laws that would apply to everyone. Kant said that we should create these moral In ethical thought, Kant’s concept
of an unconditional moral
laws only when we have carefully considered if we would want these laws applied obligation that does not depend on
to us at all times. He referred to this unconditional moral obligation as a categor- an individual’s personal inclinations
ical imperative. The categorical imperative cannot depend on a personal inclina- or goals.
tion, goal, or purpose. It encourages one to act for the benefit of
others first and not for personal gain. Treating someone with respect,
giving to charity to benefit those in need, and lending a hand to help
another with a difficult task are examples of actions that reinforce
the inherent value of others.
Media organizations can apply Kant’s categorical imperative in
many ways. Consider, for instance, an advertising firm’s decision to
decline clients who sell tobacco or alcohol, or a public relations firm’s
decision not to accept government clients from nations with poor
human rights records. Following categorical imperatives would entail
rejecting such clients, no matter how promising the contract.
For news organizations, decisions to publish names of criminal
suspects or to cover all serious crimes, for example, would fall under
the categorical imperative. In this case, if a newspaper published all
names of drivers arrested for drunk driving, it would make no excep-
tion for even the mayor or the newspaper publisher.
The strength in duty-based approaches should be clear: Simply by
following the rules, you are acting ethically. Nevertheless, obeying
certain rules can still complicate many situations. Reporting crime
victim names, for instance, seems like a simple policy. But when look-
ing at a stigmatized crime like rape, reporting the victim’s name may
further harm the victim. Others argue that not treating sexual
crimes like other crimes deepens misunderstanding and stigmatiza-
Immanuel Kant was an influential eighteenth-century
tion by perpetuating the myth of sexual violence as being somehow German philosopher who developed the notion of the
intrinsically different than other violent crimes. categorical imperative in ethics.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: If you believe that telling the truth is always the best course of
action, then create a list of cases in which you would lie, ranging from extreme (“I would lie
to save my life”) to less serious cases (“I would lie not to hurt someone’s feelings”). What
does this exercise teach about telling the truth as both an ideal and a practical reality?

Discourse Ethics
German social theorist and scholar Jürgen Habermas, most known for his concept
of the “public sphere” (see Chapter 14), has proposed what he calls “discourse
ethics” as an ethical framework. Habermas claims that communication is integral
to how we understand the world, and when practiced without bias or coercion, it
becomes an ethical act brought about through the process of rational interaction,
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or argument. He proposes several actions for participants in discourse, a formal-

ized discussion in which the ideas of all affected parties are heard and considered
on their own merits—not outside factors, such as who is more powerful or more
persuasive. Discourse ethics prescribes rules but also assumes that justice and
equality are most important for a good society.
Principles of discourse ethics could work well when an organization does not
agree on the proper course of action. If all affected parties participate in the discus-
sion, they can see other perspectives better, yielding a decision that ideally makes
everyone happy. Note that this process is not about finding a compromise simply for
the sake of compromise but more about letting people come to a shared and consen-
sual understanding of what is true or correct based on the merits of the argument.
A company promoting a highly unpopular development project may ask a
small PR firm to represent them. A discourse-ethics approach to the project could
help them decide whether to take on the client. All those in the firm could state
their views. They might also solicit opinions from other clients and local citizens
whom the project might affect. Bringing in parties normally without a voice would
ideally provide new perspectives for all involved and lead to an ethical decision.

Duties-Based Ethics in Action

The News of the World, a 168-year-old UK tabloid newspaper with 2.6 million read-
ers, published its last issue on July 10, 2011, with the headline “Thank You and
Goodbye.” The paper, owned by Rupert Murdoch’s News Corp., was at the heart of
a shocking scandal involving journalists hacking phones of celebrities, sports
stars, politicians, and families of crime victims, all to get mate-
rial to scoop competing tabloids.
Phone hacking—eavesdropping on private phone calls or
messages—is illegal, but a host of ethical issues were also raised
by industry experts, the government, and the public regarding
whether journalism in the United Kingdom needed further reg-
ulation. Further complicating matters, while raising even more
legal and ethical concerns, was the revelation that journalists
had bribed police officers for information for stories.
In response to public outrage, advertisers promptly pulled
their ads from the News of the World, which led in part to its
sudden closure. Public concern about invasions of privacy, espe-
cially by a profession that claims to be the watchdog of govern-
ment, seriously damaged the reputation of journalism. Fierce
competition among Britain’s tabloids, which specialize in lurid
stories, and the drive to sell more papers, stifled ethical decision
making at the News of the World. Adhering to the duties of pro-
fessional journalists and editors, rather than the scoop mental-
ity of daily tabloids, might have prevented such misconduct.

CONSEQUENCES
We often consider the likely consequences of our actions as
we  make ethical decisions. Of course, nobody can predict the
future, so exact forecasts may be difficult. Nevertheless, some
The News of the World phone-hacking scandal had massive influential ethical systems look primarily at consequences as
repercussions in the British press and government. ways to judge what is ethically good or not.
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 301

Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism assumes that the most ethical action does the greatest good for the
greatest number. A decision or act that severely hurts someone or a small group is
still right if it helps many more people.
This may promote a numbers game, thinking of the greatest good strictly in
terms of the number of people who benefit. Another way to look at it weighs a
small good for a great number of people against a greater good for a small number.
Scientific research on animals operates under a utilitarian principle, with many
safeguards to minimize potential suffering and harm of test subjects. A small
number of animals suffer or are killed to find cures for diseases that may help
much larger numbers of people. It may be harder from a utilitarian ethical per-
spective to justify testing cosmetics on animals than testing animals to find a cure
for cancer—a classic case of how both “greatest number” and “greatest good” must
be weighed.
Utilitarianism can often be used to justify media coverage of sensitive or pain-
ful events for a small number of people because the coverage can help many others.
Examples include investigative reports of government wrongdoing in which a few
individuals may go to jail or lose their jobs, but society as a whole benefits, or text-
book coverage of professionals who have committed ethics violations. Social social marketing
marketing operates under utilitarian principles because it attempts to do the Advertising and marketing
greatest good for the greatest number of people by changing their behaviors, such techniques that persuade people
as encouraging them not to drive drunk, smoke, or binge drink. to change bad or destructive
behaviors or adopt good behaviors.
Social Justice
Egalitarian philosophers believe that what is ethical is whatever brings about the
most social justice or fairness for everyone. In this way, the utilitarian belief of
“the greatest good” is interpreted as “the most fairness for everyone.”
Philosopher John Rawls argued in his 1971 book A Theory of Justice that fair-
ness is the fundamental idea behind justice. Yet establishing what is fair in a com-
plex modern society, where certain groups have greater wealth, power, and
advantages, is often difficult. To better understand fairness, Rawls advocates that
the parties step behind a “veil of ignorance” and give up their usual roles. They
must stake out an “original position” on the issue, not knowing what their role
may be after it is decided.
By following this procedure, managers in
disputes with workers would have to imagine
that they may end up part of the workers
after the exercise is finished. If so, would they
be satisfied with the result proposed by man-
agement? From this framework, Rawls says,
the parties would be better able to establish
fair practices, for they could more clearly see
other viewpoints and those interests.
Understanding other viewpoints is key
to effective media communications. Adver-
tising executives may realize that if they
were of a different ethnic group or gender,
they might find a proposed advertisement
offensive. Newsroom editors may reassess Social marketing campaigns to discourage harmful behaviors employ a utilitarian
the workload of reporters after admitting it perspective, trying to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
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would be too onerous for them, which may lead to policy changes. Reporters may
choose their words more carefully or write the story more thoughtfully if they
imagined themselves as the subject of the piece.
Still, such ponderings may seem unrealistic in today’s competitive business
world. An editor may realize, on a personal level, that the workload of reporters is
unfair but may not be able to do anything about it on a professional or organiza-
tional level. Asking those in control to step behind a veil of ignorance or follow
certain rules of discourse is also asking them to surrender their power and posi-
tion. And, as with discourse ethics, the dominant group has little incentive to
abandon its ability to coerce others.

Consequence-Based Ethics in Action

Childhood obesity and its accompanying diseases, such as diabetes and high blood
pressure, are a growing problem in the United States. The problem is exacerbated
in Puerto Rico, where Hispanic cultural norms see a chubby kid as a healthy kid.
As part of an advertising campaign, Subway restaurant let children go grocery
shopping while their parents secretly watched on video in another room. The ad
showed shocked and horrified parents observing their children fill the shopping
carts with junk food. Similar to public service ads in the United States that high-
lighted the effect of parents’ bad shopping habits on children’s eating habits, Sub-
way’s ads provided a social caution—while also of course reminding viewers that
Subway sandwiches are a more healthful option than other fast foods.
A social marketing campaign like Subway’s could clearly be seen as using utili-
tarian principles to promote the greatest good for the greatest number. Even so, it
does raise issues of self-interest while downplaying the fact that some of Subway’s
menu items also are high in calories.

RELATIONSHIPS, OR DIALOGICAL ETHICS

Neher and Sandin call dialogical ethics “a system in which ethics can be judged by
the attitudes and behaviors demonstrated by each participant in a communication
transaction.” In ethical dialogs, the participants are willing to open themselves up
and see how the other side views the world and themselves. In dialogical ethics, we
do not try to force our own agenda but strive for open and honest dialog that ac-
cepts other views without judgment. We do not simply abandon our own views
and become uncritical sponges, but we remain open to hearing other views and
respecting those we encounter.
Dialog forms the basis of our relations with others. This is especially true with
social media because dialog is often the only way we interact with many people
online. Further, professions such as advertising and public relations, in which suc-
cess is measured by how well the audience has been persuaded to buy a product,
change a belief, or perform some other action, would seem to be unethical from a
dialogical-ethics perspective because they are using people as a means to an end.
These points are valid. Even so, perhaps some of the seemingly unethical
issues involving advertising may be mitigated if a dialogical ethical approach is
considered. In today’s world of social media, where audience members communi-
cate regularly with each other, joining the dialog has become increasingly impor-
tant for companies. A common mistake of organizations as they enter the social
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 303

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Mistaken Identity: One Life Lost, Another Ruined
Social-networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter
have played important roles in many recent social move-
ments, including protests in Iran in 2009 as students took
to the streets against President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad’s
government, which banned media coverage.
Despite the media ban, one particularly poignant in-
cident was recorded and sent through social media all over
the world. Militia members shot a 26-year-old student,
Neda Agha-Soltan, her dying moments captured on video.
Her photo quickly became a rallying cry for protesters and
a symbol of the extreme repression they opposed.
The only trouble was that the photo they—and all
Western media outlets—used was not that of Neda
Agha-Soltan. Rather, it was a Facebook photo of Zahra
Soltani, who also goes by the name Neda. Nobody was
more surprised to see this than Soltani herself as she got
friend requests on Facebook and saw her photo appear
all over the media.
Iranian authorities contacted Soltani, a 33-year-old
English-literature teacher at a university in Iran, and apologies; and some continued to use her picture, as
asked her to support the government claim that foreign have many websites that have written about the story.
intelligence agencies had faked the shooting photo to Soltani’s case demonstrates what can happen when
discredit the Iranian government. When she refused, media outlets think of people only as objects for news
they became more persistent and started asking her stories to attract bigger audiences.
questions about her contacts with people overseas, According to dialogical ethics, the media should
where she was planning to attend a conference. When have been willing to listen to Soltani and to correct the
she was warned by a friend that the government was misinformation they were spreading about her rather
going to arrest her as a spy, she hastily fled the country than largely ignoring her. Later Soltani accepted a visit-
with nothing but her laptop computer, a backpack, and ing professorship position at Montclair State University
the clothes she was wearing. in New Jersey, where she teaches English literature.
Soltani first stayed in Germany, where she was “Both sides have destroyed my life, the Western media
granted asylum while she tried to get the media to stop and the Iranian intelligence,” Soltani told the New York
using her picture for Agha-Soltan’s. Even after proving to Times. “But I still have the hope that at least the media
media agencies they were mistaken, she never received will realize what they have done.”5

media space is trying to control the dialog and squash dissent rather than truly
listening to consumers and trying to understand their viewpoints, as dialogical
ethics dictates.

Ethics of Care
The ethics of care challenges many traditional ethical systems and speaks to issues
in modern society and communication. This branch of feminist ethics has many
variants and has been quite controversial. A number of beliefs characterize feminist
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thought in general: Women are the equal of men; oppression of women is wrong;
categories of male and female and their associated gender roles are socially con-
structed; the male perspective has dominated throughout history to the detriment
of women; and consequently, society has accepted ostensibly male virtues as the
standard or highest ideals.
Like dialogical ethics, the ethics of care emphasizes the importance of rela-
tionships but places a greater emphasis on improving relationships. In the ethics
of care, acting ethically involves caring for oneself and for others within the con-
text of a relationship in real life, not because of abstract principles. It replaces a
justice-based ethical system with a caring-based ethical system, the one caring and
the cared for.
Feminist ethics is important in a communication context for a number of dif-
ferent reasons. First, the assumptions that “male” means “normal” has implica-
tions for everything from how advertising messages are constructed to who is
making the advertisements (and who are simply models within them). Mass com-
munication, in subtle and not-so-subtle ways, helps establish and reinforce the
roles of men and women in society. Second, even if women are hardwired differ-
ently than men—still a debatable point—promoting caring about others offers a
valuable alternative way of conceptualizing communications.

Dialogical Ethics in Action

In 2012, McDonalds launched a Twitter campaign using the #McDStories hashtag,
encouraging customers to share their experiences as children with Happy Meals
and other fond memories of time spent at McDonalds. The plan would seem to be
a perfect case of dialogical ethics at work, with a multinational corporation reach-
ing out on social media and asking its customers to share recollections of good
times at their restaurants.
What they received, however, were not the expected Happy Stories of Happy
Meals: “One time I walked into McDonalds and I could smell the Type 2 diabetes
floating in the air and I threw up”; “Eating a Quarter Pounder Value Meal makes
me feel exactly like an hour of violent weeping”; “I ate a @McDonalds cheeseburger

Feminist ethics provide a moral framework that encourages the empowerment of women while protesting
discrimination and harassment.
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 305

a few years ago and got food poisoning so bad I had to get hospitalized”; and so on.6
McDonalds realized too late the nature of the beast they had unleashed, a PR
monster that crushed subsequent corporate efforts to further dialog by address-
ing negative consumer comments.
In 2014, Dr. Oz opened similar dialogic floodgates when he solicited questions
on Twitter, promising to reply to his favorites on his website. Despite being a
highly accomplished cardiothoracic surgeon who has devoted his life to improving
the health of others, Dr. Oz is as controversial a brand as allegedly health-impairing
McDonalds. So perhaps not surprisingly to anyone but Oz himself, his PR team,
and his legions of fans, #OzsInbox, the hashtag he created, was similarly swiftly
inundated with vitriol, most notably from practicing physicians who took this op-
portunity to unload on Dr. Oz for perceived quackery.
The following is from the medical Twitterverse: “When you’re doing an inter-
nal mammary artery bypass graft, does . . . crap, I forgot, you’re not a real doctor
anymore, never mind”; “Can you go an entire show without saying the words
‘miracle,’ ‘toxin,’ and ‘belly fat?’ ”; “Why have you not been censured or fired from
@ColumbiaSurgery for conduct unbecoming a physician, scientist, and gentlemen?”7
The latter tweet evidently expressed the sentiments of many in the profession
who, in April 2015, called for his removal from the Columbia faculty, where Oz is
vice chair of Columbia’s Department of Surgery.8
Public relations nightmares such as these will likely educate other compa-
nies about the possible negative consequences of well-intentioned forays into di-
alogic social media. Perhaps the following tweet best captures this lesson: “Dear,
Dr. Oz, at what point today did you realize that the Twitter demographic is dif-
ferent from your show’s regular audience?” As these cautionary tales illustrate,
social media can be a minefield. Meaningful dialog can still be generated on this
platform, though, without setting off explosives. Moreover, these conversations
are taking place about brands and companies, formerly accustomed to dictating
and controlling their message whether or not they become an active part of the
conversation.

MORAL RELATIVISM
Moral relativism suggests that none of the ethical systems can be said to be any
better than the others and that traditional ethical principles have historically
been used primarily to secure the stature of established social groups. The notion
of moral relativism derives from anthropological research that recognizes behav-
iors deemed wrong in our culture may be considered perfectly normal, even moral,
in another culture. This led early researchers to question the basis on which some
groups declared their moral codes superior to others.
A weakness of moral relativism is that it leaves no agreed-on rules or princi-
ples for discussing ethical issues and reaching conclusions. There is no fundamen-
tal component or rulebook for trying to understand the point of view of others, no
yardstick of social justice or greatest good, no duties to follow, and no virtues to
aspire to that will improve our characters. Each of us is out for himself or herself,
with no way (or incentive) to communicate and find common ground for
understanding.
Moral relativism makes it impossible to justify from an ethical perspective
social marketing campaigns that attempt to change practices or beliefs among
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others. One example is cockfighting, in which roosters with razor blades attached
to their feet fight each other to the death and spectators bet on the outcome. It is
practiced legally in many countries in Asia and South America (and illegally in the
United States and Europe). Using moral relativism, one could not make a valid
moral argument that cockfighting proponents are unethical and must be stopped
because they see nothing wrong with an event that remains for many a part of
their culture.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: If you had to pick just one ethical system by which to live by
which would it be? Why?

Issues in Ethical Decision Making

One size does not fit all; that is, no theoretical approach will work for all situa-
tions, and conflicts between ethical precepts produce ethical dilemmas in life and
in media. The ethics of care may often conflict with the categorical imperative. An
editor, for instance, may not want to publish anything about his wife’s run-in with
the law, whereas the newspaper’s policy is always to print names of people ar-
rested. Media accounts of their own business practices and mistakes often lack
the vigor of their reports on other businesses, a clear violation of the categorical
imperative.
The principle of utilitarianism can be used to run roughshod over rights of
privacy. Editors often justify intrusive coverage of famous people as “the public’s
right to know.” But what good does such coverage actually serve? Who actually
benefits the most from exposing a shocking celebrity scandal? Does the public get
important information that somehow makes them better citizens, or has the
paper simply sold more newspapers?
A utilitarian argument might also be used to suppress news coverage. A story
on the unsafe practices of a local factory could force it to close down and put hun-
dreds of people out of work. In this case, would keeping quiet about the violations
serve the greatest good for the greatest number of people?
Media professionals deal with a number of ethical problems on the job, some
of which are discussed throughout this book. Because of the nature of work in
mass communication, ethical lapses can have far-reaching repercussions, poten-
tially ruining careers, affecting the public’s perception and trust of media in gen-
eral, and in some instances even ending lives.
Corporate decisions made in executive boardrooms far above the typical
media professional’s level can also have ethical repercussions. Sometimes media
professionals may be willing pawns in unethical practices; other times, they simply
try to do their jobs as best they can within the dictates of the larger organizational
environment.
According to academic Ronald Howard and business consultant Clinton
Korver, authors of Ethics for the Real World: Creating a Personal Code to Guide Deci-
sions in Work and Life, three disciplines—legal, prudential, and ethical—are im-
portant to keep in mind when assessing ethical actions. They claim that we often
confuse these concepts when attempting moral reasoning. In other words, we may
present our reasoning within an ethical framework, when our reasons are actually
prudential or practical, such as improving the company’s bottom line.
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 307

Howard and Korver offer several easy self-tests to evaluate whether your deci-
sion is truly rational or simply a rationalization couched in ethical terms. These
include the “other-shoe test” (how would you feel if the shoe were on the other
foot?), the “front-page test” (would you think the same way if what you did was on
the front page of the New York Times?), the “loved-one test” (how would you feel if
the recipient of your action was someone you loved?), the “role-model test” (would
you want your children to model your behavior?), and the “mother’s test” (what
would your mother think?).
A more systematic method of ethical decision making is called the Potter Box,
named after social ethics professor Ralph B. Potter. The Potter Box provides a
framework for analyzing a situation, separating facts from opinions and taking
into account those individuals affected by a given ethical issue. Once one has
sorted out the facts, defined the situation, and analyzed it, then values and princi-
ples (what we are calling ethical frameworks) can be applied and loyalties to differ-
ent parties can be considered. Figure 10-1 shows how the Potter Box can be used.

FIGURE 101 The Potter Box

DEFINITION LOYALTIES
All facts/issues arising Whom the decision-maker has
in a situation loyalties or
allegiances to

VALUES
PRINCIPLES
Aesthetic
Ethical philosophies or modes
Professional
of reasoning that may be
Logical
applicable to facts/situations
Moral
Sociocultural

Let us use the Potter Box to examine the Rolling Stone case from the beginning
of this chapter. Imagine that you are an editor at Rolling Stone who has received the
story by Sabrina Rubin Erdely of the rape at the fraternity. First, you consider the
facts of the situation—is the information being presented supported by corrobo-
rating evidence? Second, you would consider the values at work, including the pro-
fessional values of journalism that discourage publishing articles based on
unknown sources or conjecture.
Third, you would select the ethical frameworks that could be applied, each of
which may recommend a different conclusion. From a consequences-based ap-
proach, you may reason that publishing the story helps others by highlighting a
much larger problem of sexual assault on college campuses (a rationale Erdely of-
fered even after the Rolling Stone apology). A virtues-based approach would argue
that Rolling Stone ignored truthfulness and veracity—two fundamental principles
of journalism—when it published the story. Feminist ethics, although not condon-
ing the shoddy reporting, would emphasize the relationship of the publication with
the victim in helping her tell her story (and would—and did—strongly criticize the
victim-blaming that Rolling Stone engaged in after the story’s flaws came to light).
Fourth, as an editor you would consider your loyalty to Rolling Stone, your em-
ployer. Would publishing such a titillating and controversial story help sell more
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copies and enhance your organization’s reputation? You may, for example, reason
that it would indeed sell more copies, but without considering the other issues with
the story, you may not see beyond sales for the magazine to the harm for individu-
als and institutions featured in the story—and ultimately for Rolling Stone itself.
This later step should help you select among the various responses and ration-
ales that the different frameworks recommend. In the case of Rolling Stone, key
editorial decision makers were likely not thinking about the underlying ethical
and professional principles that should have been considered much earlier in the
process.

Role of Commercialism in Media Ethics

Whether privately held or publicly traded on the stock market, businesses in a capi-
talist society are expected to make money for their owners. Members of the public
invest in companies that are expected to be successful, which means making profits.
Media companies are no different than other types of corporations in that regard.
They are, however, uniquely positioned to influence the public compared to
other types of companies because of the “product”—media content—they create.
culture industry Scholars in the Frankfurt School tradition coined the term “culture industry” to
A term coined by the Frankfurt
describe the power of media companies to affect culture. If any other kind of or-
School to describe how media ganization, such as a car manufacturer or a cereal maker, wants to influence public
companies produce or “make” opinion, they have to go through the media to do so.
culture in the same way that other Because of the media’s ability to influence and inform the public, some
companies produce products.
branches of the industry, such as journalism, have special protection under the
Constitution; the First Amendment is a case in point. Partly as a result of these
protections and partly through historical traditions, media—and journalism in
particular—have had a strong public service mission. This may no longer be a
mandate when news organizations become divisions of larger entertainment-
media corporations with little or no tradition in the unique culture of the news-
room and its commitment to public service.
At the heart of many media-ethics di-
lemmas are the conflicting goals of inform-
ing the public and maximizing corporate
profit. These issues can arise in a number of
ways. Commercial interests can take prece-
dence over public interests when powerful
advertisers cancel or threaten to cancel their
advertising in a media outlet. A blatant ex-
ample could involve toning down or elimi-
nating an unflattering story on a large local
advertiser who has threatened to withdraw
advertising revenue. More commonly, adver-
tisers may pull their ads when a media or-
ganization covers unpopular issues or takes
unpopular editorial stands. Examples of this
include Southern newspapers that sup-
ported the civil rights movement in losing
local advertisers in the 1950s and 1960s. Al-
The civil rights movement forced some Southern newspapers to make tough choices
when advertisers threatened to pull their ads if the papers appeared to support the though controversial news coverage was not
movement. directly about the advertisers, they either
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 309

disagreed with or did not want to be associated

with the newspaper’s content for fear of losing
business.
The costs associated with running a modern
newsroom have become increasingly problem-
atic ethical concerns. Cutting staff is one of the
surest ways to considerably reduce operating
costs, but at what expense in terms of news cov-
erage? Fewer staff means less coverage of cer-
tain subjects, such as education and city hall, in
favor of more wire-service copy or light features.
This practice can provide the public with an
incomplete picture of local events and issues.
Similarly, investigative reports are often time- Real Housewives of Atlanta was Bravo’s first show to get more than two million viewers
consuming and expensive and are less likely to in the coveted 18–49 age range, but has faced criticisms in the past for apparently
fabricating portions of their storylines. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: How
be conducted in a media organization intensely strictly should “reality TV” stick with real portrayals of people, and is it acceptable for
aware of maximizing profits. producers to fabricate storylines in order to increase the entertainment value of the
Professional training and development also shows, even if it portrays some people unfairly in a negative light?
often suffer. Many journalists who want to
learn how to use computer-assisted reporting tools or digital media must pay
their own way to conferences or workshops and use their personal vacation time
to attend. This is despite a push by some news organizations for journalists to
become multimedia reporters, doing their stories in print, TV, and audio formats.
Production costs are reduced when one journalist is doing the work previously
done by three.

MEDIA TYPES INFLUENCING CONTENT

Various business pressures arise with the various media types. The expense of
producing feature-length films, for example, is an important factor for large media
companies that want to maximize their profits. A film could have a greater likeli-
hood of getting produced if the media company already owns the rights to the
character in the film, for example, and if there is good potential for other media
content from within the company, such as music and television shows, to be tied
in with the movie to help in marketing.
The individual divisions of a large media company must deal with the demands
of the corporate parent to maximize profits. For example, the book-publishing
branch may feel pressure to emphasize books from established authors in a popu-
lar genre to generate sales, but at the expense of finding new authors or types of
books that do not fit established categories.
The need for exciting visual elements has even affected news coverage. Dateline
NBC’s fifteen-minute segment “Waiting to Explode,” which ran on November 17,
1992, was meant to demonstrate the danger of the gas tanks exploding with cer-
tain models of General Motors’ pickup trucks. Yet the trucks filmed exploding on
the segment had been rigged by the production team to ensure a fiery explosion,
and some of the information presented was misleading or inaccurate. Only later,
through independent investigations and information from sources who were at the
initial filming, did the truth behind the segment come out, forcing NBC to make a
public apology and settle the lawsuit that GM had brought against it.9 In this case,
the need to have an exciting visual element likely helped cause the ethical breaches.
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On a smaller scale, but no less unethical, was the example of Today reporter
Michelle Kosinski covering flooding in Wayne, New Jersey, in 2005. She is shown
paddling a kayak down a flooded street as she gives her report, only to have two
people walk right in front of her, revealing that the water is actually only ankle deep.
Despite this, she continues with the report and paddles as if nothing happened.
Not every dramatic photograph on the front page of a newspaper or in televi-
sion news reports is a breach of media ethics, for newsworthiness is always a con-
sideration for news organizations. It is important to ask, though, whether the
decision to include certain elements in visual media was driven more by the need
to capture the public’s attention than true news value.

Ethics in Journalism
Because of journalism’s unique role in society, its First Amendment protection,
and its public service mission, many ethical dilemmas arise in the course of prac-
ticing it. Difficult ethical questions play a role in the entire news-gathering and
production process. Ethical issues become even more important with the rise of
citizen journalism.
Editors must consider whether headlines and captions accurately reflect the
important points of a story or simply titillate. Privacy issues play a role when pri-
vate citizens are thrust by circumstance into the media spotlight. Reporters must
consider fairness and balance in their choice of interview subjects. Photo editors
and designers must avoid the temptation to alter elements of photos to make
them more dramatic. Societal mores and cultural values of the audience must be
considered when determining what qualifies as news and how it is reported, al-
though newspapers must also sometimes take highly unpopular stands on issues
when acting as the public’s conscience.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Do you think that because news organizations receive extra
legal protection not enjoyed by most other types of companies that they should also be
held to a higher ethical standard? Is this standard more difficult to meet when one journal-
ist is doing work previously done by three? Defend your views.

PRIVACY RIGHTS VERSUS THE PUBLIC’S RIGHT TO KNOW

Although no actual law states this, the public’s “right to know” is often cited as a
commonly understood principle when journalists are trying to obtain infor mation
that can better inform the public regarding anything from political candidates to
corporate wrongdoing to potentially dangerous foods, drugs, or buildings.
Gathering proof of wrongdoing is one of the biggest challenges journalists
face. Admissions of guilt are unlikely to come out during an interview—if the
subject even agrees to one. Journalists are often barred from the very locations
they need to visit to gather information. Employees are forbidden by management
to speak to journalists or threatened with losing their jobs if they do; police or
public officials refuse to see or talk to journalists or are slow in providing requested
documentation, even if the documents are public records.
New technology such as miniature microphones and cameras and the old
technique of going undercover may seem easy answers to the journalist’s dilemma.
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 311

But the ethics and legality of these tools and actions must be consid-
ered. Sometimes these techniques are the only ones that will give
access to people engaged in illegal or unethical behavior, such as sell-
ing drugs or arms.
Federal law prohibits the media or anyone else from intentionally
intercepting, or attempting to intercept, anyone’s communication by
wire, oral, or electronic means. Citizens have a reasonable expectation
of privacy for oral, or spoken, communications, via telephone or over
the Internet, for example. State laws vary, however, on whether only
one person or both people in a conversation must consent to having it
recorded.
Regardless of the legality of intercepting communications, is it
ethical? It depends on the circumstances, including whether it is print
or broadcast media. The FCC generally prohibits the use of wireless mi- Online conversations have raised new issues of privacy
crophones to overhear private conversations unless all parties to the and whether messages are public or private, as posts
written years ago can be found and reposted by others.
communication have given prior consent. Conversations that occur in
a public place, such as a restaurant or bar, however, would not be sub-
ject to the same prohibition because people in public places cannot expect the same
right to privacy. Broadcast television or radio stations may not record telephone
conversations without the consent of all parties, and they must notify the parties
prior to broadcasting recorded content. Long-distance calls can only be recorded
under limited circumstances, including an announcement made at the beginning
of the call indicating it will be recorded or possibly broadcast. Violation of these
rules can result in the forfeiture of the station’s license, fines, or other penalties.
One area of confusion regarding privacy is whether posting material in a blog
or on a social media site like Facebook is public or not. Some claim that it is the
same as a public space. An offhand comment in a bar, however, disappears once it
is said; but an inflammatory blog post written years ago and later deleted still
exists somewhere on the Web.

GOING UNDERCOVER
The legality and ethics of journalists going undercover are also not settled. In
many ways, it depends on how ethical or responsible the media professional was
in using these techniques. Questions that may be asked in a court of law include
the following: Were the media being fair? Does going undercover or using hidden
cameras somehow manipulate or distort the situation? Do the undercover tech-
niques help build meaningful information or simply sensationalize the story? If a
media professional (or anyone else, for that matter) is convicted of violating the
law in going undercover, penalties may include prison terms and fines.
The Internet raises new questions about journalists not announcing their
identity. If a journalist participates in a child-pornography online discussion group
without revealing her or his identity as a journalist pursuing a story, is it ethical to
use others’ posts without their permission? Is it ethical to pose as someone other
than a journalist to get people to talk as they naturally would in an online forum?

VICTIMIZING THE VICTIMS

Publicizing details of crimes can contribute to copycat crimes. Journalists must
always consider which elements of a story are important and which are simply
lurid or titillating. Needlessly mentioning race, gender, or sexual orientation can
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often be unethical, framing a subject in a way that reinforces social stereotypes

and makes crime victims feel like they are being victimized again.
Photographs and video can sometimes tell a story more powerfully than words
alone. Yet news value alone does not always justify publicizing dramatic photos or
footage. In fact, in cases of human tragedy, sadness, or crime, the repeated presen-
tation of pictures or video can violate personal grief.
Citizen-journalists, often unaware of professional norms or laws, may act un-
ethically or find themselves in legal trouble. In a social media world, the question
of who is a journalist and thus who gets special First Amendment protections
lacks a clear answer.
Some victims of sexual crimes have been victimized further, not by the main-
stream media but by peers who have posted videos or photos of their acts on social
media. In 2013, 17-year-old Rehtaeh Parsons killed herself. Seventeen months
previously, she had reported having been raped at a party. Shortly after the alleged
rape, a photo of the incident was posted online, and Rehtaeh received online mes-
sages calling her a slut and asking to have sex with her. The Nova Scotia authorities
initially claimed there was not enough evidence to arrest the accused rapists.
After her suicide gained worldwide attention, the authorities said they were look-
ing into the matter again. Such consequences of cyberbullying have been increas-
ing as teens too readily use social media to hurt others.

MISREPRESENTATION AND PLAGIARISM

Instances of journalists distorting or misrepresenting the facts
are sadly legion. Janet Cooke, Jayson Blair, and Stephen Glass
became textbook examples, an infamous club of journalistic ig-
nominy that highly esteemed and veteran reporter Brian Wil-
liams recently joined when he was suspended from his venerable
position as NBC anchor amid allegations of misrepresenting
events that had occurred while he was covering the Iraq war a
decade earlier.
Another problem occurs when journalists misrepresent their
relationship to their work, claiming inappropriate authorship of
material. The most common type of plagiarism involves copying
After admitting he had overstated the risks he faced while
the work of others without formal attribution. Authors can also
covering conflict in the Middle East, Brian Williams was plagiarize themselves, however, by reproducing what they have
suspended by NBC in 2015. CRITICAL THINKING previously published without citing themselves as the source. In
QUESTIONS: Was NBC’s response appropriate? What does 2012, Jonah Lehrer, 31, a noted journalist and science writer, was
their decision say about their ethical values? What factors do
you think may have encouraged Williams to exaggerate the castigated for self-plagiarism, a sin compounded by an even
dangers he experienced? worse transgression—fabricating quotes from the likes of Bob
Dylan. Such revelations torpedoed his rising star, as publishers
pulled his books from stores and Lehrer was fired from his job at The New Yorker
after only two months on the job.10

SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISTS CODE OF ETHICS

The Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ) is a large organization of working
journalists and student chapters that tries to ensure that journalism is being prac-
ticed professionally and ethically as it fulfills its role in society. The SPJ’s code of
ethics states that journalists should “seek truth and report it” and that
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 313

“journalists should be honest, fair and courageous in gathering, reporting and

interpreting information.” These are some of the other principles in the code:
• Test the accuracy of information from all sources and exercise care to avoid
inadvertent error. Deliberate distortion is never permissible.
• Diligently seek out subjects of news stories to give them the opportunity to
respond to allegations of wrongdoing.
• Identify sources whenever feasible. The public is entitled to as much infor-
mation as possible on sources’ reliability.
• Make certain that headlines, news teasers, and promotional material,
photos, video, audio, graphics, sound bites, and quotations do not misrepre-
sent. They should not oversimplify or highlight incidents out of context.
• Never distort the content of news photos or video. Image enhancement
for  technical clarity is always permissible. Label montages and photo
illustrations.
• Avoid misleading reenactments or staged news events. If reenactment is
necessary to tell a story, label it.
• Support the open exchange of views, even views journalists find
repugnant.
• Avoid undercover or other surreptitious methods of gathering information
except when traditional open methods will not yield information vital to
the public. Use of such methods should be explained as part of the story.

Ethical Issues in Advertising

Mass media are a powerful vehicle to influence the public’s opinions, even when
they are simply trying to inform or educate. It is no wonder, then, that companies
spend billions of dollars on advertising each year. Yet numerous ethical issues
have been raised involving false and deceptive advertising in the mass media.
Advertising is an important part of how goods and services are marketed in a
capitalist economy, and some advertising contains useful product information.
Advertising is also the economic engine that drives much of the system of mass
communication.
The advertising industry has not been entirely successful at regulating itself.
Historically, the government has enacted new laws or regulations after receiving
consumer complaints—or sometimes after long campaigns regarding certain ad-
vertising practices. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) enforce regulations regarding deceptive advertising. Indus-
try self-regulation comes from a variety of trade organizations. One of the main
ethical issues, from a mass-communication perspective, is false or deceptive
advertising.

DECEPTIVE ADVERTISING
Deception in advertising is not always illegal because, in some cases, it does not
mislead. For instance, real ice cubes would disappear quickly under the photogra-
pher’s hot lights. Fake ice cubes, on other hand, do not melt, nor do they deceive A court ordered Skechers to pay $40
anyone regarding the taste or look of the beverage. In other cases, however, decep- million to customers because it claimed
without substantiation that the design of
tive claims do mislead the consumer, offering a “going out of business” sale, for its Shape-ups sneakers would help
example, when the store intends to remain open. people lose weight.
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A division of the FTC is assigned responsibility to ferret out deception and can
expel such advertising from mass media and even levy fines. The FTC once found a
commercial for a toy car misleading, even though it was not false. The toy was
filmed in extreme close-up next to the track, making it appear to move rapidly like
a blur. After an FTC ruling that children could be deceived by the toy’s apparent
speed, the ad had to be canceled or modified.

PUFFERY
Nevertheless, the temptation among those selling goods and services, as well as
puffery those sponsoring ads, to exaggerate claims is great. Puffery, an ethical and legal
A type of advertising language that
gray area (sometimes allowed, sometimes not), usually involves an opinion state-
makes extravagant and unrealistic ment about the product. Examples include these familiar advertising slogans:
claims about a product without
saying anything concrete. • “Red bull gives you wings” (Red Bull)
• “Eat fresh” (Subway)
• “For the bold” (Doritos)
• “Now that’s better” (Wendy’s)
Except for Red Bull, the truth or falsehood of these claims cannot be verified.
The FTC permits most puffery, assuming audiences do not perceive these claims as
factual. Nobody would actually believe, for example, that wings would grow from
drinking Red Bull.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Have you ever felt deceived by a product you bought based
on seeing it advertised? How did it make you feel, and did you continue to use the product
or brand? Why or why not?

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST IN ADVERTISING

Advertising agencies must be loyal to their clients. It makes little business sense
for an agency whose client is a tobacco company to lecture the organization about
the harmful effects of smoking. Helping clients sell more product is the advertis-
ing agency’s professional responsibility, whether they are selling healthy soup or
less healthy cigarettes.
Conflicts of interest in advertising can arise in a number of ways. First, em-
ployees may find selling harmful products unethical. Some agencies allow employ-
ees to choose the organizations they are willing to work with, but making such a
choice could ruin a career in other agencies. Second, conflicts of interest occur if
an agency works for two competing companies. Even if the teams working for each
client are completely separate from each other and based in different cities, confi-
dential information about one client may be divulged to members on the other
team. Third, a conflict of interest between loyalty to the client and the actual qual-
ities of the product may arise. An effective advertising campaign can make even a
product that lacks the benefits it claims a market leader.

ADVERTISING CODES OF ETHICS

Various advertising and marketing groups have created codes of ethics for their
members. Like all codes of ethics, these are largely unenforceable but act instead
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 315

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
Forbidden Fruit
Ethical consumerism refers to consumers buying products appear to be environmentally friendly or obtained through
grown, produced, or manufactured in accordance with their fair-trade practices.
personal ethical standards. Some A 2013 Oxfam report cited poor labor
such ethical concerns include a conditions at Dole fruit banana plantations
preference for organic or locally in the Philippines. It claimed that Dole
grown produce, fair-trade coffee, workers who had tried to join a union were
and sweatshop-free clothing. harassed and that pesticides were aerially
With the rise in popularity of sprayed on laborers in the fields, among
organic foods and fair-trade prod- other illegal practices.11 Dole protested
ucts, many companies would like that the report had numerous errors and
their products to seem more envi- showed bias against the company in a
ronmentally friendly. Although the debate on labeling bananas as fair trade.
word “organic” is regulated and Nevertheless, Dole agreed to remove its
may refer to either organic growing Ethical Choice label from bananas until it
practices or the amount of organic could investigate the allegations further.
ingredients, the word “natural” is Food companies are not the only ones
not regulated. tempted to greenwash. Some energy com-
Consumers have demonstrated willingness to spend panies have tried to make their drilling and production activi-
more for products that are good for the environment or pro- ties seem less detrimental. And lobbyists often promote bills
duced ethically. For this reason, some companies have en- that sound environmentally friendly but are not such in
gaged in greenwashing, inaccurately making products practice.

as guiding principles and ideals for how the profession or industry wants to pre-
sent itself to the world. ethical consumerism
The American Marketing Association (AMA) lists three ethical norms: Do no A kind of activism in which
harm, foster trust in the marketing system, and embrace ethical values. Many of consumers buy only products that
they believe are produced ethically.
the values that it gives sound remarkably like virtues, including honesty, respon-
sibility, fairness, respect, transparency, and citizenship. The first code of the
greenwashing
American Advertising Federation (AAF) is that “advertising shall tell the truth,
and reveal significant facts; the omission of which would mislead the public.” Sev- The practice of companies making
themselves or their products appear
eral other points, such as substantiation, comparison, price claims, and testimoni-
to be organic, environmentally
als, also address issues of misleading the public. friendly, or supportive of free trade
when in fact they are not.

Ethics in Public Relations

Public relations people face unique ethical issues compared to journalists, media-
entertainment professionals, and advertising people. As with advertising profes-
sionals, their loyalties lie with the client; but like journalists, if they present false
or misleading information, their credibility and that of their clients can be lost. In
addition, although some public relations practitioners like to claim they are the
“conscience of the client,” they do not always have access to the corporate channels
of power to prevent unethical decisions. Often, they are called in to minimize or
negate damage already done.
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MEDIA PIONEERS
Kalle Lasn
Activist, author, editor, and documentarian, Kalle Lasn was Adbusters seeks noth-
born in Tallinn, Estonia, in 1942. His family, having fled the ing short of a paradigm
advancing Soviet army near the end of WWII, lived in shift that topples exist-
German refugee camps before relocating to Australia. A ing power structures
graduate of the University of Adelaide who studied theoreti- while encouraging
cal and applied mathematics, Lasn wrote war-games com- lifestyles that harmo-
puter code for the Australian military. Subsequently, he nize ecology and
founded a lucrative market research company in Tokyo that economy.13
conducted computer-based studies of ad campaigns for To that end, Lasn
global corporations. relentlessly targets
Advertising would continue to define his career, although what he views as a major culprit in creating and sustaining
not in the way one might expect given the earlier positions the ills of consumer culture—advertising. True to their name,
on his resume. World travel and the rebellious spirit of the the signature media of Adbusters are subversive advertise-
sixties had a profound and formative influence on young ments, or “subvertisements”: Joe Camel, the iconic cigarette
Kalle, particularly the student uprisings in Paris in 1968. In mascot, revisited as a patient in a cancer ward; or a smiling
1970, he moved to Canada, where he turned his talents to Tiger Woods, his grin transformed into Nike’s logo, the
film making; and some twenty years later, he established swoosh stripe synonymous with the company he endorses.
Adbusters with fellow documentarian Bill Smalz.12 These spoof ads function as “culture jams” intended to reas-
Based in Vancouver, BC, this nonprofit organization iden- sign provocative new meaning to familiar media images,
tifies on their website as “a global network of artists, activ- satire that conveys political messages about corporate, com-
ists, writers, pranksters, students, educators and mercial, and branded products.
entrepreneurs who want to advance the new social activist Other controversial Adbusters campaigns include Digital
movement of the information age.” Their mission involves Detox Week, Buy Nothing Day, and Buy Nothing Christmas
reclaiming our mental and physical environments through (whose names speak for themselves), and—most fa-
increased media literacy, public education that promotes an mously—OccupyWallStreet. Conceived on Canada’s West
aware and engaged citizenry sensitive to the plight of the Coast and named for Lasn’s activist hashtag #OccupyWall-
planet and its people. Grounded in lefty politics (some Street, his brainchild rapidly developed into a global move-
might say radically so), the anti-consumerist activism of ment protesting social and economic inequality.

Some PR firms hire people to attend corporate or government meetings and

astroturfing campaign present testimonials as if they were concerned citizens. They also create faux
A movement or campaign that grassroots campaigns online, astroturfing campaigns, designed to present the
looks as though it was created by appearance of citizen support for a company or cause. If people posing at a public
concerned citizens as a grassroots forum is unethical, then so too is the online equivalent. Today’s 24/7 social-media
movement when in fact it was
actually created or controlled by an
environment makes damage control difficult, especially when celebrity clients
organization with a vested interest tweet offensive comments. Even when quickly deleted, such posts remain in the
in the outcome. public eye, retweeted by the celebrity’s many followers.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST IN PR
Partly because of professional loyalty to their clients, public relations is plagued
by many of the same conflicts of interest as advertising. A PR firm may have to
manage a crisis communication situation for a disaster caused by a company, even
as they see corporate executives take further PR missteps—such as when BP’s
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 317

CEO at the time, Tony Hayward, said “I’d like my life back,” after their oil spill had
claimed eleven lives and devastated the environment in the Gulf.
PR professionals may also have clients who believe that anything they release
to the media is newsworthy. Clients may also not like having to adjust to a world
where their customers can talk and complain with each other in public forums.
Although PR agencies claim to manage relationships with a the client’s many pub-
lics, in truth, many clients do not want an equal relationship with consumers
based on dialog and openness. Instead, they want to dictate messages to the public
without a response. This dynamic can be difficult for a PR professional who ethi-
cally believes in the importance of dialog.
One of the thorniest conflicts of interest occurs when a PR professional is
asked to keep material about the client confidential to protect the company’s
image, such as information about a prescription drug’s harmful side effects. Other
ethical lapses in PR can have far-reaching consequences, especially when it comes
to politics and war.
Hired at a cost of more than half a million dollars by the Kuwaiti government
to foster support among the American public and the U.S. Congress, the firm of
Hill and Knowlton was widely criticized for clandestine efforts to influence opin-
ion on the Gulf War. They produced and distributed dozens of video news releases
(VNRs) to television news operations around the country, aired by many stations
without editing and without identifying their source as either the PR firm or the
government of Kuwait—propaganda presented as impartial journalism.
Hill and Knowlton also helped organize the “Congressional Human Rights
Caucus.” In October 1990 at a Capitol Hill hearing, a 15-year-old Kuwaiti girl, known
only as Nayirah, spoke tearfully: “I volunteered at the al-Addan hospital. While I was
there, I saw the Iraqi soldiers come into the hospital with guns, and go into the room
where . . . babies were in incubators. They took the babies out of the incubators, took
the incubators, and left the babies on the cold floor to die.” For months after her tes-
timony, the media and even President George H. W. Bush repeated the Iraqi soldiers’
killing of babies as a rationale for U.S. presence in the region.
Later, Nayirah was revealed to be a member of the Kuwaiti royal family whose
testimony had been fabricated. A Hill and Knowlton vice president had even
coached her on it. Hill and Knowlton was never penalized or formally reprimanded
for their campaign, but the CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation) produced
an Emmy Award–winning documentary on the subject, To Sell a War (1992).

PUBLIC RELATIONS CODES OF ETHICS

Professional associations such as the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) and
the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) publish guidelines
for ethical public relations practices. According to the PRSA, unethical behavior in-
cludes lying by omission, as in failing to release a company’s financial information or
misrepresenting its performance; deceiving the public by employing people as speak-
ers for public hearings and ostensibly grassroots campaigns; and giving expensive
goods or gifts to journalists or politicians to influence their opinion.
On the other hand, their guidelines also state that members must protect the
privacy rights of clients and safeguard their confidential information as well as advise
appropriate authorities if they discover an employee divulging confidential informa-
tion. An ethical conflict could easily arise for a PR professional if asked by a company
to promote positive news on its financial health rather than report the truth.
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Ethics in Entertainment
Media professionals in entertainment do not wrestle with the same issues regard-
ing truth and the public as journalists, advertisers, and public relations profes-
sionals do. Entertainment is meant to entertain, and the truth may be immaterial
in this pursuit. Documentary films or books and movies based on actual events
may be judged on their faithfulness to the facts, but straying from the truth does
not usually harm their entertainment value. Because of this, entertainment con-
tent is not held to the same ethical standards as, say, a newspaper story or an in-
vestigative TV report. But ethics do enter into the world of entertainment because
of its ability to shape society’s beliefs and influence behavior.

STEREOTYPES IN ENTERTAINMENT
Because entertainment plays such an important part in our lives and is a powerful
force for transmitting cultural values, its depiction of stereotypes can be espe-
cially hurtful or damaging to groups. At the turn of the twentieth century, min-
strel shows were popular in vaudeville, with white actors made up in “blackface”
to depict African Americans, often in demeaning or clownish roles. Jewish min-
strel shows similarly played on popular stereotypes of the time.
Asians and Asian Americans have faced both positive and negative stereo-
types over the years. As many Asians emigrated to the United States in the nine-
teenth and early twentieth centuries, the mass media often depicted them in
negative ways. Today, they are often touted as a “model minority” because of their
many academic and professional achievements. However, racist stereotypes still
Some Native Americans have protested appear in the media, such as the controversial 2013 Day Above Ground video
the use of “tribal” clothing by fashion “AsianGirlz,” removed from YouTube within days due to critical responses in social
designers and shoppers. media. Taylor Swift’s 2014 video “Shake It Off” also engendered controversy
for playing with racial stereotypes, notably twerking.
Some may wonder where the harm lies in good-natured jokes or satiric ste-
reotypes, especially those meant to entertain. Yet underlying stereotypes, often
taken for granted, help mold beliefs, especially when the
media provide our primary exposure to these groups. Ital-
ian American stereotypes are a good case in point. Accord-
ing to a 2003 Zogby poll, 78 percent of teenagers associated
Italian Americans with either criminal activity or blue-
collar work. Another poll showed that 74 percent of adult
Americans believed that Italian Americans had some con-
nection to organized crime, likely because of the number
of popular movies and shows that depict them as mobbed
up. Such misperceptions influence in subtle and some-
times not-so-subtle ways how we interact with the groups
The debate continues: Does violence in entertainment contribute to stereotyped.
violence in society?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Consider a movie or television show that has stereotypes. Re-
place that stereotyped group with your own ethnicity or gender and consider how you
would feel seeing a member of your group depicted in those situations. How might that
make you feel about your group?
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 319

SEX AND VIOLENCE

Depictions of sex and violence have long been staples of entertainment
media, and the old adage “sex sells” is even truer for entertainment
than other forms of media. We will look at the legal implications for
media and freedom of speech regarding pornography, obscenity, and
violence in Chapter 11. Here, we consider the ethical implications of
depictions of sex and violence.
At the heart of the issue is the belief that media exposure affects
us: Watching too many violent programs can produce violent behav-
ior;  people may copy crimes they’ve seen on television or in movies.
Although these media effects will be examined in more detail in
Chapter 12, let us assume for now some truth to this claim. If so, then
any kind of violent content could be unethical. Within the utilitarian,
virtue-based, or another ethical system, would purposely harming
others be considered ethical, especially when done simply to profit a
company and shareholders?
Another issue arises with sex and violence in the media, even given
the fact that most people do not become mass murderers after watch-
ing a violent movie. This new issue relates to the earlier points about
stereotypes and how they may affect our thinking about certain groups.
Consider the double standards about male and female nudity in movies,
for example. Rarely do movies show full frontal male nudity, whereas
This parody poster for the movie Avengers portrays
female nudity can be seen much more frequently. Such depictions may the male characters as female characters are usually
give us cues that normalize the treatment of women, but not men, as portrayed, drawing attention to the objectification of
sex objects. women in entertainment media.

MEDIA CAREERS

Relatively few firms have ethics officers (independent PR firm Ruder Finn is a no-
table exception) whose sole job is helping employees make ethical decisions that
affect clients, the public, and even their coworkers. Yet as ethical lapses may have
serious repercussions for media companies, even playing a role in closing down
the business, as was the case for the News of the World newspaper, more companies
may be looking to establish ethics officer positions.
Some news organizations have an ombudsman or public editor whose job is to
analyze, decide on, and respond to ethical problems that the organization faces
when working on various stories. The ombudsman or public editor is usually a
well-respected editor or columnist who has spent many years building his or her
reputation within journalism.
Most media organizations of any size have legal teams or lawyers who can be
consulted when needed, but remember that an organization can act legally even if
it is not acting ethically. Do not confuse getting advice on the legality of an action
with whether it is ethical or not. And as noted earlier in the chapter, media ethics
is not a stand-alone subject. These decision-making skills should inform daily
practices for all media professionals, even those whose jobs are not formally dedi-
cated to ethics.
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LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

The issue of ethics, although an integral part of our media environment, is too often
ignored, misunderstood, or overlooked in the day-to-day hustle of media profes-
sionals. Developing moral-reasoning skills takes time and enduring effort. The sheer
variety of situations that arise calling for moral reasoning, especially in the media
professions, means that there will always be a new challenge ahead. If, however, you
can develop good moral-reasoning abilities, you can build on past experiences and
results—right and wrong decisions—and apply that knowledge to new situations.
Understanding the various ethical systems and what they deem right can help
you find your own moral compass. You do not have to choose an ethical system
and stay with it, but you may feel more comfortable regularly drawing from one
ethical system over others. Even so, being able to take elements from each one, as
the situation calls for, can help you determine the values in conflict and find an-
swers that help ensure ethical decision making.
Some of the later ethical systems, such as the dialogical and ethics-of-care
systems, can be especially fruitful in a social media world where conversations
online and perceived relationships become more important. Further, the virtues
that they espouse in showing respect to others may help mitigate some of the di-
visiveness and anger that we see today in our political rhetoric and social lives.

MEDIA MATTERS HOW MORAL ARE YOU?

Ethical questions can often be difficult because there may not always be a single “right” answer. There are always
conflicts between groups and between individuals and society. See if you can come up with ethical solutions to the
following scenarios based on real-life incidents:

1. You work in a PR firm whose biggest and most 3. While working as a member of the production
important client is a noted Fortune 500 crew on a reality television series, you befriend
company. In a meeting with them to discuss one of the cast members. Weeks later, in the
future strategy and publishing their annual editing room, you see the producer piecing
report, they admit that they have “cooked the together snippets of the hundreds of hours of
books” in some of their divisions to inflate video and audio to create a loose narrative
revenues. They say everyone in their industry that puts that cast member in a highly
does it, even as they want promises from negative light. She has signed a waiver, as is
everyone at the meeting that they will not typical, in which she agrees to any depiction of
divulge that information. What do you do? her. Do you think what the producer is doing is
2. The TV news crew you are part of is covering an ethical?
investigative story on a defect in a brand of car. 4. The advertising agency you work for has
You see other members of the crew wire the created an ad campaign for a new soft drink—
car to create a large explosion. Your editor “The best-tasting orange soda. Ever.” You know
explains that having failed to show the desired from the market research and from blind taste
results with the first two cars, they are trying to tests that the client’s soda consistently scored
emulate what has been reported to have lower than competing brands. Is it ethical to
happened. Do you think this is ethical? use this phrase in the advertising campaigns?
 CHAPTER 10 >> MEDIA ETHICS 321

FURTHER READING
Moral Theory: An Introduction, 2nd ed. Mark Timmons (2012) Rowman & Littlefield.
Communicating Ethically: Character, Duties, Consequences, and Relationships. William W. Neher,
Paul J. Sandin (2007) Pearson Education.
Would You Eat Your Cat?: Key Ethical Conundrums and What They Tell You About Yourself. Jeremy
Stangroom (2012) W. W. Norton & Company.
Media Ethics at Work: True Stories from Young Professionals. Lee Anne Peck, Guy S. Reel (2012) CQ
Press.
The Handbook of Mass Media Ethics. Lee Wilkins, Clifford G. Christians (eds.) (2009) Routledge.
Ethics for Public Communication. Clifford Christians, John Ferre, Mark Fackler (2011) Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Living Ethics: Across Media Platforms. Michael Bugeja (2007) Oxford University Press.
Ethics for the Real World: Creating a Personal Code to Guide Decisions in Work and Life. Ronald
Howard, Clinton Korver (2008) Harvard Business Press.
Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life. Sissela Bok (1999) Vintage.
The Cambridge Companion to Virtue Ethics. Daniel Russell (ed.) (2013) Cambridge University Press.
Virtue Ethics, Old and New. Stephen Gardiner (2005) Cornell University Press.
Moral Understandings: A Feminist Study in Ethics, 2nd ed. Margaret Urban Walker (2007) Oxford
University Press.
Habermas: A Very Short Introduction. Gordon Finlayson (2005) Oxford University Press.
A Theory of Justice: Original Edition. John Rawls (2005) Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Ethics of Media. Nick Couldry, Mirca Madianou, Amit Pinchevski (eds.) (2013) Palgrave Macmillan.
Disconnected: Youth, New Media, and the Ethics Gap. Carrie James (2014) MIT Press.
The Ethics of Star Trek. Judith Barad, Ed Robertson (2001) Harper Perennial.
Media Ethics Beyond Borders: A Global Perspective. Stephen J. A. Ward, Herman Wasserman (eds.)
(2010) Routledge.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

324 The Legal Framework

325 The Foundations of
Freedom of Expression
335 Regulating Electronic
Media
339 The Federal
Communications
Commission (FCC)
341 Regulating Commercial
and Political Speech
345 Children’s Programming
Protections
346 Intellectual Property
Rights
348 Privacy
349 Legal Issues in the Digital
World
 11

Communication Law
and Regulation in the
Digital Age
L
ook up into the sky. You may just observe what may be observing you: LEARNING OBJECTIVES
a drone—perhaps the greatest media buzz of the early twenty-first
century. Once thought of as the exclusive province of the military, >> Examine the nature of
camera-equipped drones have descended from their original heights freedom of speech and press
to become a widespread tool for news gathering, video recording, and general and how media are regulated
in the United States.
image capture from the air. Such drones have already been deployed around
the nation and the world to provide aerial perspectives on everything from >> Describe the key legal
activists protesting to whale pods swimming, from X Games competition to concepts protecting and
restricting freedom of speech
volcanic eruption.
and press, including threats to
Yet drones also represent one of the hottest areas of legal and regulatory up- national security, libel, and
heaval. Although many see drones as important to the future of media reporting, censorship.
both commercial and civilian, a number of concerns have emerged about their safe >> Discuss the principal
operation as well as their implications for privacy. legislation that defines
As of this writing, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is expected to es- communication regulation in
tablish national regulations in 2015 regarding the commercial operation of drones in the United States, and the
U.S. air space. In the meantime, many local laws have already restricted their use. Los principal federal
Angeles, for example, requires all commercial drones to comply with ordinances re- communications regulatory
agency, the Federal
stricting operation to line of sight, limiting altitude to 400 feet, and avoiding opera-
Communications Commission.
tion over people or populated areas. In addition, media enterprises planning drone
use must register with a local board to obtain a permit, much as a movie company >> Outline the regulation of
content in the United States,
must obtain a permit to shoot on location in LA.
especially regarding
Outside the United States, policies vary. In the United Kingdom, legal guidelines commercial speech and
are already well established, and the BBC employs drones extensively in documen- political speech.
tary production. In other parts of the world, drones, especially small ones, have been >> Explain intellectual property
largely unregulated. issues, especially copyright,
In the United States, media use of drones may largely prove a constitutional and how the digital age has
battleground between protecting public safety and privacy, a Fourth Amendment affected them.
concern, and freedom of speech, a First Amendment concern. Although many in law
enforcement are rightly concerned about the potential abuse of drones near

323
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airports or by terrorists, this must be balanced against the right of citizens or professionals
to obtain remarkable aerial views of the environment, public spaces, or anywhere impor-
tant news may occur.

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibit-

ing the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press;
or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government
for a redress of grievances.
        
The First Amendment is very much an American invention. Most other countries
have no such stipulation in their constitutions, which of course has sometimes
resulted in vastly different laws and regulations regarding mass communication
and journalism.
Governments decide on policies or overarching objectives that they want to
accomplish based on a variety of factors. These factors include the political views
of the party in power, the type of government (whether elected by citizens or em-
powered in some other way), and the general social and cultural norms of the
nation. Laws are created and enacted to carry out the government’s policies, but
which laws are created also depends on the form of government. In democracies,
even the party in power may not be able to create laws it wants because of
opposition-party actions, or bills may be altered as part of compromises to become
laws. Laws, once enacted, are forcibly upheld by the state and carry penalties such
as fines or imprisonment if broken. Similar to laws, regulations act as tools to
enable policies, but if violated, fines or other less severe sanctions serve as penal-
ties rather than imprisonment.
First Amendment Although the First Amendment guarantees that Congress shall make no law
Guarantees that Congress shall restricting freedom of speech or of the press, interpretations of the courts, elected
make no law restricting freedom of officials, and legal scholars have permitted some level of regulatory and legal re-
speech, press, or religion. striction. Some of these laws deal with libel, obscenity, and other media content.
Others deal with technical issues related to broadcast-station operation, such as
preventing one station from interfering with another’s signals; and others pertain
to media ownership, intellectual property rights, and fulfilling the requirements
of broadcasting licenses. We will look at how these differ and how they relate to
media and public policy, primarily in the United States, although other countries
will sometimes be examined for comparison.

The Legal Framework

When printing began in Renaissance Europe, political and religious authorities
were quick to recognize the power of publishing to spread not only religious teach-
ings but political edicts as well. Political and religious dissidents, however, found
printing presses equally useful in disseminating their views against authority. The
tension between government control of the press and the press as a means to be
free of political or religious control continues to this day.
The reasons underlying the value of freedom from governmental control were
perhaps best articulated by U.S. president Thomas Jefferson, who said, “Informa-
tion is the currency of democracy.” When the first U.S. Congress passed the Bill of
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 325

Rights in 1789, fewer than three dozen printing presses existed in the country.
Despite this small number, the nation’s founders recognized the great importance
of the press. Jefferson said, “Were it left for me to decide whether we should have
a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should
not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter.”
The press is a critical watchdog of government and other powerful institutions
in society, including business. But as an unofficial “fourth branch” of government,
or fourth estate, the press must be free from government censorship or control. fourth estate
Although Jefferson referred only to print media, the only form of mass communi- Another term for the press, or
cation during his time, his comments apply equally to electronic mass communica- journalism, which acts as a fourth
tion. When we refer to “the press,” we include print and electronic media. branch of government, one that
In societies where government control over the press, or media, is substantial, watches the other branches
(executive, legislative, and judicial).
as in China or other authoritarian countries where journalists must be licensed to
operate, the press cannot criticize the government, its policies, or its representa-
tives. The press usually promotes government positions rather than evaluating
them independently. In democratic societies, the press ideally acts as an independ-
ent balance of power to government bodies. Yet concentration of ownership and
media companies’ commercial interests can adversely affect the ability of the press
to pursue the public interest impartially. For news organizations, business inter-
ests may sometimes outweigh public interests.
Despite the early constitutional admonitions to protect freedom of speech
and the press, the government at all levels has frequently tried to infringe on the
independence of the press and to censor content. In addition, the government has
extended full First Amendment protection only to print media. In Miami Herald
Publishing Co. v. Tornillo (1974), for instance, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down
a Florida statute that required newspapers to give space at no cost to political can-
didates whose personal or professional character the paper had criticized. Televi-
sion and radio stations, however, must provide candidates with the opportunity
for equal airtime should the station itself editorially endorse or oppose a specific
candidate.
Radio, television, cinema, and the Internet have received much less First
Amendment protection than print media, and only through extended legal battles Thomas Jefferson’s famous quote about
have they won a certain degree of freedom. In fact, cinema had no First Amend- his choice between government and
newspapers is often cited to show the
ment protection until the Supreme Court’s 1952 Miracle decision (Joseph Burstyn, important role that journalism plays in a
Inc. v. Wilson), when the court ruled that the showing of a film could not be prohib- democracy.
ited because a censor deemed it sacrilegious.
The historical influences and legal and regulatory decisions on print and elec-
tronic media are complex but worth exploring briefly to better understand the
restrictions on media content today.

The Foundations of Freedom of Expression

Governments continue to use many means to control media. One heavy-handed
chilling effect
method is to jail journalists and editors, not only to silence them but to produce a
chilling effect on others who may be tempted to write on similar topics. The phenomenon that occurs when
Yet such tactics can anger the public or damage the government’s reputation. journalists or other media
producers decide not to publish
More subtle means of control, such as licensing laws for journalists or special stories on a topic after a journalist
taxes on printing equipment, paper, or ink, have been adopted in the past. By con- has been punished or jailed for
trolling the materials needed for printing, governments hoped to be able to such a story.
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control the free flow of information. Government censors, or bodies that examine
and approve all printed material, have also been used.
Although different governmental measures persist in various countries, con-
trolling information has become increasingly difficult. This is partly because vastly
more information is available and partly because electronic media, including the
Internet, have become important information sources alongside print media. Nev-
ertheless, countries like China maintain strict control over electronic media and
the Internet. The government blocks certain websites from appearing on searches
performed within the country, and companies like Google have agreed to restric-
tions they would normally not allow, just so they can do business in China.
Our modern concept of freedom of expression has evolved over time, influ-
Alien and Sedition Acts enced by several major court decisions that dealt with national security issues,
A series of four acts passed by the libel, or censorship. These cases have dealt primarily with print media, partly be-
U.S. Congress in 1798 that, among cause some occurred before electronic media and partly because print media have
other things, prohibited sedition, or traditionally received greater First Amendment protections than electronic media.
spoken or written criticism of the
U.S. government, and imposed
penalties of a fine or imprisonment
on conviction. Although they NATIONAL SECURITY
expired in 1801, other sedition acts In 1798, the Federalist-controlled U.S. Congress passed the Alien and Sedition
have been passed periodically,
especially during times of war.
Acts as a response to the possibility of war with France. The acts, which limited
freedom of speech, were meant to silence the Jeffersonian Republicans, who sup-
sedition ported France. Among other things, the acts prohibited sedition, spoken or writ-
ten criticism of the U.S. government, and imposed penalties of a fine or
Speech or action that encourages
overthrow of a government or
imprisonment on conviction. Once the threat of war passed, the Sedition Act ex-
that subverts a nation’s constitution pired in 1801; but other sedition acts have resurfaced throughout U.S. history,
or laws. especially during times of war.1

The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 were an early example of government attempts to clamp down on
dissent and to censor the press.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 327

Several important legal concepts have developed with court cases that in-
volved issues of national security, one of the main areas where press freedoms are
curtailed.

Clear and Present Danger

The most basic restriction is when the speech in question meets both of the follow-
ing conditions: (1) It is intended to incite or produce dangerous activity (as with
falsely shouting “Fire!” in a crowded theater), and (2) it is likely to succeed in
achieving the purported result. This clear and present danger test is subject to clear and present danger
criminal-law-enforcement authorities and the judicial system rather than regula- A restriction on speech when it
tory authorities. meets both of the following
The clear and present danger test emerged from Schenck v. United States (1919). conditions: (1) It is intended to
In that case, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously upheld the conviction of Charles incite or produce dangerous
activity (as with falsely shouting
T. Schenck for violating the Espionage Act of 1917. Schenck had been distributing “Fire!” in a crowded theater), and (2)
handbills urging resistance to U.S. involvement in World War I. He was a Commu- it is likely to succeed in achieving
nist but had committed no violent acts. The Court based its decision on the beliefs the purported result.
that the First Amendment is not absolute and that ordinary constitutional rules
do not apply in wartime.

Prior Restraint
An important ruling came in the 1931 Supreme Court case Near v. Minnesota. Min-
nesota courts had stopped the publication of an anti-Semitic weekly on the basis
that it was a “malicious, scandalous and defamatory” periodical in violation of the
state’s nuisance law. The Supreme Court reversed the decision, saying that prior prior restraint
restraint—the government’s preventing or blocking the publication, broadcast- When the government prevents or
ing, showing, or otherwise distributing of media content, whether in print, over blocks the publication, broadcasting,
the air, or in movie theaters—must be used only in cases of serious or grave threats showing, or distribution of media
to national security. content, whether in print, over the
air, in movie theaters, or online.
In the 1971 case of New York Times Co. v. United States, the Supreme Court
overturned a lower court ruling that had stopped the Times from publishing “The
Pentagon Papers,” a top-secret Pentagon study of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam
War. The government failed to prove that national security interests outweighed a
heavy presumption against prior restraint.
In 1979, a district court stopped The Progressive magazine (U.S. v. Progressive)
from publishing “The H-Bomb Secret.” The magazine had obtained its information
from publicly available documents, and six months later the court injunction was
lifted after others published similar material.
Although the courts have ruled that freedom of speech is not absolute, espe-
cially during wartime, there is, nonetheless, a strong presumption against permit-
ting the government any form of prior restraint on publication or distribution of
speech. The government must clearly demonstrate that publication poses a clear
and present threat to national security. This framework seems especially relevant
in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attack on the World Trade
Center and the Pentagon.
It is expected that in 2015 the U.S. Supreme Court will rule on the extent to
which the First Amendment applies to social media such as Facebook. In 2014, the The planned publication by The
Court took up the case involving a man named Anthony Elonis, who posted com- Progressive of instructions for making a
hydrogen bomb was a landmark case
ments on Facebook threatening his estranged wife and law enforcement.2 His regarding the government’s right of
posts included, “I've got enough explosives to take care of the state police and the prior restraint.
 328 PART 4 >> MEDIA AND SOCIETY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

sheriff's department”; and “enough elementary schools in a ten mile radius to ini-
tiate the most heinous school shooting ever imagined. And hell hath no fury like
a crazy man in a kindergarten class.” Convicted of making threats, Elonis has ap-
pealed his conviction, claiming his comments were not intended to frighten and
were only therapeutic.
preferred-position In his book Mass Media Law, Don Pember describes a preferred-position
balancing theory balancing theory. According to this theory, a balance must be struck between
A legal theory that says that a speech and other rights, but speech is given a preferred position (especially in
balance must be struck between print media), and limitations on freedom of speech in print are usually illegal. The
speech and other rights, although government must demonstrate that certain speech threatens national security
speech has a preferred position. rather than journalists and media organizations having to prove that it does not.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Do you think the government should have more or less power
to exercise prior restraint and block publication or broadcast of material that it feels might
hurt national security interests, even from citizens posting to social media sites?

LIBEL
In the colonial era, the case of John Peter Zenger, a New York printer and journal-
ist, established the relationship between freedom of expression and libel in the
United States. Zenger faced a libel suit from the publication of the New York Weekly
Journal, a political journal. As publisher of the Journal, Zenger was responsible for
articles that featured scathing attacks on the colonial governor, William Cosby.
Zenger’s attorney, Andrew Hamilton, requested that the jury rule on the truth
slander of Zenger’s printed statements; and in a surprise ruling in August 1735, Zenger
was acquitted of libel. This important precedent established the principle of free-
A type of defamation that is
spoken, as opposed to written dom of the press in early America and departed from the way much of the world
(libel), and that damages a considers libel, even today. For example, in England, someone can successfully be
person’s reputation or otherwise sued for libel even if the statements are true and the statements damage a person’s
causes harm. reputation.
In the United States, libel is a type of written defa-
mation, such as a false attack on a person’s character
that damages a person’s reputation. Slander has his-
torically referred to a similar defamation involving the
spoken word. In the twentieth century, libel has been
extended to broadcasting on television or radio as well
as to online communications, even though broadcast
media are technically spoken rather than printed.
In the case of Phipps v. Clark Oil & Ref. Corp. (1987),
the Minnesota court ruled that libel occurs when a pub-
lication “tends to injure the plaintiff’s reputation and
expose the plaintiff to public hatred, contempt, ridi-
cule, or degradation.”

New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964)

Media historians and legal scholars tend to agree that
The libel case of Peter Zenger in colonial times was a turning point for what the most important legal decision to establish a free
defined “libel” in America. press in the United States was the 1964 Supreme Court
ruling in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 329

In 1960, the New York Times printed a fundraising advertisement for the civil
rights movement that contained minor factual errors. L. B. Sullivan, a Montgom-
ery, Alabama, city police commissioner, said that some of the false statements in
the advertisement regarding Montgomery police actions defamed him, even
though he was not mentioned by name. A jury agreed and awarded him a half-
million dollars. The case eventually went to the Supreme Court, which overturned
the lower court ruling.
The Supreme Court ruled that public figures (publicly prominent) and public
officials (the makers of public policy) may not sue for libel unless they can prove
“actual malice.” For nonpublic figures (private citizens), the standard for libel re-
quires merely that the plaintiff show that a “reasonable person” knew or should
have known the defamatory statement was false.
The Court defined actual malice in terms of either (1) the defendant’s intent
being malicious or (2) the defendant’s knowing the statement is false but publish-
ing it anyway. The Court ruled that the common law of defamation violated the
guarantee of free speech under the First Amendment and that the citizen’s right
to criticize government officials is too important to be intolerant of speech con-
taining even harmful falsehoods. The ruling has fostered a more robust environ-
ment for media to publish criticisms of public figures because they can be found
libelous only if they meet the stringent actual-malice test.

Protecting Journalists Against Libel

Most media organizations have libel insurance to protect journalists. Freelance
journalists often do not, though, so the threat of libel can have a chilling effect.
This is especially true for online journalists, bloggers, and others who operate on
a shoestring budget or who are not widely recognized by media organizations as
professional journalists.
Moreover, although there is no prior restraint for libel cases, journalists can
be imprisoned for contempt in libel or other cases, such as not divulging the iden-
tity of a source or not releasing one’s notes.
Five steps can help minimize a journalist’s chances of committing libel:
1. Engage in thorough research, including investigating the facts and main-
taining good records, establishing and adhering to written criteria in de-
ciding when and what to publish, and using reliable sources.
2. Confirm the identity of the target of your report.
3. Use quotations whenever possible and attribute statements to sources.
4. Report only facts and avoid language that draws conclusions.
5. Avoid bias in reports, and strive for balance (i.e., give the different sides in
a debate fair play).

Shield Laws
Shield laws are intended to protect journalists from legal challenges to their free- shield law
dom to report the news. Journalists have received neither blanket protection from A law intended to protect
the Supreme Court nor a federal shield law. Yet thirty-four states have enacted journalists from legal challenges to
laws to protect journalists from having to answer every subpoena.3 In these states, their freedom to report the news.
journalists need not testify or produce materials obtained from confidential
sources. Most of the states and territories that lack shield laws provide some court
protection for journalists.
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MEDIA PIONEERS
Anthony Lewis
Most of the media pioneers featured throughout these
pages have shaped their fields. Few, however, can claim to
have actually created the field for which they are known.
The late (2013) New York Times journalist and columnist
Anthony Lewis could make such a claim. Lewis is widely
credited for creating legal journalism, which focuses on cov-
ering courts and legal issues. “He brought context to the
law,” said Ronald K. L. Collins, a University of Washington
scholar who compiled a bibliography of Mr. Lewis’s work.
“He had an incredible talent in making the law not only in-
telligible but also in making it compelling.”4
Supreme Court judges also admired Lewis’s work, with
Justice Felix Frankfurter once observing that there weren’t
two justices sitting on the Court who had more of a grasp
of the cases Lewis covered. One of the factors that distin-
guished Lewis’s coverage of court issues was how he
brought his own interpretation and opinions into his analy-
sis, going beyond the standard call for objectivity in profes-
sional journalism.
Lewis won two Pulitzer Prizes for his coverage of the
Supreme Court: in 1955, when he was only twenty-eight,
and again in 1963. His published books include Gideon’s
Trumpet, which has been in print since 1964. Another book,
Make No Law, examined the repercussions of the landmark
1964 case New York Times v. Sullivan for libel law in the
United States. Despite Lewis’s strongly left and liberal views,
he did not agree that the press should have a preferred posi-
tion under the First Amendment. He believed that the First
Amendment was meant primarily as a bulwark against
government censorship, not as a rationale to give news or-
ganizations powers that other groups lacked. Besides writ- for twenty-three years. Through his classes, generations of
ing his column and books, Lewis taught a weekly media-law journalism students experienced his sharp intellect and
class at Columbia University’s Graduate School of Journalism conversational style that helped bring the law to life.

In May 2013, the public learned that the Department of Justice had secretly
seized the phone records of some Associated Press journalists to discover who had
been leaking classified information. In response, President Obama called for a fed-
eral shield law, which he had first proposed in 2009.
Without shield laws, legal action might exert a chilling effect on journalists,
some suggested, including Reed Hundt, former FCC chairman: “Newsgatherers
might be less aggressive and cease to pursue confidential sources or information.
Whistle-blowers and other sources could be left without any legal protection from
discovery.” 5 Under a shield law, the Department of Justice would still likely have
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 331

obtained the Associated Press phone records, but the journalists involved would
have been alerted to this when it occurred rather than after the fact.
Evidence suggests that shield laws have limited effectiveness, based on stud-
ies done on the number of subpoenas served to journalists in states with shield
laws compared to the number in those without. Opponents of shield laws argue
that journalists, given the difficulty inherent in defining this profession, should
not be given special protections from answering subpoenas. Others worry that
trying to explicitly articulate a definition for journalist could lead to official licens-
ing, which most news organizations strongly oppose as a curtailment of their First
Amendment rights.

CENSORSHIP
Censorship refers to the act of prohibiting certain expression or content. It tar- censorship
gets specific material within a publication, broadcast, film, or website rather than The act of prohibiting certain
a work in its entirety. Although rarely permitted in the United States, censorship expression or content. Censors
is routine in countries with authoritarian regimes that prohibit criticism of the usually do not target the whole
government. publication, program, or website
but seek to prohibit some part of
The case Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier (1988) established that people the content.
still in school lack full First Amendment protection. In this case, a school principal
was permitted to censor school newspaper articles dealing with pregnancy and
divorce. The court found that school-sponsored publications are not a public forum
and thus may be subject to censorship to protect the young from harm.
In the United States, censorship is most common in two circumstances: (1)
during wartime, when content, especially that being reported from the battlefield,
may threaten national security; and (2) with pornographic or obscene content,
which can sometimes include graphic violence or detailed accounts of
criminal behavior. Citizen groups have long criticized media entertain-
ment companies for portrayals of sex and violence. This has led to fights
over censorship and new laws and regulations that have affected the kind
of media available to the public, or at least some members of the public.

The Censorship of Comics

Both governmental and public critics have long scrutinized comics, popu-
lar among children and adults. In the McCarthy-era 1950s, psychologist
Fredric Wertham, MD, published his book, Seduction of the Innocent,
which contended that violent and sexually graphic comic books caused
juvenile delinquency and worse. Wertham’s book produced intense pres-
sure from the government and other groups to curtail the graphic sexual
and gruesome violent content of comic books, especially horror comics
such as Tales from the Crypt, Haunt of Fear, and Vault of Horror.
Wertham based his argument on his own observations of juvenile
delinquents. He found that many delinquents read a lot of comic books,
especially horror comics. He also found that many of these kids were poor
readers. Wertham concluded that reading comics, especially horror
comics, caused both juvenile delinquency and illiteracy. Although Wer-
tham’s reasoning and methodology were flawed, in response to his claims,
According to courts, high school students do not
the U.S. Senate conducted a full-scale investigation in 1954 into the ef- have full First Amendment rights with student
fects of comics on children. publications.
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In the 1950s, comic books showing graphic horror and violence were said to cause
juvenile delinquency.

The Senate took no formal legal action against the comics industry. Instead, a
consortium called the Association of Comics Magazine Publishers formed the
Comics Code Authority (CCA), an industry censorship review board. The CCA read
every comic book published and effectively banned sexual content and the most
graphic material popular in many horror comics of the day, including torture,
sadism, and detailed discussion of criminal acts. A CCA seal of approval appeared
on the cover of acceptable comics. The CCA action put many graphic horror comics
out of business.
The Hays Code, the movie studios’
attempt at self-censorship, eventually
led to our movie-rating system.
The Hays Code
Some early films, especially prior to 1920, contained considerable nudity or near
nudity. Although nudity and sexuality were popular with many filmgoers, some
conservative groups were outspoken in their criticism, especially of bare-breasted
women or women dressed in revealing clothing. Fearing government censorship,
the film industry created the Hays Office, a self-censorship body.
Hays Code The office produced the Hays Code in 1930, outlining many dos and don’ts for
A code established in 1930 by the
the film industry. The Hays Code articulated three general moral principles. First
movie industry to censor itself was the intention to prevent production of any motion picture that would “lower
regarding showing nudity or the moral standards of those who see it. Hence the sympathy of the audience
glorifying antisocial acts. Officials should never be thrown to the side of crime, wrongdoing, evil or sin.” Second,
for the Hays Office had to approve
each film distributed to a mass
every picture was to present “correct standards of life, subject only to the require-
audience. ments of drama and entertainment.” Third, no picture was to ridicule “natural or
human” law.
The code prescribed the proper depiction of content in twelve specific areas,
including criminal activity, sex, and religion. By today’s standards, many of these
prescriptions seem quaint—although well intentioned—and some are offensive,
racist, or at least politically incorrect. Still, movies without the Hays Office’s stamp
of approval might not have received mass distribution by a major studio—a chance
most producers were unwilling to take. In the mid-1960s, after a series of Supreme
Court cases involving obscenity and a general change in public mores regarding
depictions of sexuality, the Hays Code was significantly revised and enforced less
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 333

stringently. By 1968, the movie-rating system of G, M, R, and

X—today modified as G, PG, PG-13, R, NC-17, and X—had
replaced the Hays Code. The movie-ratings code has served as a
model for industry self-censorship for music, television, and
video games.

Indecent Content
Although not prohibited, indecent speech is subject to federal
regulation. Broadcasters may not air indecent speech when
children are likely to be in the audience, or between 6 a.m. and
10 p.m. This has been called a safe harbor period, and concerned
groups sometimes request portrayals of violence or sex to be
barred from the time period as well.
Federal law defines indecent speech as “language or mate-
rial that, in context, depicts or describes, in terms patently of-
George Carlin’s comedy routine “Filthy Words” turned into a
fensive as measured by contemporary community standards for landmark case regarding indecent content.
the broadcast medium, sexual or excretory organs or activities.”
Exempted from this definition is profanity that is neither inde-
cent nor obscene. “Damn” is an example of a permitted word. Indecent speech was
put to the test in a landmark First Amendment case involving comedian George indecent speech
Carlin. Language or material that, in
Carlin recorded before a live California audience a twelve-minute monolog context, depicts or describes, in
titled “Filthy Words.” He opened his routine by contemplating “the words you terms patently offensive as
measured by contemporary
couldn’t say on the public airwaves, the ones you definitely wouldn’t say, ever.” He community standards for the
then listed those words and repeated them in a variety of contexts. The Supreme broadcast medium, sexual or
Court decision in Federal Communications Commission v. Pacifica Foundation (1978) excretory organs or activities.

In 2013, under pressure from women’s groups, Facebook toughened its standards against
user-generated content that promoted violence against women.
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upheld the FCC’s power to regulate the airwaves, characterizing the words as inde-
cent but not obscene. The ruling formed the basis for subsequent regulations on
indecent speech for broadcasters.
Other entertainers have also pushed the limits of freedom of speech in the
electronic media, including shock jock Howard Stern. Before Stern moved to satel-
lite radio, his frequently vulgar on-air commentary drew criticism from citizen
groups and government regulators. In 1995, Infinity Broadcasting Corp. (owned
by CBS), the producer and broadcaster of Stern’s radio show, agreed to pay
$1.7  million without admitting guilt to settle a variety of indecency charges that
the FCC had leveled against Stern since 1989.
Telecommunications Act As part of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the first sweeping federal
of 1996 legislation to rewrite the foundation of communications regulation in the United
The first major regulatory overhaul States since 1934, legislators had sought to curb “indecent” speech online while
of telecommunications since 1934, generally opening up the airwaves to greater innovation. Title V of this effort, the
designed to open the industry to Communications Decency Act, made it illegal to “depict or describe” on the Inter-
greater competition by deregulating net anything considered indecent and made no distinctions between scientific or
many aspects of it.
literary works and pornography. In 1997, however, the U.S. Supreme Court in Reno
v. ACLU struck down its anti-decency provisions as unconstitutional.
Despite the ruling, some organizations have chosen to self-censor. In 2013,
women’s groups protested Facebook policy allowing groups, pages, and images
that glorified or poked fun at violence against women. Protesters pointed out the
contrast with Facebook’s long-standing policy of removing photos of breastfeed-
ing mothers from member pages. On Twitter, they shared examples of these vio-
lent images from Facebook. Thousands of emails asked major advertisers to
abandon Facebook, and protesters claimed to have convinced fifteen brands to do
so.6 After a weeklong campaign, Facebook agreed to improve its standards for de-
tecting and removing such content.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Are FCC standards for indecent speech, that is, what a “con-
temporary community” considers “patently offensive,” still tenable in online communities?
If not, what new standards could be applied? Do you agree that violent images should be
censored on Facebook? If so, what kinds of violent images?

obscenity Obscenity
One of the forms of speech not Pornography, or obscenity, is deemed unprotected by the First Amendment and
protected by the First Amendment is subject to government censorship. A landmark case was Miller v. California
and thus subject to censorship. (1973) in which Miller had been convicted in California of mailing unsolicited
Although an exact definition of the
term has been difficult to achieve in
pornographic brochures. He appealed his conviction on the grounds that it inhib-
various court cases, generally a ited his right to free speech, but the Court disagreed and outlined three criteria for
three-part standard is applied for determining whether content is obscene:
media content: It must appeal to
prurient interests as defined by 1. An average individual applying contemporary community standards must
community standards, it must show believe the content, taken as a whole, appeals to prurient interest.
sexual conduct in an offensive
manner, and it must on the whole 2. The content must show or describe in an offensive manner sexual conduct.
lack serious artistic, literary, 3. The content on the whole must lack serious literary, artistic, political, or
political, or scientific value.
scientific value.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 335

Nevertheless, defining obscenity remains difficult, and some would prefer to

simply conclude that “I know it when I see it (or hear it).”
The digital age has produced unique issues for obscenity cases. One is the ease
with which pornography can be distributed across national boundaries. Another
is computer-generated pornography that includes realistic images. In April 2002,
the Supreme Court struck down provisions in the Child Pornog-
raphy Prevention Act of 1996, which made it a crime to create,
distribute, or possess “virtual” child pornography, or computer-
generated images of children in sexual acts (as opposed to images
of actual children, which are not protected as free speech). Justice
Anthony M. Kennedy wrote for the majority, claiming the act
“prohibits speech that records no crime and creates no victims by
its production.” Although the government argued that real chil-
dren could be harmed and exploited if a market for virtual child
pornography were sustained, Justice Kennedy maintained, “The
mere tendency of speech to encourage unlawful acts is not a suf-
ficient reason for banning it.”7

Criticism, Ridicule, or Humor

Fresh Off the Boat, the first network show in twenty years to
The U.S. Constitution protects stereotypes and other offensive feature an Asian American family, debuted in early 2015 to
material, as objectionable as they may be. Criticism, ridicule, rave reviews and considerable criticism, stirred by some
and jokes about individuals (including government officials), critics who claim it perpetuates stereotypes. CRITICAL
groups, or institutions based on race, religion, gender, national THINKING QUESTIONS: Do you agree that comical ethnic
depictions such as these do more harm than good? Are
background, or other factors are protected speech, whether in cultural stereotypes inherently degrading, and is every
print or electronic media, and may not be regulated by the cultural group equally vulnerable in this regard? Should
FCC. In the case of licensed broadcasters, station owners and negative stereotypes be subject to greater regulatory
restrictions?
operators must offer programming that meets the needs of the
communities they serve.
The following discussion of the evolution of electronic-communications regu-
lations will highlight the FCC’s origin, its role, how regulations differ from those
of print media, and how they have influenced today’s programming and communi-
cation networks.

Regulating Electronic Media

The origins of U.S. electronic-communications regulations lie in the development
of broadcasting in the early part of the twentieth century, starting with radio and
later including television. The approach has evolved as a result of changing techni-
cal and economic factors.

EARLY DAYS AND THE RADIO ACT OF 1912 19111926

The regulation of broadcasting in the United States has included four stages. Prior
to 1911, no authority regulated broadcasting, which at the time meant specifically
Radio Act of 1912
radio transmissions. So little was known about the new medium in its infancy
that there was little to regulate. Because radio emerged as a vital technology for The act assigned frequencies and
three- and four-letter codes to
ships at sea, especially for making distress calls, the Commerce Department’s radio stations and limited
Bureau of Navigation was put in control of radio and made it a legal requirement broadcasting to the 360-meter
in the Radio Act of 1912 that all large ships maintain radio contact with ships or wavelength.
 336 PART 4 >> MEDIA AND SOCIETY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

shore stations. Responsibility for radio regulation rested with the Commerce De-
partment until 1927.
During this period, most radio broadcasters were amateur technology enthu-
siasts, and obtaining a frequency on which to broadcast was an informal process.
As broadcast historian Mark Goodman points out, “By mailing a postcard to Sec-
retary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, anyone with a radio transmitter, ranging
from college students experimenting in science classes to amateur inventors who
ordered kits, to newspaper-operated stations, could broadcast on the frequency
chosen by Hoover.”8
By 1926, there were 15,111 amateur radio stations and 536 broadcasting sta-
tions in the United States. Despite geographic separation of radio transmitters
and various power restrictions on those transmitters, great interference still oc-
curred between the different stations’ signals. As radio became what historian
Erik Barnouw calls “A Tower of Babel,” the need for regulation grew. In the 1920s,
much public attention became focused on the new medium of radio and the gov-
ernment’s attempts to regulate it.9

INCREASING REGULATION AND THE FEDERAL RADIO

COMMISSION 19271933
Radio Act of 1927 “The airwaves by 1927 were an open forum for anyone with the expertise and
An act of Congress that created
equipment to reach a forum with 25 million listeners,” explains Mark Goodman.10
the Federal Radio Commission, But the rapid and largely uncontrolled growth of the new medium required a new
intended to regulate the largely regulatory structure. The Radio Act of 1927, signed into law in February of that
chaotic airwaves and based on the year and influenced by railroad regulations, stated that anyone who owned a radio
principle that companies had a
frequency and radio should operate for the “public convenience, interest, or
civic duty to use airwaves, a limited
public good, responsibly. necessity”—even though it didn’t define those terms.11
The act established the Federal Radio Commission (FRC), with five politi-
cally appointed commissioners and a limited staff whose mandate was to sort
out the mess in radio. They revoked the vast majority of radio licenses and insti-
tuted a new system that favored fewer high-powered stations over many low-
powered stations.12 This change effectively favored radio for big companies over
educational institutions, religious organizations, and other groups with small
radio stations.

THE COMMUNICATIONS ACT AND SPECTRUM SCARCITY

19341995
In 1934, Congress enacted the Communications Act, which became the founda-
tion of communications law for the next sixty-two years. The act was based on the
premise established in the Radio Act of 1927 that the airwaves were a public good,
a limited natural resource that belonged to the people. Licenses were granted to
broadcast on the airwaves at no cost, but to those considered public trustees and
expected to use the airwaves responsibly. Because of the limited nature of the
In radio’s earliest days, anyone could
create his or her own radio station airwaves, the act established regulations based on the notion of “spectrum scar-
simply by setting up a tower and city,” or limited channel capacity. Under this model, news came to meet the public
transmitter and sending a postcard to service requirements for radio and television broadcasters.
the Commerce Department.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 337

The Communications Act of 1934 established the Federal Communications

Commission (FCC), with five political appointees, including one chair, and a series
of bureaus, each assigned responsibility for an area of the growing radio industry.
The FCC would eventually assume regulatory responsibility for television, wire,
satellite, and cable as well.

THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACT AND THE INTERNET

1996PRESENT
The technological transformation of the global communication system, including
the Internet, led Congress to enact the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the first
major overhaul of the Communications Act of 1934. The convergence of telecom-
munications, computing, and traditional media in a digital, networked environ-
ment required a basic reconstruction of the regulatory framework for the media of
mass communication.
The act introduced that new framework. Although it preserved the require-
ment to serve in the “public interest, convenience, and necessity,” the act’s new
mandate was to foster competition in the communications marketplace. The pre-
amble of the act states that it is intended “[t]o promote competition and reduce
regulation in order to secure lower prices and higher quality services for American
telecommunications consumers and encourage the rapid deployment of new tele-
communications technologies.” The digital revolution made the premise of chan-
nel scarcity obsolete. The public no longer had only three or four network channels
to watch—it now had broadcasting choices ranging from cable or satellite televi-
sion to, increasingly, Internet-based programming.
The Telecommunications Act of 1996 raises issues that affect not just the
structure and regulation of the communications industry but the nature of pro-
gramming and production. The act promotes direct competition among all tele-
communications providers, including terrestrial broadcasters, direct broadcast
satellite providers, mobile-communication services, cable providers, and the re-
gional Bell telephone companies. Further, the act specifically targets violent or
sexual programming and interactive services.
Since passage of the act, media ownership has become dramatically more con-
centrated. Whether this trend will foster competition or create powerful media
cartels has been a subject of some debate. The act does not limit the number of
television stations a single person or organization may own in the United States,
as long as the combined reach is no more than 35 percent of U.S. households. Eli
Noam and Robert Freeman point out that these regulatory, economic, and techno-
logical trends have resulted in unprecedented programming diversity at the na-
tional level and ever-dwindling diversity at the local level.13
Because the act eliminates the legal barriers preventing telephone and televi-
sion companies from competing in the areas of telephone and video services, con- Network neutrality
sumers have seen an increased array of alternative service providers. These include The principle that broadband
cable companies providing telephone service, for example. Similarly, consumers networks should be free of
have seen an increase in the range of both phone and video services, such as VOD, restrictions on content, platforms,
voicemail, and call waiting. Several attempts have been made in recent years to or equipment and that certain
types of content, platforms, or
pass further sweeping legislation on issues such as Network neutrality (Net equipment should not get
neutrality), voice-over IP (VoIP), and other new technologies that either did not preferential treatment on the
exist or were just emerging in 1996. network.
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INTERNATIONAL ELECTRONIC MEDIA REGULATION

In many countries, the development of radio as mass communication was an ex-
tension of existing government-run telegraph services. Unlike the United States,
where commercial forces tended to dominate, in Europe and European colonies, a
public service ethos for electronic media was most prevalent. This limited the
number of radio or television networks to a few licensed or run directly by the
government. The principle of public service led programming to emphasize news,
education, and culture rather than pure entertainment.
The European Union in the last twenty years has seen a steady trend toward
privatization and less regulation of radio and television. Consequently, European
broadcasters have licensed more U.S. programming, making shows like Baywatch
and The Simpsons global hits. While this trend has varied audience programming,
it also raises charges of cultural imperialism (discussed in Chapter 14). Local
broadcasters may too easily buy American programming rather than support
homegrown productions.
The EU’s movement toward more liberalization and privatization will likely
increase the concentration of media ownership there. Asian countries each have
their own regulations and laws; but, with the exception of Japan, India, the Philip-
pines, and South Korea, most Asian countries have more government control over
electronic media than the EU or the United States. For example, owning a satellite

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
The Great Network Neutrality Debate
Network neutrality, or Net neutrality, is a concept based on The companies also claimed they had no desire to censor
an Internet that should not discriminate among the types of the Internet or to control content, but during 2007 and 2008,
content that pass through it. Internet pioneers believed they did exactly that on several occasions. One case involved
equality and openness to be a foundational premise of the a company slowing the speed of content delivery from a rival
Net, and these qualities have been espoused by other, equally media company. In another case, AT&T censored part of a
influential Net researchers and innovators. comment from Eddie Vedder during a Pearl Jam concert
After the FCC passed certain regulations in 2005, when he criticized President George W. Bush.
however, the leading cable and phone companies began In 2012, the entertainment industry encouraged the
lobbying Congress to change the laws governing the op- Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the Protect IP Act (PIPA),
eration of the Internet. Essentially, these companies proposals that would allow companies to sue Internet service
sought a tiered system in which content providers would providers that carried illegal material. A huge uproar among
pay according to how much content they sent over the various groups and citizens helped block this legislation,
Internet. leaving politicians who had created the bills (many of whom
Critics of the lobbying efforts claimed that this would had received large donations from the entertainment indus-
destroy the democratic nature of the Internet, making tele- try) scrambling to “rework” them.
phone and cable companies Internet gatekeepers with the The debate is a complex one but may soon be resolved
power to decide what type of content would be sent fast and as the FCC moves in 2015 to settle the matter. FCC Chairman
what type sent slow, and from whom, and even whether Tom Wheeler has endorsed a proposal by President Obama
some sites or content would be blocked completely. The to reclassify broadband service as a telecommunications, in-
companies countered that certain content providers using teractive service. This move would prevent large companies
most of the bandwidth should pay more. from establishing fast and slow lanes online.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 339

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
The Rise and Fall of Russian Media
After the demise of the Soviet Union in 1991, great hope The term “extremism” has recently been broad-
arose for a democratic Russia and a free press that would ened to include any criticism of the government. As a
rebuild the country. Russians have enjoyed tremendous result, journalists who criticize the government or its
growth in available newspapers, magazines, and books policies face jail time, and the publications they work for
as well as an increase in radio and television stations and can be shut down. In 2014, Putin introduced another ex-
the type of programming they offer. panded press law that classifies interactive media, such
Since 2000, however, certain disturbing trends in as blogs with at least 3,000 readers, as mass communica-
Russia have raised alarm among journalists and media tion. Blogs are therefore subject to the same restrictive
scholars. One is the concentration of media owner- laws governing newspapers and other heavily regulated
ship and owner expectations regarding uncritical cov- Russian media, including criminal penalties for libel and
erage of themselves and their interests. Although not fact-checking errors.
as overtly as in the era of Soviet media control, the
private owners of many media companies neverthe-
less exert undue influence over editorial content and
programming.
Of even greater concern is how dangerous Russia
has become for journalists critical of the government.
Since Vladimir Putin first became president in 2000,
twenty-six Russian journalists have been killed, with
only two of the murders solved. The Committee to Pro-
tect Journalists viewed a slight downturn in journalist
murders as a potentially good sign. Still, in May 2010,
journalist Mark Minin was shot four times as he walked
to his car. In November 2010, another Russian journalist,
Oleg Kashin, was nearly beaten to death outside his
apartment. Both journalists, who had published stories
critical of the Russian government, believe the attacks
stemmed from their work.14

dish in Malaysia is illegal, and countries like Singapore and Indonesia have strict
regulations on content, especially material critical of the government.

The Federal Communications

Commission (FCC) The Federal
Communications
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is the principal communica- Commission (FCC)
tions regulatory body at the federal level in the United States. Some would say the
Established in 1934, the principal
FCC is also a lightning rod for criticism because of its prominent position on the communications regulatory body
communications regulatory landscape. Oftentimes, regardless of how the com- at the federal level in the United
mission rules, some group is left unhappy and vocal about its displeasure. States.
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The FCC consists of five commissioners appointed by the president for five-
year terms, each of whom must be confirmed by the Senate. The commission must
include at least two representatives of each of the major parties to help ensure its
nonpartisan nature.
Among its principal duties, the FCC allocates new broadcast radio and televi-
sion stations and renews the licenses of existing stations, ensuring that each li-
censee is complying with laws mandated by Congress. The FCC does not license TV
or radio networks—such as CBS, NBC, ABC, Fox, CW, and PBS—except when they
are owners of stations. Cable TV and satellite channels are available only to sub-
scribers and have fewer rules to abide by than network broadcasters.

UNIVERSAL SERVICE
An important item for the FCC is the definition of “universal service,” a notion
central to, but not defined in, the 1934 act. The act, which identifies universal ser-
vice as “an evolving level of telecommunications services that the commission
shall establish periodically under this section,” recognizes six key principles:
1. Quality services at reasonable and affordable rates
2. Access to advanced telecommunications and information services through-
out the United States
3. Access in rural and high-cost areas
4. Equitable and nondiscriminatory contributions to the preservation and
advancement of universal service
5. Specific, predictable, and sufficient federal and state mechanisms to pre-
serve and advance universal service
6. Access to advanced telecommunications services in elementary and sec-
ondary schools and classrooms, health care providers, and libraries
Debates arise from this evolving concept of universal service. One could im-
agine that it should include fully interoperable high-bandwidth, two-way com-
munication services in homes because during much of the twentieth century,
homes were expected to have telephone service. This would create a powerful
network engine to drive a new information infrastructure linking wired and
wireless technologies and to empower the development of fully interactive, mul-
timedia communications. An alternative perspective, however, would simply
mandate that all homes have access to at least two communication-service pro-
viders capable of delivering both traditional and new media services (including
the Internet). This paradigm reinforces the traditional media producer/consumer
divide that characterized mass communications throughout the twentieth
century.

THE FCC, LICENSE RENEWAL, AND REGULATORY POWER

The FCC allows stations to operate either as commercial or noncommercial-
educational (public) broadcasters for up to eight years, after which the station
must renew its license. This is the case for both radio and television broadcasters
licensed to transmit their signals via terrestrial frequencies.
At the time of license renewal, a station must meet five basic requirements
demonstrating that it has served in the public interest and met all legal
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 341

requirements. A station must also accept and respond to viewer or listener com-
plaints. Audience members, journalists, or anyone else may also review what is
called the station’s “public inspection file,” which contains a variety of informa-
tion about the station.
Federal law regulates or prohibits various station activities. The FCC is author-
ized to levy a fine or even revoke a station’s license for violations. Among the pro-
gramming concerns for which the FCC may impose fines or withdraw licenses are
the airing of obscene or indecent language and nudity when children are likely to
be viewing. Generally, only the stations themselves are responsible for selecting
their material, including coverage of local issues, news, public affairs, religion,
sports events, and other subjects.
Among the prohibited activities for stations are knowingly broadcasting a
hoax, including false information regarding a crime or catastrophe (defined as a
disaster), especially when such a broadcast might cause public harm. This rule re-
sulted largely from the 1938 War of the Worlds radio broadcast.

SPECTRUM AUCTION
Since 1994, the FCC has held auctions for available electromagnetic spectrum. The
auctions are open to any individual or company that makes an upfront payment
and that the FCC deems a qualified bidder. Many countries auction spectrum,
which can generate large revenues for governments. Some critics claim that the
spectrum tends to be leased too cheaply as essentially a corporate giveaway, con-
sidering the profits accrued from the spectrum acquired.
A 2008 auction in the United States drew special attention, thanks in part to Today’s FCC regulates broadcasting and
sets Internet policy, including Network
disagreements and lawsuits among bidders, including Google and several major
neutrality.
telecommunications companies. Google requested that the auctioned spectrum be
open, meaning that the winning bidder would have to keep the spectrum available
to anyone to develop applications and communication tools that could be used by
anyone else, along the lines of open-source business models. Google claimed this
would give consumers more choices and spur greater innovation in mobile-
communication devices.
Open communications like this directly threaten the established business
models of telecommunication companies, and Verizon filed a lawsuit against the
FCC to prevent the open requirement. In the end, Google was granted two of its
four requests, creating a partially open system, and the auction generated close to
$20 billion for the government.

Regulating Commercial and Political Speech

Free-speech issues include censorship, national security, and obscenity, al-
though a range of other types of speech that do not fall into these categories
may still have government oversight. Examples include commercial speech, po-
litical speech, and issues of privacy. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Federal Trade
enforces antitrust and consumer protection laws, including cases of deceptive Commission (FTC)
advertising in print, electronic media, and the Internet. As the Food and Drug The principal commerce regulatory
Administration (FDA) is responsible for deceptive advertising claims for food body, established in 1914, at the
and drugs, confusion can sometimes arise regarding which agency enforces federal level in the United States.
342 PART 4 >> MEDIA AND SOCIETY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

regulations about deceptive advertising. The FTC is also responsible for enforc-
ing the 1998 Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), which gives
parents control over what kinds of information can be collected about their
children online.
Although the FTC does not regulate the Internet to the extent that the FCC
does with broadcast, cable, wireless, and satellite radio, a mandate to protect con-
sumers against deceptive advertising and business practices confers broad power.
With dishonest practices that include spam, phishing, trademark infringement,
breaches of consumer privacy, and false advertising claims, to name a few, the
Internet has created whole new ways to trick and cheat people while also making
many traditional scams cheaper and easier to execute.
One problem for the FTC is its ability to enforce regulations and laws, espe-
cially with companies based overseas. Not only may other countries have different
laws regarding the legality of spammers or phishing operations, but many such
companies frequently relocate their operations and are consequently hard to catch
even if the FTC or host country had the resources to do so.

COMMERCIAL SPEECH
Commercial speech, including advertising, has generally been afforded less First
Amendment protection than other forms of speech, especially political speech
and the news. In a landmark decision, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1942 in
Valentine v. Chrestensen that “purely commercial advertising” was unprotected by
the First Amendment. Chrestensen was a businessman who dispersed leaflets ad-
vertising tours for a World War I–era submarine he had on display at a pier in New
York City. The police commissioner forbade him from distributing the leaflets,
which were becoming litter. Chrestensen claimed violation of his First Amend-
ment rights, but the Supreme Court disagreed.
In the 1970s, the broad powers granted to government regarding commer-
cial speech were restricted somewhat by cases that allowed some First Amend-
ment protection, although not on par with other forms of speech. In 1976, the
Court ruled in Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer
Council, Inc. that speech that does “no more than propose a commercial transac-
tion” is entitled to at least some First Amendment protection. This was in
response to a case brought by some citizens’ groups in Virginia that wanted to
see pharmacies advertise prices of drugs, which the state legislature had
prohibited.
In some cases, however, commercial speech has been afforded more protec-
tion than one might expect. An interesting example involves a former New York
City mayor. In 1997, Rudolph Giuliani was lampooned on the city buses of New
York in an advertising campaign by New York magazine, which claimed their mag-
azine was “possibly the only good thing in New York that Rudy hasn’t taken credit
for.” Giuliani, who had boasted he was responsible for everything from drops in
the crime rate to a booming economy, found the ads offensive and demanded their
removal. In this instance, commercial speech won. Consider the conclusion of
United States District Judge Shira Scheindlin, who quipped, “Who would have
dreamed that the mayor would object to more publicity?” She ruled that Giuliani’s
administration violated the First Amendment when it ordered city buses to
remove paid ads.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 343

Advertisements for alcohol are allowed on television and radio, although ads for tobacco are not.
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION: If electronic media ads are not permitted for tobacco, should they be
allowed for marijuana in states where its use is legal?

Tobacco, Alcohol, and Marijuana Advertising

Most goods can be legally advertised on electronic media under the jurisdiction of
the FCC, with the general exception of one product: tobacco. Advertising ciga-
rettes, small cigars, smokeless tobacco, or chewing tobacco is prohibited on radio,
television, and any other electronic medium regulated by the FCC, such as teleph-
ony. It is permissible, though, to advertise smoking accessories, cigars, pipes, pipe
tobacco, or cigarette-making machines. No federal laws or FCC regulations pro-
hibit the advertising of alcoholic beverages, such as beer, wine, and liquor, on tel-
evision and radio.
A number of states have recently legalized recreational marijuana and even
more have approved its medical sale.15 This grassroots movement remains pres-
ently at odds, however, with federal laws that categorize marijuana as illegal and
prohibit advertising the sale of illegal drugs—bans that Facebook, Yahoo, Google,
and Twitter strictly enforce to avoid costly fines for such violations. Significantly,
the Treasury Department now allows U.S. financial institutions to have marijuana
businesses as clients. As cultural acceptance, legal support, and economic reve-
nues for marijuana continue to grow, it will be interesting to see how the FCC re-
sponds to pressure from different advocacy groups.

Unclear Regulatory Boundaries

Offensive advertising and subliminal programming are not clearly regulated by
any single agency. Presumably, the advertiser would decide either not to run an
offensive ad, or if it does and receives negative publicity, it would pull the ad to
avoid further damaging its brand. In many cases, companies have abandoned ads
in the face of public criticism. For example, in 2013, Mountain Dew discontinued
an ad after critics charged it was racist. According to the FCC, subliminal advertis-
ing, messages directed to our subconscious perception, is “inconsistent with a sta-
tion’s obligation to serve the public interest.” Still, it does not officially prohibit
subliminal programming. Research has not provided conclusive evidence that
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subliminal messages are even understood or have an influence on behavior, and no

advertisers have admitted using them.

POLITICAL SPEECH
Historically, the heart of freedom of expression is in political speech, or speech
that deals with the political process, government, elected officials, or elections.
Some go so far as to contend that the only speech the founders intended when
they wrote the First Amendment was political speech. Political speech is also one
area where federal regulations have been most extensive.

equal-time rule DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: What types of speech would you characterize as political? List
different examples and explain your criteria. Identify some nonverbal or visual examples
The requirement that broadcasters
of political expression. Should these be afforded the same First Amendment protection as
make available equal airtime, in
terms of commentaries and verbal communication?
commercials, to opposing
candidates running for election. It
does not apply to candidates
appearing in newscasts,
documentaries, or news-event
Equal-Time Rule
coverage. Under the equal-time rule from the 1934 Communications Act, if a station per-
mits a qualified candidate for public office to use its facilities, including commen-
taries or paid commercials, the station must “afford equal opportunities to all
other such candidates for that office.” Two circumstances are
exempted from the equal-time provision: when the candidate
appears in a newscast, interview, or documentary and when the
candidate appears during on-the-scene coverage of a news
event. Candidate debates, ruled as “on-the-spot” news cover-
age, are thus exempt from equal-time-rule provisions. In 1981,
the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in support of the equal-time rule,
supporting the rights of viewers and listeners, adding that “as
defined by the FCC and applied here, [it] does not violate the
First Amendment rights of broadcasters by unduly circum-
scribing their editorial discretion, but instead properly bal-
ances the First Amendment rights of federal candidates, the
public, and broadcasters.”

The equal-time rule says that TV stations must allow equal Fairness Doctrine
opportunities for all political candidates to air paid commercials.
Although often confused with it, the equal-time rule is not the
same as the Fairness Doctrine. The former deals only with
giving political candidates equal time, with the exceptions noted previously. The
Fairness Doctrine, adopted by the FCC in 1949, was much broader in scope, re-
Fairness Doctrine
quiring broadcasters to seek out and present all sides of a controversial issue. This
Adopted by the FCC in 1949, it gave people a chance to respond on air to personal attacks, and it offered candi-
required broadcasters to seek dates airtime to respond to a station’s endorsement of another candidate.
out and present all sides of a
controversial issue they were In 1969, in Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC, which required Red Lion Broad-
covering. It was discarded by casting to provide equal airtime for a politician’s response to an attack, the Court
the FCC in 1987. held that because of the scarcity of broadcasting frequencies, the government
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 345

might require a broadcast licensee to share the frequency with others who might
not otherwise have a chance to broadcast their views. The Court thus gave the
public a right of access “to social, political, esthetic, moral, and other ideas and
experiences.”
Largely discarded in 1987, the last vestiges of the Fairness Doctrine were sus-
pended by the FCC in 2000, and a federal court overturned it entirely, ruling that
the FCC had not demonstrated the value to the public of the doctrine, given the
limitation it places on broadcasters’ First Amendment rights. Legislative attempts
to resuscitate the Fairness Doctrine in 2005 and 2008 failed. The FCC has re-
frained from supporting such efforts, claiming that the doctrine never really pro- The prevalence of conservative
commentators such as Ann Coulter has
duced more diversity in programming and that channel proliferation has generated led liberals to try to reinstate the
more diversity than could have been hoped for when three major commercial net- Fairness Doctrine.
works dominated television.

Children’s Programming Protections

Parents, elected officials, and others have long sought to protect children from
unwanted or offensive speech and to create a media system that actively nourishes
them. Considerable regulation exists to both protect and promote children’s wel-
fare in a media environment, especially the electronic media. A ratings system,
similar to that used for movies, gives parents a guide to program suitability for
children of certain ages. Among the most important pieces of regulation designed
to protect children is the Children’s Television Act.

THE CHILDREN’S TELEVISION ACT

The Children’s Television Act (CTA) took effect in 1990. It limits the amount of Children’s Television
commercial content in children’s TV programming (including broadcast, satellite, Act (CTA)
and cable) and mandates that each television station provide programming of ed- Created in 1990, it limits the
ucational and informational value for children age sixteen and younger. Program- amount of commercial content that
ming must meet four FCC criteria: programming can carry, forces
stations to carry certain amounts of
1. Designed primarily to address children’s educational and informational educational programming for
needs (i.e., it can’t be primarily entertainment, such as a cartoon, and have children sixteen and under, and
includes other provisions to protect
as a by-product some educational value).
children.
2. Broadcast between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m., hours when children are likely to be
viewing.
3. Scheduled regularly each week.
4. Runs at least a half hour.
In addition, commercial stations are required to identify their educational
programs for children as such at the beginning of those programs, as well as to
publishers of program guides. Moreover, all programs aimed at children twelve
and younger may not contain more than 10.5 minutes of advertising per hour on
weekends and 12 minutes on weekdays. The FCC also established that at least
three hours of core children’s programming a week would fulfill station obliga-
tions under the CTA, “core” being defined primarily in terms of item number 1 in
the list of criteria.
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VIOLENT AND SEXUAL PROGRAMMING:

THE VCHIP
Violent and sexual programming receives special atten-
tion from the FCC because of its potential implications
for young viewers. With the Telecommunications Act of
1996, the federal government began regulating televised
violent content in addition to sexual content. Seeking to
increase parental control over their children’s viewing of
violent and sexual programming, the act begins by sum-
marizing research that demonstrates the negative
impact of television violence on children. It notes, “Par-
ents express grave concern over violent and sexual video
programming and strongly support technology that
Children’s programming has been an area of FCC regulatory focus, which would give them greater control to block video program-
even determines the maximum number of commercial minutes for ming in the home that they consider harmful to their
programs. children.”
To that end, the government mandated that as of January 2000, all television
V-chip sets thirteen inches or larger come equipped with a V-chip, or “violence chip.” The
A computer device that enables V-chip is a computer device that enables parents or any other viewer to program a
parents or any other viewer to TV set to prevent access to programs containing violent or sexual content based
program a TV set to block access to on the program rating, also called “TV Parental Guidelines.” At the request of the
programs containing violent or government, the television industry agreed to broadcast signals with its own
sexual content based on the
program rating.
voluntary ratings system, one the V-chip can detect. These ratings appear on the
TV screen for the first fifteen seconds of rated programming, permitting viewers
to use the V-chip to block those programs from their sets. On the basis of the First
Amendment, all news programming is exempted from the V-chip.
In the digital age, the V-chip is no longer the only tool that restricts television
viewing. All digital-media systems, including digital cable and satellite television,
contain software controls that can block individual programs, entire channels, or
classes of programs based on their ratings.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: When you were younger, did you ever see movies that you were
not supposed to watch because of the rating? Did your parents have parental controls on
your television or computer? If so, did you get around the controls, and how did you do so?
Do you believe the shows you saw were harmful to you or your friends in any way?

intellectual property (IP)

Ideas that have commercial value,
such as literary or artistic works,
patents, trademarks, business
Intellectual Property Rights
methods, and industrial processes. Of significant and growing concern to those in mass communication is the protec-
tion of their intellectual property (IP). IP refers to ideas that have commercial
copyright
value, such as literary or artistic works, patents, software programs, business
A form of intellectual property law methods, and industrial processes, particularly in the form of copyright protec-
that protects the right to use, tion. A copyright (“copyright” refers to the legal right to make a copy of a work)
publish, reproduce, perform,
display, or distribute a literary or
is one form of intellectual property rights protection that deals with specific ex-
artistic work, such as a piece of pressions of ideas. The other two main areas of intellectual property law are pat-
writing, music, film, or video. ents and trademarks.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 347

Patents are intended to protect a specific form of intellectual property known patent
as inventions. Once granted, a patent prohibits anyone from copying the inven- A form of intellectual property law
tion, pattern, or design. Anyone can apply for a patent, as long as the idea is new. that protects the right to produce
Trademarks refer to images, designs, logos, or even words or phrases. In March and sell an invention.
2004, for instance, Donald Trump, host of The Apprentice reality TV show, at-
tempted to trademark his phrase “You’re Fired!” so that it could be sold on clothing trademark
and other items. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office turned down his request A form of intellectual property law
because it was too similar to “You’re Hired!,” an educational board game whose that protects the right to use a
phrase had been trademarked in 1997. particular sign, logo, or name.
In October 2011, organizers of a London conference were forced to change its
name from the “Radical Media Conference” to the “Rebellious Media Conference”
after a London-based PR firm named Radical Media threatened to sue for copy-
right infringement, despite the long history of the term “radical
media” going back to the nineteenth century. Nevertheless, the PR
firm had trademarked the name, and the conference organizers
could not afford a costly legal battle, even if they had eventually won
the case.
A copyright exists from the moment a work is created in its fixed
form, such as being written down or recorded, so simply claiming an
idea does not give you a copyright to it. Inserting a © symbol (or a
symbol with a P in a circle for a musical recording,  ), along with a
date and the name of the copyright owner, helps indicate that you are
copyrighting a work. This is not necessary, however, nor is registra-
tion with the U.S. Copyright office, unless at some future point you
wish to sue for infringement of a work (in which case, prior registra-
tion and public documentation would likely have been prudent). The NFL has trademarked the term “Super Bowl,”
forbidding local restaurants, bars, and other advertisers—
A copyright is in effect for the lifetime of the author, plus 70 even in the host city—from using the term without
years, although it may be up to 125 years with a work for hire, typi- permission. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: Do you
cally owned by the employer. The rationale of a copyright is to protect agree with the NFL’s claim that the words “Super Bowl”
will lose their importance if used too widely? Why or
not only the intellectual product but also the author/owner’s finan- why not?
cial interests. In 1989, the United States joined the Berne Convention
for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, extending copy-
right protection globally.
Digital Millennium
Copyright law applies to a wide range of expression, primarily the creations of
Copyright Act
authors or artists. A copyright, not a patent, protects a nonfiction book or article
as well as literary works (including newspapers, books, and magazines); musical A 1998 act of Congress that reformed
copyright law comprehensively
works; dramatic works; pantomimes and choreographic works; pictorial, graphic,
to update it for the digital age.
and sculpture works; motion pictures and other audiovisual works; sound record- Key provisions addressed the
ings; and architectural works. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act extends circumvention of copyright-
to digital works, including those on the Internet or other online media, because if protection systems, fair use in a
something exists on a hard drive it is considered a fixed form. digital environment, and Internet
service providers’ liability for
content sent through their lines.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: If you were a young novelist or struggling musician trying to

make a living writing stories or making music, would you oppose or support greater gov-
ernment or corporate control of copyright if the technology they used prevented unau-
thorized copies of your work from being circulated?
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FAIR USE
Holding a copyright to a work provides the owner with an exclusive right to re-
produce, distribute (over any media), perform, display, or license that work. Cop-
fair use yright law recognizes limited exceptions, including primarily for fair use of an
Allowable use of someone else’s
expression, such as in a movie or book review where the reviewer might include
copyrighted work that does not an excerpt, or in criticism or commentary. In general, four factors determine
require payment of royalties, with a whether the use of another’s copyrighted work is legal under the “fair use” provi-
number of factors that determine if sion of the act:
something falls under fair use or
violates copyright. 1. Purpose and nature of the use (i.e., it is purely commercial, educational, or
for the news, the latter two of which are generally more likely to qualify)
2. Character of the copyrighted work (some works are inherently more pro-
tected; this is a subjective matter determined by the courts)
3. Amount and extent of the excerpt, in proportion to the copyrighted work
in its entirety (this is determined more qualitatively than quantitatively,
however, and there are no exact rules on the permissible number of words
one may borrow from a text or the amount of video, audio, or image one
may excerpt because even a small clip may represent the most significant
creative aspect of the work)
4. Effect of the use on the copyrighted work’s market potential (i.e., in dollar
terms), especially when the copyrighted work is the basis for a derivative
work (e.g., a movie based on a book)
The issue of fair use has become a flashpoint for digital media, especially in
relation to content aggregators such as Google News or video search engines.
In several recent court cases, copyright holders have sued content aggregators
for copyright infringement. If, however, the content aggregator has been able
to prove that it has transformed the content sufficiently—for example, by
making low-resolution thumbnails of images or video clips—and to show that
it is not profiting directly from doing so, it has generally won the case. Other
aggregators have arrived at licensing agreements with media companies for
displaying or collecting their content. Google, for instance, struck a deal with
Associated Press to aggregate its news stories and keep them on Google News
for a limited time.

Privacy
We discussed the role of privacy with social media in Chapter 7, but traditional
media have a rich history of raising challenging privacy issues. For entertainment
media, all members of the public appearing on shows, such as reality shows, game
shows, and talk shows, must sign a waiver granting permission to use their image.
These people are generally not paid for such appearances, and they are essentially
giving away all rights, so broad are the waivers. This protects the show’s producers
from lawsuits if people dislike how they were depicted. Live sporting events do not
require these waivers, in part because they take place in public spaces, where
people cannot expect the same right to privacy. This is why spectators’ faces are
not blurred out when shown at sporting events.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 349

Issues of privacy become more complex in journalism. Journalists often find

themselves trying to get information that others wish to keep private. Obtaining
records or private information without breaking trespass, eavesdropping, or pri-
vacy laws can be difficult. Even secretly recording a conversation can create legal
trouble for a journalist, depending on the state. State laws vary as to whether only
one party or both must consent to the recording of a conversation. Even more di-
lemmas arise when journalists acquire private records that someone else has
stolen, such as when a whistle-blower provides confidential and damaging com-
pany documents.
At the heart of the matter is what is commonly called our “right to privacy.”
Although this right is not explicitly articulated in the Constitution, different
Amendments mention privacy. Over time, the Supreme Court has used especially
the Fourteenth Amendment, which addresses equal protection under the law, to
develop a concept of privacy a citizen should expect.
The right to privacy differs between private citizens and celebrities or public
figures, however. People not normally in the public limelight generally have greater
privacy protections than celebrities or political officials. Greater privacy also ap-
plies to people who become celebrities through unanticipated circumstances such
as rescuing a child from a burning building because they did not seek public
attention.

Legal Issues in the Digital World

The courts and legal system have not kept up with the many changes to mass com-
munication that the Internet and digital media have brought. As a result, cases
decided by the courts from the mid-1990s through today can have dramatic ef-
fects because they establish precedent, becoming the basis for subsequent court
decisions and legislation.
One example of just how far the legal system has had to come occurred in a
2000 ruling against Eric Corley (pen name: Emmanuel Goldstein), publisher of
2600: The Hacker Quarterly. He included links in the online version of the
magazine to a site with the code to DeCSS, a computer program that opened
encrypted DVDs and allowed them to be copied freely. Corley argued that
being forced to remove the hyperlinks was an infringement of his First
Amendment rights. The court disagreed, claiming that a hyperlink was not an
example of free speech because it acted as a kind of “mechanism” providing
access to the site. Posting the URL of a site without a hyperlink, however,
would still be considered free speech. An appellate court agreed with this
decision in May 2001, and Corley decided not to take the case to the Supreme
Court.
Media organizations and writers, artists, and musicians—anyone creating
copyrighted media content for a living—want to be fairly compensated for their
work. There would be no incentive, the reasoning goes, to create something only to
have it rapidly copied and distributed without financial reward for the artist. Sev-
eral lawsuits currently working their way through the court system could increase
control for copyright holders—which are usually media organizations and not
individuals.
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ETHICS IN MEDIA
Does the Punishment Fit the Crime?
Aaron Swartz was widely hailed as a technological genius and The opening assertion of the Guerrilla Open Access
known as an ardent Internet activist. After dropping out of Manifesto, which Swartz wrote in 2008, is “Information is
school at age fourteen, he helped create the RSS syndication power.” Swartz goes on to complain about how scientific
framework, which made it much easier to follow blogs and publishers have scientists sign away their copyrights and en-
close the latest scientific research behind paywalls that only
large organizations such as universities can afford; his mani-
festo contends that companies are blinded by both greed
and power.
Employing digital guerilla tactics, Swartz acted on his
beliefs. In January 2011, MIT police arrested him on a number
of charges, all involving his downloading the entire data-
base of academic journals from the publishing and data-
base site JSTOR. It was unclear what he intended to do with
the articles, whether he was planning to release the infor-
mation to the public or was simply trying to make a point.
Nevertheless, he faced combined felony charges that, if
convicted, could have meant a $1 million fine and thirty-five
Internet activism has emerged as a vibrant and global force for years in prison.
social movements especially those advocating for civil liberty. On January 11, 2013, a little over two years after his arrest
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: Do you think guerilla tactics and as prosecutors subpoenaed his friends for the upcoming
are justified when fighting perceived oppression? Do you feel the trial, Swartz hanged himself in his Brooklyn apartment, leav-
government shares all or some of the responsibility for Aaron
Swartz’s suicide because of their pursuit of such severe penalties ing no suicide note. Eulogies from Internet luminaries came
for his activist actions? Do you think punishments for intellectual in print and at his funeral, where Web creator Tim Berners-
property infringement are too harsh, or do they accurately reflect Lee gave a eulogy. Lawrence Lessig wrote an article asking
the damage that can be done by stealing intellectual property? why the prosecutor’s office felt they had to bully Swartz and
pursue such stringent punishments. Other open-source and
other media content online. He co-created the social news open-access advocates also showed their support for what
and entertainment site Reddit when he was nineteen; and at he stood for and protested the heavy-handed tactics of the
twenty-three, he founded Demand Progress, an online advo- government.
cacy group that campaigned against Internet censorship. Swartz’s story is told in the 2014 documentary The Inter-
Swartz was an advocate of open access. Open-access net’s Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz.16 Released at the
proponents believe that information should be accessible Sundance Film Festival, the film not only features Swartz’s
to everyone and that unjust imbalances in power arise short but eventful life but also examines his legacy and
when certain groups have access to information that others impact on the NSA surveillance revelations and the Stop
do not. Online Piracy Act (SOPA) protests.

open access
A system that makes information DIGITAL RIGHTS MANAGEMENT
accessible to all to discourage
power imbalances that may arise File-sharing and royalty issues related to music, and increasingly video, continue
from unequal access. to be one of the main areas of contention in the digital space. Record labels have
tried various measures to deter free file sharing, including suing customers and
having universities hold seminars for incoming students on the matter, but with
no decrease in free downloading.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 351

Digital rights management (DRM) is the use of technology to rein in digital rights
copyright infringement of digital content. Encryption has had some success, al- management (DRM)
though, as the DeCSS example demonstrates, it is not foolproof. A digital wa- Technologies that let copyright
termark is computer code (usually invisible but sometimes visible) inserted into owners control the level of access
any digital content—images, graphics, audio, video, or even text documents— or use allowed for a copyrighted
that authenticates the source of that content. Watermarks can protect media work, such as limiting the number
of times a song can be copied.
assets and intellectual property from theft—or at least make illegal activities
easier to track. digital watermark
For instance, if a media company sends digital video over the Internet, which
someone tries to copy and distribute without obtaining permission, the original Computer code (usually invisible
but sometimes visible) inserted into
copyright holder, an end user, or even an intelligent software agent can examine any digital content—images,
the content for an embedded digital watermark. If the watermark is present and is graphics, audio, video, or even text
that of the original copyright holder, then it can easily be demonstrated that the documents—that authenticates
redistributor is in violation of copyright law. In essence, digital watermarking is the source of that content.
analogous to cattle branding to deter or catch rustlers.
DRM has faced resistance from some groups, such as the Electronic Frontier
Foundation, which claim that media companies want to limit the capabilities of
new technologies simply to increase their revenues and force digital media to
behave like their analog counterparts. These restrictions anger many consumers
and raise serious questions about what exactly a person is “buying” when purchas-
ing a CD and what rights the purchaser has to that content.
Whenever a new secure system is proposed, a method to break the system is
not far behind. Rather than deal with this fundamental issue, media organiza-
tions have lobbied to change laws to favor copyright holders, and they have taken
people to court for merely publicizing the existence of security weaknesses in en-
crypted or watermark systems, arguably infringing on free speech.

PRIVACY
Privacy issues have become increasingly important with the Internet and digital
media. Not only can websites track users in ways impossible with analog media,
but they can insert code, called a “cookie,” onto computers and track users even
after they have left that particular website. Not all cookies track relentlessly, how-
ever; and in fact, cookies, as discussed in previous chapters, can also make the
Web a more user-friendly environment.
Still, their overuse can be a problem. Just as a website will add a cookie to your
computer, so will advertisers on a website. These third-party cookies also track third-party cookies
your Web usage and send information directly to the advertisers, who can deter- Cookies put on a computer by
mine how long you’ve stayed on a page and where you went afterward. those other than the website being
Spyware can be secretly loaded onto computers from websites and can do eve- visited, such as advertisers.
rything from tracking browsing behavior to recording keystrokes, a technique
that can lead to the surreptitious monitoring and recording of a password or other
private information by an unseen person on another computer.
In 2013, Edward Snowden, a National Security Agency (NSA) employee, re-
vealed that the NSA had been reviewing the phone records of all U.S. citizens and
the digital communications of those in other countries to find potential terrorist
activities. The case reminded the public of how easily the government can work
with telecommunications companies and Internet media giants to gather infor-
mation about people.
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Other legal issues involve the status of messages sent by private citizens. Is a
posting to a discussion board considered “publishing,” and could a poster be sued
for libel? What if a person writes something libelous in a private email to a friend
and that friend includes the email in a discussion-board topic? Who could be sued
for libel? These and many other similar legal issues have yet to be resolved. In
other words, the public, as it gains access to a worldwide distribution network, will
have to start considering issues of privacy, libel, defamation, and attendant
lawsuits—all issues traditional media companies must consider every day.

CONTENT RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Another new area that media companies have had to contend with is the status of
user-generated content (UGC). It is virtually impossible for a company to police all
the content uploaded to the Internet. The question of who is responsible for the
content on a site arises when someone is defamed in a user comment, as opposed
to something the company itself wrote.
In general, the courts have made a “safe haven” provision for content provid-
ers, protecting them to some extent from libel lawsuits as long as they remove the
offending content promptly and make good faith efforts to prevent similar trans-
gressions. Similarly, Internet service providers (ISPs) have been considered largely
immune from responsibility for what is sent over their networks, although the
threat of a lawsuit can sometimes be sufficient incentive to remove offending con-
tent or to ban users, especially those accused by record labels of rampant free file
sharing.

MEDIA CAREERS

Legal considerations frame and shape all media careers. Increasingly, anyone pur-
suing a career in journalism or media must consider the legal and regulatory con-
text for their work on multiple levels. The First and Fourth Amendments are
particularly vital concerns. Freedom of speech and privacy are defining legal un-
derpinnings for work in journalism and the media. Yet other laws, once deemed
beyond the framework of journalism and the media, are also becoming important.
For instance, media professionals now need to be familiar with laws of agencies
such as the Federal Aviation Administration, evolving regulations that pertain to
new technologies such as drones. Further, journalists and other media profession-
als must be aware of international laws, including copyright and intellectual prop-
erty considerations that pertain globally where their content may appear online.
As the work of the great Anthony Lewis exemplifies, journalism reporting on
legal issues in the media is a profoundly significant career pathway. Legal journal-
ism in the twenty-first century means much more than covering U.S. laws. Suc-
cessfully negotiating a global village requires advanced knowledge of the broader
legal framework that applies across borders: geographic, political, and cultural.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 353

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

Many legal and regulatory issues complicate Internet media for users and produc-
ers, and the legal system generally lags far behind in dealing with these. The global
nature of the Internet also raises questions about whose laws should be followed
when offensive or illegal content originating in one country can be viewed online
in another. The question of whether a hyperlink is protected by the First Amend-
ment can generate heated discussions about the complex nature of digital media.
Similarly, the seemingly simple question “Where does publishing occur?” can stir
complicated legal debate.
With traditional media, the answer was obvious—publishing occurred in the
country where the printing press was located. A book might be legally printed in
one country but banned in another; thus, if a copy was smuggled into the country
where it was banned, the person caught with book would be penalized, not the
printer.
But on the Internet, where something is published is not at all clear. A person
may create banned content in his country for his website, which is on a web server
in another country where the content is not banned. Someone else may come
across the content in a third country where the material is considered harmful,
sacrilegious, or defamatory. In this scenario, many questions arise, such as which
country’s laws will be in effect in a lawsuit and what constitutes libel because it
differs from country to country.
A pertinent, highly controversial case was brought forward in 2002. Dow Jones
and Co. Inc. v. Gutnick involved an article in Barron’s (published by Dow Jones) in
October 2000 that mentioned Melbourne businessman Joseph Gutnick several
times. Although the number of print copies of Barron’s sent to Australia was mi-
nuscule, the online readership of the magazine was over half a million, and Gut-
nick claimed that many more Australians would see the article than just those
who subscribed to the print version. He argued his libel lawsuit should be heard in
Australia, where he was defamed. Dow Jones countered that the article was actu-
ally published in the United States, where its Web servers were located, and thus
the case should be heard in the United States (where libel charges are harder to
win than in Australia). The Australian High Court agreed with Gutnick, however,
and Dow Jones eventually settled with him in 2004.
The case was of serious concern to Internet watchers and media companies
because of its potential implications for publishers on the Web. The ruling could
mean that people could sue a media company or website according to their own
country’s laws, which may more severely restrict acceptable content than regula-
tions where the material was published. On the other hand, it is arguably not fair
to impose another country’s views of acceptable free speech on foreign content
simply because it was published on the Internet. The question remains open and
will likely come up again in the future.
354 PART 4 >> MEDIA AND SOCIETY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

MEDIA MATTERS LEGAL LIMITS

Test your legal knowledge as it relates to the First Amendment, media regulations, and copyright.

1. “Libel” refers to defaming someone in print or Boston Marathon bombing in 2013 when the
broadcast, whereas “slander” is defamation public pored over video footage and made
that occurs through the spoken word. How do inaccurate claims about identifying the
you think defamation should be classified if it suspected bombers?
appears in a YouTube video? 4. If I tell my friend my idea for a novel and he
2. Do you think a hyperlink that takes a user to an then writes a novel based on my idea, can I
illegal site is protected as free speech by the sue him for copyright infringement? Why or
First Amendment? Why or why not? why not?
3. National security issues are one of the few 5. (T/F) Camera-equipped drones have emerged
cases in which the government can possibly as a potential battleground pitting First
stop publication or broadcast of information. Amendment rights against concerns over
Should the government be able to use the national security and privacy, or Fourth
“national security” rationale to censor videos in Amendment rights.
a situation such as occurred following the

that are recorded in some form, so simply talking about an idea does not protect it as copyrighted. 5. True.
does not apply to a link, deemed by the courts to act like a mechanism that takes a person to a specific place. 4. Copyright covers only works
ANSWERS: 1. Even though defamation appears on video or television as spoken words, it is still considered libel. 2. First Amendment protection

FURTHER READING

Digital Media Law, 2nd ed. Ashley Packard (2012) Wiley-Blackwell.

Major Principles of Media Law: 2015 Edition. Genelle Belmas, Wayne Overbeck (August 12, 2014)
Cengage Learning.
Freedom for the Thought That We Hate: A Biography of the First Amendment. Anthony Lewis (2008)
Basic Books.
Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime: From the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terror. Geoffrey R.
Stone (2005) W. W. Norton.
Born Secret: The H-Bomb, the Progressive Case, and National Security. Gerald Marsh, Alexander De-
Volpi, George Stanford, Ted Postol (2011) Kindle edition.
Make No Law: The Sullivan Case and the First Amendment. Anthony Lewis (1992) Vintage.
The Associated Press Style Book and Briefing on Media Law. Associated Press (2013) Basic Books.
We’re All Journalists Now: The Transformation of the Press and Reshaping of the Law in the Internet
Age. Scott Gant (2007) Free Press.
Insult to Injury: Libel, Slander and Invasions of Privacy. William Jones (2003) University Press of
Colorado.
 CHAPTER 11 >> COMMUNICATION LAW AND REGULATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 355

Rethinking Global Security: Media, Popular Culture, and “The War on Terror.” Andrew Martin, Patrice
Petro (eds.) (2006) Rutgers University Press.
Who Controls the Internet? Illusions of a Borderless World. Jack Goldsmith, Tim Wu (2006) Oxford
University Press.
Intellectual Property Law and Interactive Media: Free for a Fee. Edward Lee Lamoureux, Steven
Baron, Claire Stewart (2009) Peter Lang.
Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code. Van Lindberg (2008)
O’Reilly Media.
Censored 2014: Dispatches from the Media Revolution; The Top Censored Stories and Media Analysis of
2012–13. Mickey Huff (ed.) and Project Censored (contributor) (2013) Triangle Square.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

358 Role of Theory and

Research
359 Mass Society, Mass
Communication
359 Media-Effects Research
367 Understanding the
Audience
370 Cultural Studies
372 Sociohistorical
Frameworks
376 New Directions in Media
Research
378 Media Research: What
Type of Science Is It?
 12

Media Theory
and Research
G
“ uns don’t kill people,” National Rifle Association (NRA) Executive Vice LEARNING OBJECTIVES
President Wayne LaPierre said at a press conference one week after the
mass shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School on December 14, >> Explain the role of theory and
2012. “Video games, the media, and Obama’s budget kill people.” research for media
LaPierre elaborated: “There exists in this country, sadly, a callous, corrupt and cor- professionals.
rupting shadow industry that sells and stows violence against its own people >> Describe various types of
through vicious, violent video games with names like Bulletstorm, Grand Theft media research.
Auto, Mortal Kombat, and Splatterhouse.”1 >> Critically examine the
The video game industry has long confronted charges from across the political strengths and weaknesses of
spectrum that violent games increase violence among children and teens, concerns various media-research
that have only intensified with the rise in popularity of video games and advanced approaches.
technology creating hyperrealistic graphics. And the fact remains that the incidence >> Discuss how digital media and
of gun-related deaths in the United States is higher than that of any other industrial- the Internet are being
researched in terms of new
ized country.
and old media theories.
Yet the results from numerous studies on gaming and violence are inconclusive
as to whether violent video games or TV programs increase the likelihood of aggres-
>> Examine the differences
between quantitative and
sive or violent behavior in real life. Some studies demonstrate a correlation while
qualitative research.
others do not. And even correlation cannot prove causation. Furthermore, Americans
play violent video games at the same rate as people in countries with little gun vio-
lence, such as South Korea and the Netherlands.2
Nevertheless, people looking for explanations for inexplicably brutal acts con-
tinue to blame the simulated brutality of video games. In September 2013, after
“Navy Yard shooter” Aaron Alexis killed twelve people and injured three others in
Washington, DC, early reports were quick to cite his apparent obsession with violent
video games. Subsequent inquiry, however, revealed that he might have been delu-
sional as the result of an undiagnosed mental illness. As Alexis was fatally shot by an
officer at the scene, the mystery of what drove him to mass murder will likely never
be resolved.

357
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Research findings on media and violence can have a tremendous impact on media
industries in the form of government censorship or regulations and sales of media
products such as games, movies, and books. Media effects have been an area of
keen interest since the dawn of the mass-communication era. Theories about media
and communication attempt to explain the underlying processes of media, how we
interact with media, and how media affect our cultures, societies, attitudes, and
lives. This research takes on special importance given how much time we spend
with media, demonstrated by the following findings from years of research:
Americans spend an average of just over five hours a day watching television.
By age 75, the average American will have spent nine years of his or her life
watching television.3
By age eighteen, a child has seen on TV two hundred thousand acts of vio-
lence, including forty thousand acts of murder.4
Half (47 percent) of violent actions include no depiction of pain.5
Fifty-four percent of children in the mid-1990s had a television set in their
own bedroom and often watched with a friend, unsupervised.6
Media research is the systematic and scientific investigation of communica-
tion processes and effects that often bases its explorations on theories of media
and communication. Some types of media research, such as that conducted by
market research firms, are more oriented to answering practical questions, such
as whether audience members remember a particular advertisement, their im-
pressions of a product or brand, or their media use and consumption habits.
Media-research methodology, or how research is carried out, takes many
forms. It can entail social scientific research using quantitative tools and statisti-
cal analysis of data, such as surveys and experiments; or it can involve critical
studies using qualitative methods, such as ethnography or focus groups.

Role of Theory and Research

For media professionals, research may seem more important than theory. Some-
one planning to work in journalism or advertising may see practical inquiry as
more significant than academic theory. Yet media theories have had a number of
profound effects. They play a foundational role, providing cognitive constructs
that help us organize and make sense of the world. They also play a key role in re-
search agendas, which then affect the questions asked during the course of inves-
tigation, the findings or discoveries, and the funding for such projects.
Research findings in turn shape public policies on the media and media indus-
tries, decisions about what and how items should be regulated, such as ratings
systems for movies, music, and video games. This of course has important implica-
tions for the organization and operation of media companies, which affects every-
thing from content development to job creation.
Media research carried out specifically for business purposes helps determine
audience numbers for particular shows or networks (thus determining advertising
rates and kinds of shows produced). It also helps identify which media campaigns
have been more effective and which messages more persuasive, and consequently,
which areas are of most interest to businesses, not-for-profit organizations, and
politicians.
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 359

In short, media theories not only help media professionals better predict or
explain various phenomena, they also help us better understand the world we live
in and the forces at work in it. As we will see, questions about the fundamental
nature of communication and media are not new.

Mass Society, Mass Communication

A number of larger social, political, cultural, and scientific factors throughout the
course of history have greatly influenced the study of mass communication and
media theories. Here we will explore some of these historical and sociopolitical
forces.
The dramatic societal and political changes that took place in Europe and the
United States during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, thanks largely to
industrialization, provide the backdrop for early theorizing on mass communica-
tion. The new demands of factory work and mass migrations to the quickly grow-
ing cities changed traditional ways of life that had remained largely the same for
generations. Harsh working and living conditions produced clashes between work-
ers and authorities, leading to various social and political movements that called
for greater democracy and workers’ rights.
Elites threatened by these developments found various rationales for why
they should lead and most should simply follow, such as the notion of “the masses”:
people were largely uneducated, lacking in culture, and not intelligent enough to
rule themselves. Others opposed elitism, claiming that more participation, better
education, and greater distribution of wealth were necessary to create a more
democratic and just society.
During these debates, which still echo today, film was starting to be recog-
nized as an important medium of mass communication. Literacy was not needed
to understand the stories in silent films, and moving images were regarded as
powerful influencers, especially for the uneducated, passive masses, or other sup-
posedly vulnerable groups such as women and children. Messages in various
media could help educate, persuade, or control the masses; the question then
became how best to do accomplish these goals.

Media-Effects Research
The obvious way to study media influence was to identify effects of media expo-
sure. The notion that media could harm people was already well established,
dating back to the ancient Greeks. With new and powerful communication tech-
nologies that could reach millions at once, such as film, radio, and, later, televi-
sion, it was not hard to imagine the power that mass communication could have
over people.
Media effects have been a dominant concern in the history of media research
and continue to be important today. Findings from these studies have influenced
the creation of the movie-rating system, dictated regulations for the television
industry, and determined what types of advertisements we view. Although earlier
assumptions of direct and powerful media effects have been scaled back as newer,
more complex theories developed, the idea that media affect us directly (usually
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negatively) is still prevalent. The history of effects research reveals

the interesting roles of communication technologies in relation to
social issues and norms deemed important.

PROPAGANDA AND THE MAGIC BULLET

Some of the earliest media-effects research was conducted to
better understand how mass communication persuaded people.
During World War I, both the United States and Germany em-
ployed film and other media (including posters) as instruments
of propaganda to generate public support for their positions in
the war.
Attempts to influence an audience through mass communica-
tion, propaganda usually involves total control of the transmis-
sion of information, often without the audience knowing who is
controlling the message. Although perhaps hard to imagine today,
many people through much of the twentieth century had ex-
tremely limited sources of information—perhaps only a govern-
ment radio station or a single government television station
broadcasting a few hours a day.
Political scientist Harold Lasswell, during his analysis of
World War I propaganda efforts, used the term “hypodermic
needle” to describe the concept that media can act like a drug being
injected into a passive audience. The hypodermic-needle model
assumes that messages have a profound, direct, and uniform
Propaganda posters during World War I led researchers to impact on individuals. This model has also been called the “magic
hypothesize how persuasion worked on the public. bullet” model of communication and derives largely from learning
theory and simple stimulus–response models in behavioral
psychology.
As film became more popular and began to share space with radio as a form of
propaganda mass communication in the 1920s, research about both mediums looked beyond
The regular dissemination of a specific political or propaganda uses and examined effects on the general public,
belief, doctrine, cause, or especially children.
information, with the intent to
mold public opinion.

hypodermic-needle DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Do you think propaganda is more or less likely to happen
today with social media? Why or why not?
model
A model of media effects, also
called the “magic bullet,” that
claims media messages have a PAYNE FUND
profound, direct, and uniform
impact on the public. Between 1928 and 1933, some of the most prominent psychologists, sociologists,
and educators of the day conducted the Payne Fund studies. Published in 1933,
they included a twelve-volume report on the impact of film viewing on children.7
The studies provided a detailed examination of the effects of film in wide-ranging
areas, including sleep patterns, attitudes about violence, delinquent behavior, and
knowledge about foreign cultures.
The Payne Fund studies concluded that the same film would influence children
differently depending on their backgrounds and characteristics, including age,
sex, life experience, predispositions, social environment, and parental influence.
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 361

The Payne Fund studies in the 1920s examined the effects of violence and sex in movies on young people.

One study of movies, delinquency, and crime, for instance, found that the impact
of film on criminal behavior may vary with the range of themes presented as well
as the social context, attitudes, and interests of the viewer. Contrary to the origi-
nal assumption about largely negative effects, the Payne Fund research also re-
vealed that children could learn some positive lessons from film and that
information retention was a function of grade in school.8
The Payne Fund studies also created a “school of the air” that would use radio
to educate children on a variety of subjects.9 This led to the formation of the Na-
tional Committee on Education by Radio (NCER) as well as the allocation of some
$300,000 in the early 1930s to support U.S. broadcasting reform, which at that
time meant radio.

RADIO’S WIDER IMPACT

Radio’s social effects reached far beyond children, as dramatically illus-
trated by events that unfolded on October 30, 1938, when Orson Welles
broadcast a radio program created to sound like a news event. At 8 p.m.,
the Columbia Broadcasting System’s Mercury Theater of the Air began its
radio broadcast from a New York City studio. Regular listeners and others
who heard the introduction understood perfectly well what was about to
follow, a radio adaptation of the famous 1897 novel War of the Worlds by
science fiction writer H. G. Wells.
Those who missed the introduction tuned in to a supposedly live orches-
tra, a performance whose calm ambiance was abruptly interrupted by
breaking news—an announcement that Martians had landed at a farm near
Grovers Mill, New Jersey. The frequent and increasingly disturbing news
flashes sounded very much like reports by Walter Winchell, the radio stand-
ard of the day. As the invasion ensued so did the panic. When it became ap-
parent that the Martians had vastly superior weaponry, numerous residents
Orson Welles and his War of the Worlds radio
of the eastern seaboard, especially in the New York and New Jersey area, broadcast had many listeners believing that
opted to hide in their basements or even flee their homes. Martians were actually invading the East Coast.
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A study by a psychologist showed that one in six listeners—1 million people—

believed the broadcast and the Martian invasion to be real, although not all 1 mil-
lion panicked and fled. Studies of the War of the Worlds broadcast and other radio
programming demonstrated that media effects could be dramatic but were not
uniform. Certain factors, including individual personalities, demographics, and
psychological variables such as good critical-thinking ability, could mediate re-
sponses to media exposure.
This event focused American attention on the power of mass communication
and triggered one of the first major investigations of a media program on the sub-
ject of social panic and mass hysteria as well as a debate about the government’s
control over the radio industry. As spectacular and strange as these incidents may
be, by far the major concerns of researchers have been depictions of sex and vio-
lence, particularly since the advent of television.

TELEVISION AND VIOLENCE

Much television programming is educational and entertaining, and much is pep-
pered with violence, sex, and profanity. Consequently, many adult viewers and
policy makers have pondered the effects of extended television viewing on the
next generation. Are children learning to be overly aggressive, imitating what
they see on the television screen? Are they learning more about the Three Stooges
than the three branches of government?
Bobo doll studies Hundreds of studies have been conducted and millions of dollars spent to in-
Media–effects experiments in the vestigate how TV violence affects children. Among the first was a study that
1950s that showed children who claimed television had become the new Pied Piper, providing a model (often not a
watched TV episodes that good model) for children to imitate. Yet few early analyses could provide conclu-
rewarded a violent person were sive evidence that exposure to TV violence would have negative consequences in
more likely to punch a Bobo doll
than children who saw episodes the real world.
that punished a violent person. Laboratory research in the 1950s by psychologist Albert Bandura and others
demonstrated that children exposed to TV violence were more likely to repeat the
behavior they had witnessed (e.g., beating a “Bobo doll”) as well as become more
aggressive—while they were still in the labora-
tory. Although these studies suggested that
children learned by watching others, effects
were documented in a laboratory setting only.
Researchers who conducted the Bobo doll
studies could not confirm that the children re-
mained more aggressive once they left the
laboratory.
Social unrest and violence in public, much
of it politically motivated, rose dramatically in
the 1960s. Concerned about a broad range of
violence and its social causes, President Lyndon
B. Johnson convened the National Commis-
sion on the Causes and Prevention of Violence
in 1968. Violence and the Media, a report by the
commission’s media task force, focused not
only on the quantity of violence on entertain-
Depictions of violence on television continue to be a concern among many groups. ment television but also on its quality. How did
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 363

the media portray violence? Who used which weapons to kill whom? What moti-
vated these acts? What were the consequences? Were aggressors rewarded or
punished?
Professor George Gerbner of the Annenberg School for Communication at the
University of Pennsylvania, who oversaw this content analysis and follow-up re-
search, defined violence as “the overt expression of force intended to hurt or kill.”
Overall, Gerbner and his colleagues found the consequences of television violence
unrealistic. There was rarely much pain or blood. Good guys, often as violent as
bad guys, did not suffer negative consequences for their actions. And bad guys
were usually punished by cops rather than courts. Whites were often the victims,
while young black males and other people of color, as well as immigrants, were
typically the perpetrators.
Research on TV violence continued in the eighties and nineties. In 1992, the
American Psychological Association issued its TV violence report, Big World, Small
Screen: The Role of Television in American Society: “The accumulated research clearly
demonstrates a correlation between viewing violence and aggressive behavior.
Children and adults who watch a large number of aggressive programs also tend to
hold attitudes and values that favor the use of violence.” Correlation is not causa-
tion, however: A relationship between television-violence viewing and aggressive
behavior does not mean one necessarily causes the other.
A team of researchers at UCLA led by Jeffrey Cole conducted one of the most
important studies of TV violence in the 1990s, research that indicated American
network television series had become somewhat less violent while the number of
“shockumentary” reality-based specials had increased dramatically. Funded by
the networks themselves, the UCLA Television Violence Report found that overall
violence decreased on ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC during the 1994–1995 season. But
reality-based programs, most commonly encountered on Fox, were especially vio-
lent, featuring real and recreated footage of police shootouts, car chases and
crashes, and animals attacking people, in some cases killing them on air.

LIMITED EFFECTS
Conducted by Wilbur Schramm, Jack Lyle, and Edwin Parker, Television in the Lives
of Our Children, a 1960 landmark investigation of the impact of television on chil-
dren in North America, concluded that some children under some conditions were
likely to exhibit some negative consequences of exposure to television violence.
But there was no magic bullet of media effects. From these results and similar
findings developed various kinds of limited-effects models.
In this view, media are a component in a much larger and more fundamental
system of influences to which we are all subject. Institutions such as the family,
school, and religion are much more influential forces that shape individual tastes,
attitudes, and behaviors. Media exposure contributes to and often reinforces the
individual’s worldview but is clearly secondary.

cultivation analysis
Cultivation Analysis
George Gerbner’s research on the long-term impact of television watching gener- A theory of media effects that
claims television cultivates in
ated the theory of cultivation analysis, which argues that television cultivates audiences a view of reality similar
in audiences a view of reality similar to the world portrayed in TV programs. to the world portrayed in television
Rather than emphasizing the impact of individual programs on individual programs.
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CONVERGENCE CULTURE
How Free Is Academic Freedom?
The open and free-wheeling nature of social media would In November 2013, a satirical blog reported that in his
seem a natural forum for academics to exchange a variety of final class before retirement, Massachusetts College of Art
ideas grounded in their research, assertions that challenge and Design Professor Noel Ignatiev, author of How the Irish
our perceptions and enrich our dialog about society and cul-
ture. In recent years, however, a number of incidents on social
media involving politically insensitive tweets, inappropriate
comments about students or colleagues, and hoaxes have
raised questions about academic freedom and have even
cost some professors their jobs.
In fall 2014, two weeks before Professor Steven Salaita
was to start a new position, the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign rescinded their job offer because of in-
flammatory tweets Salaita had made regarding Israeli settlers
in the West Bank. Salaita has authored a number of books on
Arab Americans, including Arab American Literary Fictions,
Cultures and Politics; and Anti-Arab Racism in the USA: Where It
Comes from and What It Means for Politics Today. Salaita sued,
arguing the university had violated his free speech rights and
“trampled on principles of academic freedom,”10 and stu-
dents at the school marched to protest his dismissal, a deci-
sion trustees nevertheless reaffirmed in January 2015. Became White, stated, “If you are a white male, you don’t de-
Early in 2015, the Marquette administration began serve to live. You are a cancer, you’re a disease. White males
the process of terminating political science professor John have never contributed anything positive to the world. They
McAdams’s tenure after he criticized a philosophy teaching only murder, exploit and oppress non-whites.”11 Ignatiev was
assistant on his blog for her handling of student comments not retiring, nor did he make this over-the-top, inflammatory
she considered homophobic. McAdams has spent some statement, a direct quote falsely ascribed to him, but with a
forty years in academe, most of them at Marquette. His case disclaimer acknowledging the material was satire. Even so,
raises issues of academic free speech and shines a spotlight several conservative talk shows, including Rush Limbaugh,
on a university’s apparent inclination to strip faculty of picked up this fiction and ran with it as fact. This “true story”
tenure, a power that would have a chilling effect on open occasionally resurfaces in social media, a hoax that generates
debates. new rounds of vitriolic hate mail for Ignatiev.

viewers, cultivation analysis stresses cumulative effects. Coined by Gerbner,

mean-world syndrome mean-world syndrome can result from viewing countless acts of media violence
A syndrome in which people
that make viewers perceive the world as more dangerous than it actually is. De-
perceive the world as more signed as mainstream entertainment that is easy to understand, TV programs are
dangerous than it actually is, the powerful instruments of socialization, especially for children.
result of viewing countless acts of According to research by Gerbner and others, not only are those who watch
media violence.
more television more likely to consider the real world a more dangerous place, they
are also more likely to support a more powerful system of law enforcement. Senior
citizens who watch more television are more inclined to stay at home, fearful of
perceived dangers. Cultivation effects are not uniform, however.
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 365

Watching too much television over years, especially news shows, can lead viewers to believe the world is
more dangerous than it actually is. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: Do you feel more fearful in public
places after viewing news like that on the Boston Marathon bombing? Is your fear greater if the violent
event seems to be everywhere in the news?

Spiral of Silence
German communication scholar Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann developed the spiral spiral of silence
of silence as a theoretical construct to explain why people may be unwilling to A theoretical construct that
publicly express minority opinions. Derived from her observations of Germans explains why people may be
during the Nazi regime in the 1930s and 1940s, the spiral of silence has been unwilling to publicly express
tested widely and shown to be valid in a variety of circumstances. It is based on opinions they feel are in the
minority.
three premises:
1. People have a natural fear of isolation.
2. Out of fear of isolation, people are reluctant to publicly express views that
they feel are in the minority.
3. A “quasi-statistical organ,” a sort of sixth sense, allows people to gauge the
prevailing climate of opinion and determine majority views on matters of
public importance.
A number of factors affect how people assess public opinion, particularly the
media as well as their experiences and interactions with others. If a person feels a
point of view matches the prevailing one, then that person will feel more comfort-
able expressing it publicly. If, on the other hand, a person feels out of step with
public opinion, then that person will be less likely to express that opinion, thus
producing a spiral of silence. In some instances, even a majority opinion, if per-
ceived to be a minority position (possibly through biased media reporting), may
not be expressed publicly.

Third-Person Effect
third-person effect
Among the most interesting of media effects is the third-person effect of com-
munication, the tendency for people to underestimate the effect of a persuasive The tendency for people to
underestimate the effect of a
message on themselves while overestimating its effect on others. This tendency persuasive message on themselves
sometimes encourages one group to shield another from messages it thinks will while overestimating its effect on
harm them. others.
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Although many researchers have demonstrated the widespread and varied

impact of the third-person effect, W. Phillips Davison first identified this commu-
nication phenomenon when examining World War II records. The Japanese had
dropped propaganda leaflets to black servicemen who were going to take part in
the invasion of Iwo Jima (at that time whites and blacks were segregated in the
military). Stating that the Japanese were fighting white imperialists and had no ill
will toward blacks, the leaflets encouraged them to surrender or desert—to no
effect, however, according to records. The campaign did persuade white officers of
these black troops, though, to transfer them from the combat area to avoid any
potential loss of morale.

CRITICISMS OF MEDIAEFFECTS RESEARCH

Although subsequent research quickly discredited the direct-effects assumptions
and hypodermic-needle model of media power, many members of the public and
policy makers continue to believe in these effects. When tragedies occur such as
the shootings at Columbine High School in 1999; Virginia Tech in 2007; Sandy
Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut, in 2012; or the DC Navy Yard
in 2013, the killer’s media use is always discussed. Experts may not blame comic
books and radio anymore, but television, movies, the Internet, and video games
are all fair game when trying to explain violent or antisocial actions.
Much media-effects research is flawed by the belief that the audience has no
will of its own. The assumption that the audience is a passive dupe easily manipu-
lated by media messages derives directly from the belief that the masses are inca-
pable of governing themselves. Although researchers today do not believe that
people can be programmed by media messages to behave a certain way, even some
of the limited-effects models perceive audiences as more passive than active.
A further complication in media-effects research is how to measure media ex-
posure. Self-reporting, a common research technique, has been unreliable because
people either intentionally or unintentionally under- or overreport media expo-
sure. Furthermore, simply measuring exposure does not really capture how we
interact with media and how it may influence us.
Media-effects researchers may use new ways of assessing audience interac-
tions. Tracking Facebook Likes, tweets, or re-tweets, for example, helps quantita-
tively measure audience engagement in different situations. New developments in
social-media listening software are helping researchers measure media consump-
tion and interaction, although concepts like sentiment and engagement are still
often open to interpretation.
Even if we accept the premise of media influence, separating intertwined
social, cultural, psychological, and other factors and identifying clear cause-and-
effect explanations remain difficult. That certain programs, songs, or video games
produce predictable and widespread behaviors or attitudes has largely been dis-
proven, given all the other influences in our lives and the different circumstances
in which each of us interact with media.
Examining the wrong dimension of the communications process is another
arguable fault in media-effects research. Some scholars claim that we have to un-
derstand the processes and economics of media products to understand the role of
media in our lives. Others, such as audience-focused researchers, focus less on
what media may or may not do to us and more on what we may or may not do with
media.
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 367

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Do you think that a highly interactive medium like video
games could have greater effects on media users than a more passive medium such as
television? Why or why not?

Understanding the Audience

To a certain extent, mass-communications research
has always been about trying to understand the audi-
ence. For advertising and public relations, knowing
how the audience thinks and how to persuade it can
make or break a campaign or new brand. For political
communication, the audience, broadly conceived, is
essentially the public and public opinion. For media
companies, knowing what shows, books, music, and
films audiences will like is a vital element. In scholarly
communications research, the trend in audience stud-
ies in recent years has been toward seeing the audi-
ence as increasingly active in how it makes sense of
the world and uses media.
Teaching children media and computer literacy will help them succeed in
the twenty-first century.

AUDIENCES CREATING MEANING

The idea that audiences create new meaning from the media content they consume
may seem odd. Yet scholars who use new audience-studies approaches question
the assumption that a media product comes with a predetermined and unchange-
able meaning that audiences simply ingest like fast food. Earlier discussion in this
book about semiotics indicated that a given meaning of a sign or symbol, once
learned, tends to be taken for granted. In the following section, however, we focus
on active participation in the creation of new meaning around the media we en-
counter and among an audience. Some approaches look at psychology, others focus
on the social aspects of creating meaning, and still others examine broader cul-
tural issues and power relations.

Uses and Gratifications

Uses-and-gratifications research looks at why people use particular media. uses-and-gratifications
It examines what people do with media rather than what media do to people. Pop- research
ular in the 1970s and 1980s, uses-and-gratifications research posits that people A branch of research on media
have certain needs, especially psychological needs, which they seek to satisfy effects that examines why people
through media usage. This research makes three basic claims: use media, what they do with
media rather than what media do
1. People use the media actively for their own purposes. to them.
2. People know what those purposes are and can articulate them.
3. Despite individual differences in media use, basic common patterns exist
among people.
Modeled on an audience more active than passive, whose members hope to satisfy
certain needs through the media they seek out, uses-and-gratifications research
may lend itself to research on the Internet and interactive media.
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Uses-and-gratifications research has its detractors, however. It has been criti-

cized for being hard to test empirically and for circular reasoning. In other words,
it’s hard to know which came first—the social/psychological need or the media
use. Other criticisms include its focus on psychological needs while ignoring social
forces and the assumption that audiences always do know (and can articulate) why
they are using media.

Encoding/Decoding
encoding/decoding The encoding/decoding model, developed by Stuart Hall in the 1970s, launched
A theoretical model that states what is known as the active-audience approach. A response to dissatisfaction with
media producers encode media previous media-effects research, it tries to examine audiences within larger socio-
products with meanings, decoded cultural contexts. The model is complex but essentially states that media produc-
in various ways by various ers encode media products with meanings, decoded in various ways by various
audiences.
audiences.
There is no guarantee the producer’s preferred meaning will be accepted. Au-
dience members have three basic options when decoding. They can choose the
dominant, or hegemonic, reading, the one that the media producer likely intended
and the one most people would recognize as common sense or natural. They can
select an oppositional reading in which they recognize the codes being used but
reject them for their own meanings. They can also choose a negotiated reading,
largely accepting the dominant meaning but adding certain variations. Decoding
skills and tendencies will vary with background, education, identity, and other
social factors.

Reception Analysis
Reception analysis was a major break in audience research
in a number of respects. First, it assumed that audience
members actively make meaning from the media they
consume. Second, researchers looked at popular enter-
tainment such as soap operas, women’s magazines, and
romance novels rather than the traditional news or other
“serious” programming studied in earlier years. Third, the
areas of study allowed feminist and other scholars to
study women in media and women as active consumers of
media.
The 1980s findings challenged long-held assump-
tions about why women read romance novels or watch a
Studying pop culture can often reflect aspects of a society that other
forms of media, such as news, cannot explain adequately.
soap opera such as Dallas, or how teen girls perceived
Madonna. Contrary to some prevailing feminist argu-
ments that maintained these forms of popular culture
demeaned women, encouraging them to see themselves from a patriarchal view-
point as sex objects, scholars found that women actively and freely chose a variety
of meanings for such content.
Reception analysis attempts to fill the holes in previous theorizing and re-
search by looking at cultural and social patterns of media production and power
relations between different groups. Some critics object, however, to the active
nature it ascribes to audiences, claims that make media seem almost powerless.
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 369

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Identify your three favorite television shows or films in recent
years, along with a brief sentence on why you like(d) each one. Compare lists with class-
mates, and discuss your choices. What do your similarities and differences tell you about
each other?

FRAMING
We discussed framing briefly in Chapter 2, noting that the presentation of a mes- framing
sage colors perceptions of it. The concept of framing appears widely in media stud- The presentation and communication
ies and in other social sciences, such as sociology and psychology, sometimes in of a message in a particular way that
conjunction with media-studies research. influences our perception of it.
We use frames to make sense of the world in which we live, a set of filters that
help us categorize and understand our social reality. Frames emerge through our
daily interactions with media and are shaped by our culture and social norms.
Often our exposure to certain issues and people is solely through media in various
forms (news, entertainment, advertising, etc.), framing our perceptions even
more.
Message framing can have a profound effect on behavior, depending on
whether a message is framed as a gain or a loss. In 1984, psychologists Daniel
Kahneman and Amos Tversky presented two different scenarios to different
groups of participants who were asked to make a choice regarding a hypothetical
disease outbreak expected to kill six hundred people. The “gain-framed” scenario
emphasized saving lives: Option A would save two hundred people, whereas option
B specified a one-third probability of saving everyone but a two-thirds probability
of saving no one. Overwhelmingly, participants chose option A, which seemed the
less risky choice.
Other participants were given “loss-framed” choices that emphasized lives
lost: Option A would kill four hundred people, while option B had a one-third
probability of killing no one but a two-thirds probability of killing everyone. A
large majority of participants chose option B, the risky option. This difference in
selection can be explained only by how the messages were framed because identi-
cal scenarios were presented to both groups.
The aspects of framing messages are more numerous and complex than one
experiment can suggest. Still, Kahneman and Tversky’s research has special impli-
cations for social marketing campaigns and strategic communications. When
messages are framed in terms of potential gain, people choose what seems to be
the safer option to pursue a guaranteed gain. When framed in terms of losses,
however, people choose the riskier option to avoid a guaranteed loss.
Consider framing’s role in a social marketing campaign for reducing a sexually
transmitted disease like AIDS. If the message is framed in terms of potential loss
rather than potential gain, people may actually opt for the riskier behavior (un-
protected sex) than what sounds like a safer option. For example, a campaign that
discusses the chances of dying from AIDS without using a condom may actually
encourage unprotected sex, whereas a campaign that focuses on the benefits of
condom use could promote that behavior. Of course, many more factors are in-
volved in social marketing that targets public behavior, but a poorly chosen frame
could doom a campaign from the start.
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Another strand of research on mass communications, cultural studies, looks

at media through broad cultural and social frameworks and media production.

Cultural Studies
The focus on culture and broader societal issues in relation to media, seen in
reception-analysis research and the encoding/decoding model of Stuart Hall, falls
cultural studies within a category of scholarly research developed in the 1970s called cultural
An interdisciplinary framework for
studies. Difficult to define concisely because of its wide range of research inter-
studying communication that ests, this field has seen tremendous growth from the 1990s into the early part of
rejects the scientific approach while the twenty-first century. More and more universities have created cultural-studies
investigating the role of culture in departments in recent years.
creating and maintaining social
relations and systems of power.
Cultural-studies approaches largely reject the media-effects research tradi-
tion and examine how meaning is produced not only among audiences but also
critical theory among media producers. By looking at popular culture in its many facets and with
a critical eye toward issues of power, dominance, and subordination, researchers
A theoretical approach broadly
hope to better understand the role of media in perpetuating these social
influenced by Marxist notions of
the role of ideology, exploitation, relations.
capitalism, and the economy in European versions of cultural studies tend to be Marxist and highly critical of
understanding and eventually existing politics and culture, whereas North American versions are inclined to be
transforming society. less critical, even celebratory, of consumer culture and media. Despite these differ-
ences, cultural-studies research is typically more normative than descriptive. In
culture industry
other words, it seeks to improve society rather than simply describe it.
A term coined by the Frankfurt
School to describe how media
companies produce or “make” IDEOLOGY AND THE CULTURE INDUSTRY
culture in the same way that other
companies produce products. The normative focus of cultural studies stems from its origins in critical theory
and the Frankfurt School scholars who created critical theory in the 1930s and
ideology 1940s in Germany at the Institute for Social Research based in Frankfurt. Theodor
Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, and Walter Benjamin were German
A comprehensive and normative
body of ideas and standards held Marxist scholars with research interests ranging from music theory and philoso-
by an individual or a group. phy to sociology.
The Frankfurt School coined the term “culture industry” to refer to how
media businesses created mass-produced “cultural products” that were then con-
sumed by the masses. They distinguished between “high art” (opera, classical
music, etc.) and “popular art” (jazz, film, etc.), which they deemed crass, partly
because of its commercial nature.
Although their particular views on art may be considered artistic snobbery,
they advanced a larger political argument in that the culture industry propagates
an ideology that helps maintain the status quo. In other words, it makes existing
power relations and inequality seem natural while discouraging critical reflection
among people—which they believed high art, on the other hand, encourages. In
this view, media production is not simply a by-product or reflection of popular
tastes and desires; it actively creates those desires and suppresses freedom.
The Frankfurt School scholars were not simply talking about authoritarian
governments such as Nazi Germany, although their theory applied to these kinds
of governments. They claimed that even supposedly “free market” democratic sys-
tems of government were not free at all because the media of mass communica-
Max Horkheimer was a prominent
member of the Frankfurt School and tions promoted capitalist ideology while ignoring or downplaying the negative
one of the founders of critical theory. consequences of capitalist economies.
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 371

MEDIA PIONEERS
danah boyd
Washington (Microsoft head-
quarters), Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, and New York.
She is also a prolific writer on
social media, a frequent blog-
ger, and a committed activist for
a number of causes, especially
with groups that focus on
ending violence toward women.
Social media are a primary focus
as not only a participant but
also a scholar who studies how
young people incorporate social
media such as Twitter and blog-
ging into their everyday lives
and practices. She is coauthor of
Hanging Out, Messing Around,
and Geeking Out: Kids Living and
Learning with New Media (2010)
and author of It’s Complicated:
The Social Lives of Networked
Teens (2014).
Her research interests on
identity are reflected in her le-
gally changing her name,
taking her maternal grandfa-
ther’s last name and not capital-
izing any letters. She has
observed that English is one of
the few languages to capitalize
the personal pronoun “I” rather
than keeping all pronouns low-
ercase or capitalizing other pro-
Looking at the intersection of technology and society in her nouns like “you” and “we.” She maintains that a name is just
research, as well as online youth culture and identity, media another descriptor for someone; it is not the person herself.
scholar danah boyd has enough academic titles to make her “It’s my name and i should be able to frame it as i see fit,
studies on identity seem like a personal quest. A senior re- as my adjective, not someone else’s,” she writes.12 “Why
searcher at Microsoft Research, a faculty affiliate at Harvard’s must it follow some New York Times standard guide for
Berkman Center for Internet & Society, and a visiting profes- naming? The words that i choose to describe myself should
sor at New York University’s Interactive Telecommunications be framed in writing and in speech in a way that feels as
Program, boyd divides her time equally among Redmond, though i own them, as though i can relate to them.”
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CRITICISMS OF CULTURAL STUDIES

Cultural studies, despite its popularity in academia, still has its detractors and
faults. One common complaint is the often impenetrable, jargon-laden writing of
many researchers, a style that excludes almost everyone but academics. This is at
odds with their broad goal of transforming society by enlightening the public
about its oppression and the part the media play in that oppression.
The writing style is also criticized for hiding muddled thinking and masking
mundane ideas behind grandiose jargon. In 1996, a physicist at New York Univer-
sity, Alan Sokal, published an article in the postmodern journal Social Text entitled
“Transgressing the Boundaries: Toward a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quan-
tum Gravity.” (Cultural studies is often situated under the larger rubric of post-
modernism, a sprawling movement defined later in the chapter.) The title and
prose were typical of many journal articles penned from a postmodern perspec-
tive, but Sokal’s article was a hoax purposely composed to be nonsensical, suggest-
ing the dangers of adopting merely fashionable or trendy schools of thought in
general, and applying less-than-scientific perspectives to the physical sciences in
particular.
In the same vein, other critics of cultural studies say that because it largely
rejects scientific tenets such as the use of reason in finding truth, it cannot actu-
ally be called a science. And without any shared and consensual basis for measur-
ing the validity of viewpoints, the cultural-studies perspective cannot actually
prove or refute ideas in the same way and with the same authority of traditional
scientific methods.

Sociohistorical Frameworks
Other theories draw on a variety of schools of thought, especially Marxism or
critical theory, as well as a number of disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology,
psychology, and even economics. These tend not to emphasize audiences as much
as previous frameworks but examine instead the entire media system within
larger social, political, and historical contexts. Some researchers claim that a pri-
mary focus on audiences neglects many of the most fundamental questions and
answers regarding media and their effects on our world today.

INFORMATION SOCIETY
information society Social scientists continue to debate the meaning and nature of the information
A society where information
society, sometimes also labeled the network, knowledge, or postindustrial soci-
production has supplanted ety. Information-society theories posit that the prominence of communications
industrial production, dramatically and media has ushered in a new era that breaks drastically from the industrial
transforming cultural, economic, society. Networks become hugely important as they bring the world closer to-
and political activity.
gether; and economic value lies not so much in the old manufacturing centers, as
it once did, but in knowledge centers. Education and training are key for workers,
valued not for manual labor but for ideas, knowledge, and creativity that enable
them to make sense of and create information.
The often-utopian picture painted by information-society theorists has elic-
ited much criticism. Some scholars, especially those influenced by Marxism or
critical theory, claim that the information society actually strengthens established
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 373

relations of dominance as global media corporations con-

trol more media channels, including those on the Inter-
net. They point to earlier media types such as radio that
also initially promised to be emancipatory and chronicle
the relentless governmental and corporate control that
rendered new media claims to increased freedom and de-
mocracy largely hollow. One example of the enduring
domination of elite interests is when companies barred
WikiLeaks from receiving online donations after it re-
leased secret U.S. government diplomatic cables.
A criticism of information-society theories is how
they extrapolate from a small segment of the world’s pop-
ulation. One does not have to look far to see that much of
the world lives in conditions where access to clean water is According to the Pew Research Center’s “Fact Tank: News in the
rare, let alone the Internet or even electricity. This gener- Numbers,” 84 percent of U.S. households own a computer, but 21
percent of households have no regular access to the Internet at home
ates discussions regarding the digital divide, one of the or elsewhere.
most important Internet-audience issues today.
Research indicates that from the early days of public Internet, access tended
to be much higher among society’s economically advantaged—those with a higher digital divide
education and with a legacy of higher overall print-media use. Economically disad-
The gap between regions and
vantaged groups, especially minority groups and the rural poor, enjoyed less In- demographics that have access to
ternet access and usage. With certain groups, this gap has closed dramatically if modern, digital-communications
not disappeared. Women, for example, now make up the majority of Internet users technology and those that have
in the United States—across economic lines. Problems of equity of access to online limited or no access.
media will not be eliminated soon, however, especially among the economically
disadvantaged and those in the developing world.

POLITICAL ECONOMY
Another area of media research inspired by Marxism and influenced by critical
theory is political economy. These communication scholars examine the produc- political economy
tion and ownership of media that determine our media environment and its ef- An area of study inspired by Marxism
fects on our social and political systems. that examines the relationship
Robert McChesney, for example, studies the history and current status of between politics and economics
media ownership, regulations, and laws, especially how ownership conglomera- with media ownership and the
influences they all have on society
tion has affected types of media. Challenging claims of increased democracy and and perpetuating the status quo.
freedom, he argues that since the 1990s, corporate interests that influence gov-
ernment regulations and policy decisions have controlled the Internet at the ex-
pense of public interests.
According to political-economy scholars, examining media production—who
owns what media companies, how their business decisions determine types of
media, how they are delivered, to whom, and in what way—reveals the underlying
forces that inform power relations and dominance. Unlike other forms of audience-
studies research, a political-economic viewpoint can explore areas where an audi-
ence does not actually yet exist. For example, an audience-studies researcher
would not be able to study Spanish-language newspaper readership in an area that
is without a Spanish-language newspaper. But the question, “Why isn’t there a
Spanish-language newspaper in this market when 20 percent of the population is
Hispanic?,” would be a legitimate area of study for a political economist, as would
exploring the content likely to be found in such a newspaper.
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MEDIA ECOLOGY
media ecology Media ecology, as its name suggests, is the study of media environments and
The study of media environments
their effects on people and society. Just as an ecological system in nature is com-
and their effects on people and plex and can be studied from a number of perspectives or specialties (a chemist
society. studying soil samples will see an ecosystem very differently than a biologist study-
ing bear habitats), so too is media ecology. Media ecology examines how our media
environment influences our thinking and how specific types of media affect our
perceptions (medium theory).
Perhaps the most famous proponent of medium theory was Canadian scholar
Marshall McLuhan, who coined the phrase “The medium is the message,” arguing
that the medium itself was more critical to our perception of the message than
its  content or its manner of production. His claims that electronic media had

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Theories Old, Theories New, Theories
Borrowed . . .
Tracing the intellectual history of of philosophical thought, pragma-
currently popular media research tism, was largely superseded by
can be a fascinating exercise that European schools of thought after
improves our understanding of the early part of the twentieth cen-
how theories may influence our tury, although some social theories
thinking. Some widely believed still feature important aspects of
theories in the past have since pragmatism.
been proven false or flawed, but Many ostensibly “new” theories
some older theories that never actually have deep roots in combi-
caught on have also been revived nations of much older theories or
when it is later discovered they are combinations of different theo-
have a lot to offer current research. retical schools, with unique insights
One example concerns early introduced for greater relevance.
sociologists who tried to study Some of Europe’s most interesting
social behavior in relational, thinkers draw from a wide variety of
rather than objective, terms. For sources to tackle social issues and
decades, much of this research the role of media in society, includ-
was ignored, but now several so- ing philosophy, literary theory, his-
ciological theories rely on rela- tory, economics, political theory,
tional or network-oriented ways social theory, and cognitive science.
of looking at the world. The terms Noted French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu Scholars in some European
early sociologists used may differ wrote widely for the mainstream media countries are much more visible
from those in current research, in France. than their American counterparts. In
but many of the concepts can be France, for example, social theorists
surprisingly similar. Michel Foucault and Pierre Bourdieu were virtually
Most of the theoretical frameworks in media re- media celebrities in their own right, appearing on televi-
search derive from European schools of thought in the sion to discuss theoretical issues and writing regularly
humanities or social sciences. The American-made school on political and social topics for popular newspapers.
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 375

transformed the world into a “global village,” free of the hierarchical and rigid
power relations created by the culture of print media, echo what we hear about the
Internet, even though he was speaking only of radio and television.
He has been faulted for espousing a form of technological determinism, technological
the belief that technology causes certain human behaviors—a charge that some determinism
forms of media ecology must still address. Others also argue that by celebrating The belief that technology causes
technology, he ignored (and thereby left unchallenged) the relations of power and certain human behaviors.
dominance technological communication creates and perpetuates.
Despite these and other arguable weaknesses in his theories, McLuhan offered
important and novel insights into how modern media affect our lives, particularly
our sense of time and space. Some of his claims become even more important when
considering digital media. Although technology may not be the most important
component of media theory, the consequences of mass media’s capacity to imme-
diately send mass audiences the same messages are considerable.

AGENDA SETTING
Agenda setting does not take as broad a view as the frameworks just mentioned, agenda setting
although this concept does relate directly to media messages and industries. In Media’s role in deciding which
1948, Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Robert K. Merton proposed that conferring status is topics to cover and consequently
one of the primary functions of the media. Singling someone out from the masses which topics the public deems
bestows prestige and authority on the person so identified: “The audiences of mass important and worthy of discussion.
media apparently subscribe to the circular belief that if you matter, you will be at
the focus of mass attention and, if you are at the focus of mass attention, then
surely you must really matter.”13
This assertion rings truer than ever today due to our growing mix of social and
mass media. As agenda setters, the media can determine which issues are per-
ceived as important and to what degree, depending on how prominently they pre-
sent them. Political scientist Bernard Cohen clearly articulated the agenda-setting
model: “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to
think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.”14

Television news shapes people’s sense of which of the day’s issues and events matter
most, setting the agenda for public debate. In June 2015, a video of a police officer
detaining a young girl at a pool party in McKinney, Texas sparked allegations of
racism and fueled national conversation about police tactics.
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In the 1970s, Max McCombs and Donald Shaw demonstrated that the media
are especially effective at influencing public views on the importance of various
issues. Moreover, McCombs and Shaw’s research showed that different media play
different roles in the agenda-setting process. Newspapers in particular have his-
torically set the general agenda of public issues, determining which topics the
public is likely to see as important, such as taxes, education, crime, or health care.
Meanwhile, the electronic media of television and radio are especially effective at
shaping the public’s views on which of these issues are most important.

New Directions in Media Research

As digital and social media become fully integrated in our lives, new strands of
research in the social sciences emerge in business communication, organization
science, and library science, among many other fields.
Scholarship on digital media is often complicated
by the fact that technologies may change rapidly,
transforming user behavior or making certain topics
of study less relevant or obsolete. For instance, re-
search on user behavior on Usenet may not have
much to offer researchers examining identity forma-
tion and interactions through social media today. Re-
search can become dated during the long lead time
for publication in most peer-reviewed academic jour-
nals, typically twelve to eighteen months between
submission and publication.
While scholars continue to study traditional
media companies, more and more are researching as-
pects of digital and social media. Although classify-
ing these diverse research areas is difficult, we can
briefly survey some of the broad topics of current
study.
Recent research has focused on the role of social media in activism and Since the origin of the Internet, researchers have
democracy. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS: Have social media
prompted you to participate in activist discussions or action? Would you studied the impact of time spent online on both
record a protest event as it unfolds to post later on social media? In what children and adults. Launched in 1999, the World In-
circumstances might this make you feel vulnerable? ternet Project, the most comprehensive and longest-
running study of its kind, examines the social,
cultural, and commercial impact of the Internet.
Funded by a consortium of major companies interested in online communication—
such as Microsoft, America Online, Disney, and Sony—the study is headed by
Jeffrey Cole, current director of the Center for the Digital Future at the USC
Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism and former director of the
UCLA Center for Communication Policy.
These researchers are following a group of subjects over twenty years to ex-
plore various questions such as how Internet use influences family time, political
longitudinal study leanings, and social life. This longitudinal study also examines online banking,
A study that gathers data on
credit-card purchases, buying habits, and other issues related to ecommerce. In-
subjects over a long period of time. ternational representatives have been added to the initial panel including two
thousand people selected from a national sample.15
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 377

ETHICS IN MEDIA
Advertising’s Negative Effects on the Sexes
Advertising is designed to persuade people in various
ways to do various things. Usually, it encourages us to
buy some product or service, but it can also aspire to
change attitudes and beliefs about everything from
practices such as smoking to the suitability of political
candidates.
A large body of academic research examines the
dark side of advertising, particularly its many unin-
tended consequences. Author and filmmaker Jean Kil-
bourne has studied the image of women in advertising
for over three decades, linking prevalent depictions to
a number of public health issues such as eating disor-
ders, addiction, and violence against women. Studies
indicate that advertising can profoundly affect wom-
en’s attitudes about their bodies and behavior. The
beauty industry is particularly notorious for its almost
exclusive use of ultra-thin models and other images
airbrushed to perfection, unattainable ideals that
make many women feel inadequate. see ads featuring males with hairless chests, six-pack abs, and
But what about men—are they equally affected by ad- chiseled muscles.
vertising? A growing body of research indicates they are. If they are only advertisements—which most of us don’t
Whereas women are often depicted as dependent or submis- really notice—how seriously could they affect us? Consider,
sive (or primarily sexual), men are usually portrayed as strong, however, the 360,000 television commercials that a young
confident, and independent, sending persuasive messages adult has seen by the age eighteen and the ease with which
about how men should perform their gender roles. we all recognize popular commercial jingles and tag lines.16
Advertising often portrays men too as sex objects. Ads Perhaps we absorb more than we realize. Consequently, ad-
both promote sexual prowess and highlight sexual deficien- vertisements and other media images, particularly those that
cies (with the promise that the product advertised will fix objectify men and women or play on certain gender or ethnic
those problems). And just like the largely unobtainable stereotypes, raise important ethical questions about media
female bodies in ads geared toward women, men regularly effects and advertisers’ responsibilities.

The Pew Research Center also frequently publishes insightful research on the
Internet and social media in America, typically in the form of a cross-sectional cross-sectional study
study on attitudes and patterns of behavior with various technologies. In April A study that gathers data on
2015, for instance, they published reports on the use of smartphones and teen use subjects at a specific point in time.
of social media. Pew conducts certain surveys repeatedly over the years, providing
interesting data about how behavior and attitudes have changed over time.
The evolving role of the audience in an interactive communication environ-
ment has also spurred research. The prevalence of user-generated content chal-
lenges the traditional relationship between the audience and media producers.
This movement from viewer to user or produser affects media organizations and
the presentation and prevalence of different kinds of news and entertainment.
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Scholars interested in politics have found a rich source of new material to

study online. Early optimism about the democratizing potential of the Internet
has been tempered by more realistic views, notably the recognition that the Inter-
net also aids governments and corporations in surveillance of citizens and con-
sumers. In 2013, game-changing documents leaked by former NSA analyst Edward
Snowden made the extent of this surveillance shockingly clear. Further revela-
tions in the media involved Internet and telecommunications giants like Google
and AT&T secretly sharing consumer data with the government.
Research on social media in social movements has become popular, thanks in
part to the Arab Spring, the Occupy Wall Street protests, and popular protests in
Turkey and Brazil in 2013. Activists draw inspiration from other parts of the
world, sharing information and encouragement while promoting solidarity and
common goals. Still, the initial enthusiasm for the empowering aspects of social
media has waned in recent years, as many social movements failed to achieve their
stated goals in the face of various forms of government oppression.
Recent media research has examined issues surrounding social-networking
sites. Areas of study include identity formation and presentation: issues related to
privacy, anonymity, and the use of fake names or usernames. Some research re-
lates to perceptions of the self, including the idea of the “networked self” in which
we see ourselves as part of communities connected by networks of communication
rather than as individuals largely unaffected by our communication and social
interactions.
Researchers are studying how the increasing popularity of video games may
reinforce gender or racial stereotypes, how they may affect our sense of identity,
whether we can learn better through game playing than traditional means, and
other facets of the gaming world. The effect of violent video games on children has
been studied less, though, than the impact of violent television programming.
All these areas of research draw from a broad swath of humanities and social
science disciplines, including literary theory, history, ethics, political communica-
tion, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics. Because media research
crosses multiple disciplines, media scholars today must become familiar with a
broad range of knowledge, a trend likely to continue.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: In which online communities do you experience a networked

self connected to other members through social communication? Do you think a require-
ment to use real names enhances a sense of genuine connection among members? What
do you think constitutes a real or authentic identity online?

Media Research: What Type of Science Is It?

epistemology Asking what type of science media research provides may seem odd, but this ques-
tion raises several important issues about media studies. At the heart of the
A study or theory of the limitations
and validity of knowledge; more
matter is whether the social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, and anthro-
simply, a way of, or framework for, pology, can (and should) be conducted according to the rules of the natural or
understanding the world. physical sciences.
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 379

For most of their histories as individual disciplines, the social sciences have positivism
tried to emulate the rules and methods of hard sciences, but whether this can be A view, common among scientists
done properly or at all remains debatable. Is it possible to discover the same kind in the physical or natural sciences
of natural laws for communication and media that we see in the natural sciences, and many social sciences, that
such as a law of gravity? More importantly, in trying to copy scientific models that affirms an objective reality to be
discovered and explained through
may be inappropriate for the social sciences, are we missing the point and asking
rigorous scientific research.
the wrong questions about our social world?
The confusion about where to locate media-studies research as a form of in- postpositivism
quiry is also reflected in the range of schools and departments where it can be
A view that agrees largely with
found. Sometimes media studies reside within a school of journalism; other uni-
positivism but also recognizes
versities may locate it in a school of communications or even in an English depart- knowledge that may not be
ment. To further complicate matters, scholars trained in sociology and psychology revealed through scientific inquiry.
or other fields such as literary theory are responsible for much important research
and theorizing on mass media and communication. Mathematicians actually de- social constructionism
veloped the hugely influential transmission model of communication (discussed A view that claims much or all of
in Chapter 1) to help solve an engineering problem. what we know and understand
Broadly speaking, the debate on the type of science media research should about the world, including scientific
entail can be divided into two main camps, each with a different way of under- knowledge, is constructed through
social interactions and language.
standing the world, a distinct epistemology. Positivism, the dominant episte-
mology throughout the twentieth century, assumes an objective reality that can
postmodernism
be observed, measured, and explained by a neutral observer. Rigorous testing and
experimentation following the scientific method can prove or disprove hypothe- A broad category of viewpoints
that rejects grand narratives
ses based on observations. Related theorizing may improve our understanding of attempting to explain the world
the world and our ability to predict behaviors or alter phenomena with predictable and absolute truths because truth
results. is relative and unknowable.
Several other epistemologies reject positivism in varying degrees. Postposi-
tivism largely agrees with most positivist claims but also recognizes knowledge pragmatism
that cannot be understood through scientific means, such as religious faith. A school of thought affirming
Social constructionism argues that all meaning and truth are derived from truths found in actions that work
social interactions, especially those involving symbols and signs, whose meanings and rejecting the possibility of
overarching or purely objective
are relativistic and change with context. Language is not simply a transparent
notions of truth.
medium that describes the world; it creates the world as we know it.
Postmodernism, although it has many variants, largely eschews grand theo- quantitative research
rizing and what it calls “metanarratives,” overarching narratives that try to ex-
plain the world, because any such metanarrative essentially favors one worldview A method of inquiry favored in the
physical sciences that focuses on
over others. It, like social constructionism, questions the formation of knowledge numerical data and statistical
and challenges the assumption of positivist science that it is a better (or the only) measures to describe phenomena.
way to find and establish truth. Researchers often attempt to prove
Some of the basic elements of constructionist and postmodern thought are or disprove a hypothesis through
the empirical method, particularly
not entirely new or simply a reaction to the dominance of positivist science in the controlled experimentation.
twentieth century. Their histories can be traced back to early philosophical tradi-
tions and later influential schools of thought in the nineteenth and early twenti- qualitative research
eth centuries, like pragmatism, which affirms truth in actions that work and
A method of inquiry favored in the
rejects overarching or purely objective notions of truth. In some ways, such social sciences that explores
thinking is a return to the roots of theorizing about the role of media and typically unstructured phenomena
communication. through interviews, focus groups,
The debate about what type of science media-studies research falls under can and participant observation among
other techniques that produce
also be roughly mapped to the two main types of current research methodologies:
descriptive rather than predictive
quantitative research and qualitative research. results.
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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Researchers relying heavily on quantitative techniques tend to have a positivist
perspective. They assume that their research will better predict behavior, find
causal effects for certain phenomena, and support or weaken certain media
theories.
Quantitative studies include the familiar methods of experiments, surveys,
and statistical analyses. The exact method depends on several factors, espe-
cially the goals or purposes of the research. If a study intends to suggest causal-
ity, such as whether watching violent TV programming increases violence
among children, then experimental or quasi-experimental methods could be
appropriate. If a study means to document the amount of violence on televi-
sion, then a content analysis should be conducted. If an investigation is de-
signed to determine how much televised violence children can recall, then a
survey may be in order.
In any case, research methods are never perfect indicators, and the design of
the study as well as the particular method can affect results. For example, con-
ducting a laboratory experiment with children on the effects of television vio-
lence not only raises important ethical questions, it also creates an unrealistic
media environment that makes accurate measurements problematic. The labora-
tory, no matter the extent to which it is altered to look and feel like a home, still
cannot capture the range of environmental factors in a normal viewing
experience.
Analyzing data using statistics raises its own set of problems, including in-
sampling error complete or missing data that may skew results, sampling error that does not
Error in a statistical analysis that
accurately reflect the entire population, and faulty study design that yields mis-
results from selecting a sample that leading findings. Consider a simple example of sampling error. Let’s say you want
does not represent the entire to learn what students at your school think about a certain issue. You stand in the
population. quad during the day, stopping every fifth person to ask your questions. This may
seem like a random sample, in which every person has an equally probable
random sample chance of being selected, but in fact you have not accurately captured a sample
A sample in which every person has that represents the entire student body. What about students who do not pass by
an equally probable chance of the quad to get to their classes, such as those in other campus locations, or those
being selected, intended to
who take only night classes?
represent the entire population of
study. These and other methodological difficulties with quantitative research have
encouraged the growth and acceptance of qualitative research methods.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative researchers may reject the assumptions behind quantitative research,
or they may simply appreciate the limitations of such research and prefer other
means to explore their areas of interest. They are generally not trying to make
ethnography predictions but are focusing on description to gain a better understanding of the
A variety of qualitative research world as the participants see it. Qualitative research can include in-depth inter-
techniques that involve immersion views, focus groups, and ethnography, among other techniques.
of a researcher in a particular Ethnography involves a technique developed in anthropology in which re-
culture to allow interaction with
participants through observation,
searchers immerse themselves in a culture to observe it directly in its natural state
participation, interviews, or a while disrupting it as little as possible. An ethnographer might enter a household,
combination of methods. a newsroom, or an advertising agency and spend hours, days, weeks, or even
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 381

Focus-group research can provide rich insights into consumer opinions of products or issues.

months directly observing media behaviors of those involved, documenting these

in note and transcript form and likely video and audio recordings. A detailed anal-
ysis would follow. The results might be used in isolation or in combination with
other methods, such as interviews or even quantitative techniques such as con-
tent analysis of conversations or written memos.
A variation of ethnography is participant-observation. In this technique, participant-observation
researchers join the group they are studying, such as a fan club or an online mul- A qualitative research technique in
tiplayer video game. The researcher’s status as a participant not only helps better which researchers participate as
understand the world that researcher is observing but also encourages partici- members of the group they are
pants to disclose more than they might otherwise to an outsider. observing.
Focus groups are widely employed by media researchers. Often, how such
participants interact and discuss what is being studied provides important in- focus group
sights that the researcher would not glean from individual interviews or surveys. A small group of people assembled
Marketers testing consumer reactions to their brand or products favor focus by researchers to discuss a topic.
Their interactions are closely
groups.
observed, recorded, and analyzed
Qualitative research raises its own ethical concerns and is not without to determine people’s opinions.
weaknesses. One question is whether participants should be informed of the
researcher’s true role. Many would consider posing as a genuine member of a
group to gain the trust of others and generate research material unethical be-
havior. Transparency is especially important when researching groups online
where the researcher’s identity may not be obvious. Another ethical issue arises
when researchers see participants engaging in risky or dangerous behavior. Do
they try to intervene, thus altering research findings, or simply continue to
observe?
Qualitative research makes no claims, of course, to being generalizable to the
larger population or being reliable in the sense of getting the same results if con-
ducted by another researcher or with another group, even under similar circum-
stances. Researchers need to identify the limitations of their qualitative research
and avoid, for example, representing data from a particular set of interviews like
that from a quantitative random sample.
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QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

WORKING TOGETHER
Each methodology has its place in media research, and each methodology has its
strengths and weaknesses. Ignoring one methodology over another because of a
philosophical disagreement can create a blind spot for a researcher seeking com-
prehensive knowledge. A screwdriver can pound a nail, but a hammer works much
better. Selecting the right tool from the methodological toolbox is the first step to
research success.
Qualitative techniques often provide greater depth or texture to quantitative
studies. In designing a survey, for example, you may not really know what issues
your research subjects find important or even how they talk about certain things.
Common themes may emerge from qualitative research that can then help you
design a better survey. Simple observation of certain media behaviors often yields
fertile insights that generate even more interesting research questions. Noting,
for example, who controls the remote control in the living room may reveal some-
thing more significant about television viewing habits than specific program
preferences.
Qualitative research, if conducted properly, helps you see the world creatively
from other perspectives in ways foreign to quantitative research. Quantitative re-
search, on the other hand, with its statistical techniques and its claims to repre-
sent a much larger population than that studied, is extremely powerful. People
can often be persuaded of the veracity of results by simply viewing data presented
in a seemingly authoritative chart or graph.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Have you ever been involved in a study involving media or
some other field such as psychology? Identify whether this was qualitative or quantitative
inquiry and, more specifically, what type: a survey, a focus group, or an experiment, for
example. Describe your experience and why you decided to participate.

MEDIA CAREERS

Those interested in media research can choose from two main paths: corporate or
academic. Teams of researchers work with various clients at large advertising and
PR agencies, and media research underlies many important organizational deci-
sions when determining everything from what shows to produce to which ads
were most effective. In corporate research, various quantitative and qualitative
methods are used to achieve fairly specific goals. In other words, you are generally
trying to find answers to specific questions such as which campaign generated
higher sales or better product recall.
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 383

Academic research also has goals, of course, but these can be more open-ended
and exploratory, allowing the pursuit of knowledge for the sake of simply learning
and sharing new insights within the scholarly community. Most academic media
researchers have doctorate degrees and also teach at the schools where they con-
duct research. A PhD is helpful in corporate research but not necessary. For stu-
dents interested in media research, even the academic track, some professional
communications experience can prove invaluable, fostering a general understand-
ing of media industries while generating particular questions of interest and rel-
evance to media research.

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

As may be expected of a relatively new medium, large gaps remain in research and
theory about digital media and the Internet. Early euphoria about the positive
transformative effects of the Internet for society and democracy have given way to
more measured, cautious statements that also recognize dangers or weak spots.
The concerns about exposure to television and movie violence could be amplified
when considering the amount of fictionalized and actual violent acts on the
Internet.
Some scholars claim that nothing has fundamentally changed with the rise of
the Internet and digital media; from a theoretical perspective, existing concep-
tual frameworks remain perfectly adequate for researching and explaining new
media. Although true in some cases, this position creates large blind spots in a
research agenda that should attempt to address the evolving nature of mass
communication.
Researchers who focus on digital media tend to draw heavily from research
traditions in media studies, sociology, information science, and communication
studies, among other disciplines. These research frameworks correspond more or
less to those applied to traditional media, ranging from the broad sociocultural
perspectives to the more narrow use-and-effects research. Researchers also study
how characteristics of the medium itself, such as interactivity, may affect our rela-
tion with content.
Curiously, some pre-Internet scholars could experience a revival of interest in
certain lines of their work. Marshall McLuhan, for example, may have much to
offer digital-media scholars, particularly his examination of the ways electronic
media implode space and time and affect social relations. Uses-and-gratifications
principles may prove especially fruitful in an interactive medium where users
largely control what content they can get and how they get it. Political economy
raises even more important questions about how powerful media companies can
actually increase their control over public media systems, even as popular ideol-
ogy claims that we have more freedom than ever.
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MEDIA MATTERS THEORY AND PRACTICE

1. What does the term “information society” 4. Do you believe there is an objective reality “out
mean to you? there” that we can describe and all agree on, or
2. Do you think advertising affects your do you believe that each of us creates his or her
decisions? Why or why not? Do you think it own reality? Explain your response.
affects other people? If so, who is most 5. How and to what extent did your parents or
affected, and why? guardians supervise your television viewing?
3. Do you feel that media can influence us? Why Your time on the computer?
or why not? Which types of media are most
influential, and why?

FURTHER READING

Critical Media Studies: An Introduction, 2nd ed. Brian Ott, Robert Mack (2014) Wiley-Blackwell.
Media Studies: Theories and Approaches. Dan Laughey (2010) Oldcastle Books.
Media Effects Research: A Basic Overview, 4th ed. Glenn G. Sparks (2012) Cengage Learning.
Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, 3rd ed. Jennings Bryant, Mary Beth Oliver (eds.)
(2008) Routledge.
Quantitative Research Methods for Communication: A Hands-On Approach. Jason Wrench, Candice
Thomas-Maddox, Virginia Peck Richmond, James McCroskey (2008) Oxford University Press.
Understanding Media Theory. Kevin Williams (2003) A Hodder Arnold Publication.
Understanding Media Cultures: Social Theory and Mass Communication. Nicholas Stevenson (2002)
Sage.
Anthropology and Mass Communication: Media and Myth in the New Millennium. Mark Allen Peter-
son (2003) Berghahn Books.
Orality and Literacy. Walter J. Ong (2002) Routledge.
Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. Edward S. Herman, Noam Chom-
sky (2002) Pantheon Books.
Media and Cultural Studies: Keyworks, 2nd ed. Meenakshi Gigi Durham and Douglas Kellner (eds.)
(2012) Wiley-Blackwell.
Critical Theories of Mass Media: Then and Now. Paul Taylor, Jan Harris (2007) Open University Press.
More Than Meets the Eye: Watching Television Watching Us. John J. Pungente, Martin O’Malley
(1999) McClelland & Stewart.
Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Marshall McLuhan (1994) MIT Press.
Communication, Media, and American Society: A Critical Introduction. Daniel W. Rossides (2002)
Rowman & Littlefield.
 CHAPTER 12 >> MEDIA THEORY AND RESEARCH 385

Theories of the Information Society, 2nd ed. Frank Webster (2002) Routledge.
A Networked Self: Identity, Community, and Culture on Social Network Sites. Zizi Papacharissi (ed.)
(2010) Routledge.
An Invitation to Social Construction, 2nd ed. Kenneth Gergen (2009) Sage.
E-Crit: Digital Media, Critical Theory, and the Humanities. Marcel O’Gorman (2007) University of To-
ronto Press.
Ethnography: A Way of Seeing. Harry F. Wolcott (1999) Rowman & Littlefield.
Netnography: Doing Ethnographic Research Online. Robert V. Kozinets (2010) Sage.
Dark Fiber: Tracking Critical Internet Culture. Geert Lovink (2003) MIT Press.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

388 Journalism and Political

Coverage
393 Political Advertising
396 Politics and
Entertainment
398 Social Media and Political
Campaigns
403 Social Media and Civic
Engagement
405 Political Polarization and
Media Habits
 13

Mass Communication
and Politics in the
Digital Age
A
lthough a new kind of political action committee (PAC) came into LEARNING OBJECTIVES
existence in July 2010, it wasn’t until the 2012 presidential and con-
gressional election that people really started talking about so-called >> Describe the evolving role of
Super PACs and their potentially harmful effects on the election the media in political
process. elections, especially sound
bites, election coverage, and
Technically called an independent expenditure-only committee, a Super PAC
opinion polls.
differs from a regular PAC in that it can accept unlimited donations from individuals,
corporations, unions, and associations. Traditional PACs can accept only limited >> Discuss the increasing
importance of political
funds from individuals and nothing from the other groups. Also, unlike a traditional
advertising in campaigns, its
PAC, a Super PAC cannot contribute directly to a politician’s campaign. Consequently, nature and its impact.
it can spend the money any way it sees fit to advocate for a favored candidate.
>> Understand how
Even though Super PACs cannot give directly to candidates and are supposed
entertainment functions in
to operate independently from the candidate or staff, many are run by former political campaigns.
staff members or aides who have other close ties to the candidates they support.
>> Examine the expanded part
On The Colbert Report, Stephen Colbert famously mocked these relationships— played by the Internet and
and some of the legal loopholes that Super PACs enjoy—as he “transferred” his social media in political
Super PAC power to Jon Stewart (the episode won a Peabody Award). Colbert campaigns.
actually did create a Super PAC called Americans for a Better Tomorrow, Tomor- >> Explain how social media help
row, which had raised $1.2 million by election day, even though he spent only a increase civic engagement
fraction of the money.1 and aid social movements.
But other Super PACs did spend, for a total of $1.3 billion during the presidential >> Identify a correlation between
and congressional election in 2012. Despite two-thirds of Super PAC funds support- political ideology and certain
ing Republican candidates in various races, the results proved disappointing for media habits.
many of those so invested. Karl Rove’s Super PAC, American Crossroads, endorsed
eight Republican Senate candidates to the tune of $104.7 million; only two won their
races. The National Rifle Association spent $11 million; none of their candidates
prevailed.2
In the 2014 election cycle, Super PACs had received more than $688 million
and spent about $344 million as reported in January 2015, according to the

387
 388 PART 4 >> MEDIA AND SOCIETY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Center for Responsive Politics. About 67 percent of the advertising expenditures were
for negative ads.3
How Super PACs might influence the 2012 presidential election was a source of great
concern. Yet the dramatic amounts they spent—and the barrage of negative advertising
they funded—apparently did little to produce winners.

Stephen Colbert’s Super PAC illustrates some of the recent dramatic changes
in  media and politics. Since the earliest days of the republic, the media have
been intimately involved in our political process. The colonial newspapers were a
partisan press partisan press, typically aligned with a particular political party and presenting
A press, such as colonial newspapers,
information that helped its cause, with no sense of objectivity or balance in news
typically aligned with a particular coverage. Media also aided the Revolutionary cause. Fiery pamphlets such as
political party and presenting Thomas Paine’s Common Sense helped persuade colonists that they were fighting
information to help its cause, with for a just and noble cause.
no sense of objectivity or balance
in news coverage.
Yet more than journalism drives the engine of media and politics. Political
advertising, particularly on television, is how most candidates, particularly presi-
dential candidates, reach most voters most often. Negative political advertising, a
mainstay of politics in the United States, has been extensively researched. Politi-
cal advertising also provides substantial income for media organizations and has
made it necessary for political candidates to raise large sums of money
from donations.
Entertainment has played an increasingly important role in help-
ing political candidates create a more down-to-earth image. Appear-
ances on late-night talk shows and even comedy shows like Saturday
Night Live are now becoming the norm; and “fake news” shows, such as
The Daily Show and The Colbert Report, often provide political news,
particularly for young people.
The Internet and social media have also transformed politics and
political elections. Some candidates have used these effectively to fund-
raise and communicate their messages directly to the public rather
than through the media. Social media and the Internet are not only
important sources of information, they also a means by which mem-
bers of the public can organize quickly and effectively regarding causes
or candidates.

Journalism and Political Coverage

Journalism has long considered itself the main conduit of political in-
formation for the public and therefore key to democratic processes.
Journalism claims to be the mechanism for obtaining public unbiased
and impartial information about candidates for office, sitting elected
officials, the agencies they represent and operate, and relevant con-
temporary political issues—in other words, journalism aspires to be
Entertainment plays a powerful role in creating likable, an engine of democracy.
down-to-earth images of our political figures. Michelle Consider the words of Joseph Pulitzer, the former publisher of the
Obama quickly became a YouTube sensation after
performing “The Evolution of Mom Dancing” on Late New York World and the founder of the Pulitzer Prize, the highest
Night with Jimmy Fallon, receiving over 16 million views. award for journalistic excellence. In his proposal for founding a school
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 389

of journalism, Pulitzer summarized his credo: “Our Republic and its press will rise
or fall together. An able, disinterested, public-spirited press, with trained intelli-
gence to know the right and courage to do it, can preserve that public virtue with-
out which popular government is a sham and a mockery. A cynical, mercenary,
demagogic press will produce in time a people as base as itself. The power to mold
the future of the Republic will be in the hands of the journalists of future
generations.”4
Although most journalists aim to report the news fairly and in a balanced way,
media critics contend the media are anything but unbiased. They claim that media
companies can hardly be considered disinterested, given they, like most for-profit
companies, have vested self-interests in pro-business government regulations and
policies.
Like other industries, the media industry lobbies politicians to vote in favor of
laws or regulations that favor the industry or key players. During the debates
about the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and Protect Intellectual Property Act
(PIPA) of 2012, many of the biggest media and telecom companies—such as
Comcast, Disney, and News Corp., who own networks NBC, ABC, and Fox,
respectively—spent tens of thousands of dollars on lobbyists.
In another example, dozens of news organizations, including the Washington
Post, Politico, Fox News, NBC News, ABC News, and USA Today, vigorously lobbied
the FCC to prevent greater transparency regarding political spending on adver-
tisements. In April 2012, the FCC approved greater access to databases of such
information, but with several restrictions. The rule would apply only to the big
four television networks (NBC, ABC, CBS, and Fox) in the top fifty media markets
and would expire after two years.
Given that news organizations frequently call for more transparency from the
government and organizations they cover, critics find it hypocritical that these same
organizations do not want the same level of scrutiny regarding advertising revenues
they receive from political campaigns. Their stated reasons for opposing the meas-
ure ranged from difficulties and added costs of compiling and posting the informa-
tion to creating an atmosphere that might hurt their deals with other advertisers.
Critics also see media bias in political news coverage and in the types and the media bias
coverage of news stories in general. The critics say that complex topics often do not A real or perceived viewpoint held
get the airtime or depth of treatment required to truly inform the public. Instead, by journalists and news
the media focus more on simpler topics, features on political personalities or ex- organizations that slants news
posés of scandals. Existing coverage of policy issues and other important matters coverage unfairly, contrary to
professional journalism’s stated
often lacks context and historical information that aid public understanding. goals of balanced coverage and
Budget cuts have also affected news coverage of politics, with many big-city objectivity.
newspapers closing their Washington bureaus and relying for their political news
on wire services. The more general wire-service coverage can miss important spe-
cific points that a Washington-based local reporter might otherwise be able to
report on. Even for small-town newspapers, cuts in staff may mean less or even no
coverage of politics at the state or even local level, leaving the public less informed
on local issues that often affect them most directly.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Do you agree with Joseph Pulitzer’s statement on the impor-
tance of the press in preserving American democracy? Why or why not? What trends and
events both historical and current support your views?
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POLITICIANS USING THE NEWS

Public figures such as politicians are media
savvy and use the news media to their advan-
tage. If possible, many officials will not, for ex-
ample, announce bad news until late Friday
afternoon, the end of a workweek when most
people do not following the news as closely.
Media organizations will also have more
trouble contacting sources for interviews and
accessing information over the weekend to
follow up on the story. The hope is that by
Monday morning, their bad news will be largely
forgotten and new stories will be of greater in-
Politicians often use journalists and their need for scoops to test proposals or to hurt
opponents.
terest. Of course, this strategy does not always
work.  Sometimes stories have enough weight
to carry  through the weekend and become even bigger if more information is
uncovered.
news leak A public figure may use a news leak for many purposes. Giving a journalist
Secret information deliberately
exclusive and secret information helps build the relationship between a journalist
given to journalists with the hope and the official as a good source of information. More importantly, it can strategi-
that they will publish the item. cally damage opponents or even halt certain programs or projects. Providing news
leaks is a dangerous game, however, for giving someone confidential or classified
information often entails breaking the law. If the person giving the information is
discovered, he or she can be sentenced to prison, depending on the severity of the
case.
trial balloon Similar to news leaks, politicians may use a trial balloon to test public opinion
Leaking information to the press
on proposals they are considering. A politician may announce plans for a new in-
about a proposed plan or idea to dustrial park, even though no plans have been finalized. The subsequent media
see how the public will respond. coverage and public discussion may reveal who might oppose the plan and whether
it would be politically damaging to move forward with it.
public opinion Journalists are not naive about these techniques, of course. A journalist may
The notion that the public, as a fully realize why a politician is providing an exclusive scoop on a new budget pro-
group, can form shared views or posal, but publishing the story also helps the news organization beat its competi-
ideas about topics and that these tion, and the story itself may be newsworthy.
ideas guide the public’s actions.
The symbiotic relationship between politicians and journalists is especially
evident during elections, with both parties in the public eye. Television has
changed political campaign coverage in important ways, as have polls.

SOUND BITES AND HORSE RACES

With the rise of electronic media in the past half-century, especially television,
political communication and debate in the media have become increasingly super-
ficial. More often than not, the horse-race aspect of the campaign—chronicling
who’s ahead, who’s behind, and what their latest campaign tactic might be to move
ahead in the polls—becomes the whole story, at the expense of coverage of issues.
Critics claim news coverage of campaigns essentially disenfranchises voters,
making them jaded about politics and less willing to participate politically. Em-
phasizing campaign strategies and depicting politicians as those who will do and
say anything just to get elected increases public cynicism and apathy.
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 391

Another highly criticized aspect of campaign coverage has to do with the

nature of television. In 1968, Kiku Adatto of Harvard University did a study on
political sound bites—specifically, how long a source in a television news story sound bite
was allowed to speak without editing. In 1968, the average sound bite was 42.3 The length of time a news subject is
seconds. Nearly a quarter of all political sound bites were at least a minute in allowed to speak without editing. It
length, providing considerable room for context. Twenty years later, in 1988, the also has come to refer to short,
average TV sound bite of a political candidate had shrunk by some 80 percent to catchy utterances designed to
capture media attention.
just 9.8 seconds, and virtually none were a minute or longer—in fact, entire sto-
ries were often not a minute in length.5 This greatly reduces the context news can
provide, let alone adequate facts about complex political issues.

THE CHANGING TONE OF TELEVISION POLITICAL COVERAGE

The overall tone of television political coverage has also changed. Consider the
research findings of Syracuse University political scientist Thomas Patterson,
author of Out of Order. He found that in the 1960 presidential election, three-
quarters (75 percent) of the news reports about leading candidates John F.
Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon were positive in tone; only a quarter (25 percent)
were negative. Thirty-two years later, in the 1992 presidential election, news re-
ports had become predominantly negative. More than half (60 percent) of the re-
ports about then-candidate Bill Clinton and then-president George H. W. Bush
were negative, and less than half (40 percent) were positive. Patterson’s research
also shows that the length of candidate statements in election stories on the front
page of the New York Times had shrunk. In 1960, the average quote was fourteen
lines. In 1992, it was less than seven lines.
Has the rise of online news changed this situation? Not much. Although re-
search evidence is still scant, much of the online political coverage is lifted and
repurposed from other media, including television, radio, newspapers, and maga-
zines. The sound bites and quotes are the same.
Many of the better online news operations, such as CBS News online, typically
augment stories adapted from on-air coverage, turning the text of a sixty-second
video clip (less than two hundred words perhaps) into a five-hundred-word or
longer report with greater depth. More quotes may be added, or quotes repeated
from the broadcast text may be extended. Much of the additional reporting is
drawn from wire-service copy (e.g., Reuters, the Associated Press) pulled off the
Internet or sometimes from original interviews conducted via telephone or email.
Increasingly, graphics such as maps are integrated as well.

OPINION POLLS
Increasingly, opinion polls drive campaign coverage. Patterson’s research indi- opinion poll
cates that news becomes more favorable as poll support rises markedly or a candi- Usually conducted by a professional
date’s lead widens. Conversely, media coverage becomes more negative if the polling organization, a poll asking
candidate trails significantly or his or her poll standing drops. members of the public their
Media organizations usually use one of several professional polling organiza- opinions on issues or political
candidates.
tions, such as Gallup, to conduct polls. These organizations try to take random
samples of the public to assess what the population as a whole is feeling about a
candidate or an issue. Lower telephone response rates in recent years, as people
screen calls to avoid telemarketers, have made conducting telephone polls more
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The Upshot from The New York Times used a statistical model, including poll data, to correctly predict
Republicans would win a majority in the Senate in the 2014 midterm elections. CRITICAL THINKING
QUESTIONS: Do you think polls influence election results? Are you less likely to vote if polling data indicate
your candidate is unlikely to win?

expensive. In contrast to the more random telephone sample, online polls repre-
sent only users who have visited the website and choose to answer the poll. And,
although not considered scientifically valid, they appear increasingly on news
websites, and their results may be mistakenly assumed to accurately represent the
point of view of the general populace.
Although the profile of the average Internet user is evolving as demographic
diversity increases, a higher percentage of Internet users are likely to be white,
male, and more affluent than average. Moreover, an online poll taken by a politi-
cally conservative entity, such as Fox News, will usually show vastly different re-
sults than the same poll taken by a politically liberal entity, such as MSNBC. Some
polling organizations, such as Harris Interactive, conduct online polls, efforts that
other organizations and the American Association for Public Opinion Research
(AAPOR) typically deride as nonscientific.
push poll Sometimes telephone “polls,” called push polls, are actually political adver-
A type of political advertising that
tising. Push polls try to sway voters by giving them false or misleading informa-
appears to be a telephone poll but tion about opposing candidates under the guise of conducting a poll, or they try to
is actually a telemarketing make a candidate look good by asking leading questions. Push polls ask deliber-
campaign to sway voters by making ately misleading questions such as “Would you support the policies of a candidate
a favored candidate look good or
by misrepresenting the opposition.
who will curtail some of our freedoms and raise taxes?” Few would answer “yes” to
such a question, but the respondent may not realize that the pollster was referring
to a certain candidate when asking it. Nevertheless, the publicized poll results
would indicate that “90 percent of the people polled say they do not support
Candidate Y.”

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Compare two or three online political polls from organizations
with different political positions, such as Fox News and MSNBC. How much did polling re-
sults on similar issues differ? Can you detect any bias in how the questions were framed?
Which poll do you find more credible, and why?
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 393

Political Advertising
Candidates have historically employed a wide variety of techniques to reach as
many people as possible directly, from whistle-stop speeches to political rallies.
Partly due to the shrinking sound bite; the poll-driven, horse race, media coverage
of campaigns; and a growing desire to control their own messages, candidates
have turned increasingly to paid advertising. Campaigning has become increas-
ingly expensive in the United States, as campaigns and technology become more
complex and candidates attempt to reach voters through the media.6
The 2012 presidential election was the second in which the candidates raised
more than $1 billion (the first was 2008), although in 2012 that also counts Super
PACs, not immediately connected to the campaigns. As Table 13-1 shows, official
campaign (not Super PAC) media expenditures represented more than half of
all  expenditures. Print media were the big loser in 2012, down from 2008

TABLE 131 2012 Presidential Campaign Expenditures

Media expenditures Media consultants $323,482,876

Broadcast media $307,484,203

Internet media $104,694,680

Miscellaneous media $27,382,641

Print media $2,380,760

Total for media $765,425,160

Nonmedia expenditures Salaries and benefits $93,996,097

Travel $73,701,465

Postage/shipping $36,089,762

Rent/utilities $13,063,452

Campaign events $34,519,202

Polling/surveys/research $32,391,152

Fundraising direct mail/telemarketing $95,518,174

Other nonmedia $213,613,251

Total for nonmedia $592,892,555

Overall total $1,358,317,715

Source: OpenSecrets.org, http://www.opensecrets.org/pres12/expenditures.php, July 26, 2013.

Note: Based on Federal Election Commission data released electronically on Monday, March 25, 2013.
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expenditures, and broadcast media also had lower expenditures compared to

2008. However, the $1.3 billion spent by Super PACs, much of it on advertising,
could account for the lower expenditures by the campaigns themselves.
The money candidates need to run for national or even state offices is so great
partly because of the cost of political advertising. Although many criticize the way
campaigning has changed in U.S. elections, with huge costs being one major com-
plaint, many media companies benefit greatly from political advertising. They are
unlikely to lobby to change a system that helps their bottom line, especially when
advertising revenues in general have been down.
Political campaign expenditures will only increase over time. In the 2014
midterm elections, candidates and PACs spent nearly $1 billion (more than $933
million), what would in the past have been an “off” year in campaign spending. If
Hillary Rodham Clinton, former first lady, senator, and secretary of state, runs for
president in 2016, her campaign spending could top a whopping $1.7 billion.7

IMPACT OF NEGATIVE ADVERTISING

Some claim that political advertising is no different than other product advertis-
ing, except that a political campaign precedes a one-day sale—the election. This
mentality drives the industry, and many candidates gravitate toward negative ad-
vertising. Based on an examination of more than 1,100 political commercials,
political-communications scholar Larry Sabato concluded the following:
Even when television is used to communicate political truth (at least from one
candidate’s perspective), the truth can be negatively packaged—attacking the
opponent’s character and record rather than supporting one’s own. If there is a
single trend obvious to most American consultants, it is the increasing propor-
tion of negative political advertising. . . . At least a third of all spot commercials
in recent campaigns have been negative, and in a minority of campaigns half or
more of the spots are negative in tone or substance.8
Although some paid political spots on television simply provide information about
the candidate and her or his position on the issues, most criticism and research
have addressed ads that attack the opposing candidate. The rise of negative politi-
cal advertising has also led news media to focus more of their coverage on the
candidates’ advertising.
Negative political advertising has been problematic for a number of reasons.
One of the biggest concerns, Kathleen Hall Jamieson points out, is that many ads
promote falsehoods or encourage the audience to make false inferences.9 Presi-
dent Obama had no qualms about running negative advertising against Republi-
can candidate Mitt Romney in the 2012 election. Negative summer ads, which
helped frame Romney as a corporate raider and wealthy elitist, are credited with
raising unfavorable impressions of Romney 6 percentage points, at a time when
his campaign lacked sufficient funds to respond. Romney’s campaign eventually
fired back with ads that portrayed Obama as a failed manager of the economy.

EFFECTIVENESS OF NEGATIVE ADVERTISING

Researchers Richard Lau and Lee Sigelman tested three hypotheses regarding
negative political advertisements: (1) that they work (i.e., they get voters to
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 395

ETHICS IN MEDIA
Can Imagery Lead to Action?
On January 8, 2011, U.S. Representative Gabrielle Giffords
(D-AZ) was holding a “Congress on Your Corner” meeting in
front of a Safeway in Tucson, Arizona, an informal gathering
on a Saturday morning, intended to promote discussion of
relevant issues and citizen interaction with Giffords in her
daily settings.
But in the space of only a few minutes, the brief time it
took Jared Loughner to approach the meeting, shoot Giffords
in the head, then fire randomly at the crowd with his semiau-
tomatic pistol, this familiar and harmless setting outside the
local grocery morphed nightmarishly into a scene of incon-
ceivable carnage. By the time he was subdued, thirteen
people were wounded and six lay dead, including a federal
judge and Christina Taylor-Green, 9, who was born on
September 11, 2001.
Soon after the shooting, the media began to question
Sarah Palin’s use of gun crosshairs and terms like “targeted”
and other inflammatory language on her website, “takeback-
the20,” dedicated to winning back seats from Democrats.
Critics of the vitriol expressed by both parties in the 2010
Congressional elections wondered if such imagery and rhet-
oric helped spur someone like Loughner to violent action.
Although the controversial content quickly disappeared
from Palin’s website, she continued to defend her position,
arguing that metaphors, similes, and imagery could not be
blamed for the actions of individuals. She further fanned the
fires of debate by claiming critics had committed “blood
libel” against her, yet another controversial word choice the
media were quick to seize on, which originally referred to the and “politics as usual” rhetoric can be lethal for democracy. It
false claim that Jews murdered Christian children for religious also helped motivate Giffords and her husband, Mark Kelly, a
rites. retired NASA astronaut, to organize their own efforts for gun
Loughner pleaded guilty to nineteen counts of murder control. In 2014, they published a book, Enough: Our Fight
or attempted murder, but whether the violent imagery and to Keep America Safe from Gun Violence, and organized
language deployed by conservatives against politicians like Americans for Responsible Solutions, a Super PAC opposing
Giffords influenced his actions will likely never be known. gun violence. As of July 2014, the group had raised $17.5 mil-
Nevertheless, the tragic incident did serve as a powerful re- lion and spent more than $2.5 million in the 2014 midterm
minder to politicians and the public that hateful partisanship elections.10

endorse the attacking candidate), (2) that voters dislike negative ads, and (3) that
negative ads have an unintended side effect of disenfranchising the electorate.11
Regarding the first hypothesis, Lau and Sigelman found in a study of voters in
1997 that negative ads did not work and actually decreased the favorability of
voters’ attitudes toward the candidate whose campaign ran the negative ad. Con-
versely, the favorability of voters’ attitudes toward the target of the ads increased.
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A study of multiple campaigns similarly re-

vealed that candidates who initiated nega-
tive ads lost eighteen out of twenty-five
elections. They also found no strong prepon-
derance of evidence indicating that negative
political ads were more memorable than pos-
itive ads.
With respect to the second hypothesis,
that voters dislike negative ads, their results
were clear again: “Six of the nine studies
found negative political ads being rated less
ethical, less fair, and otherwise less liked
than positive political ads, while two studies
Negative political advertising is controversial, with some research indicating that it turns
came to the opposite conclusions and one
off voters and actually hurts the politician making the negative ad. uncovered no significant differences.”
For the third hypothesis, that negative
ads contribute to voter apathy or disenfran-
chisement, their findings were mixed: “Of the twenty relevant findings, ten report
no significant differences and two associate positive outcomes with negative politi-
cal ads (e.g., higher turnout), but eight report significant negative consequences.”
Some research indicates that alienating young viewers from the political pro-
cess is one of the most significant effects of negative political advertising, which
increases cynicism and decreases interest among young viewers.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: What type of political advertisements do you consider nega-

tive? Do your reactions vary depending on your prior views of the candidate? Can you find
any examples in these ads of factual information framed in unjustly negative ways? Do ads
that attack a candidate’s platform affect you in the same way as ads that attack a politi-
cian’s character?

Politics and Entertainment

“Politics is showbiz for ugly people” is a popular saying that succinctly captures
the dynamics of the campaign trail where politicians have long utilized elements
of show business and entertainment to attract voters.

POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS AND ENTERTAINMENT

Throughout the nineteenth century, election campaigns and elections themselves
were very public spectacles, with parades, speeches from local leaders, music, and
a generally festive atmosphere. Until well into the nineteenth century, voting oc-
curred publicly, making it easy to see who voted for whom. The political parties
created well-organized groups of supporters who persuaded others to vote for
their candidates, often with promises of plum government jobs if their candidate
was elected.
Songs and pithy catchphrases have long played a part in political campaigns,
going back to Andrew Jackson’s campaigns in 1824 and 1828. In the 1840
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 397

presidential campaign, the song and phrase “Tippecanoe and

Tyler Too” became popular and helped get William Henry
Harrison elected president. The use of campaign songs contin-
ued into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, although in
the past thirty years or so candidates generally adopt pop hits
rather than creating original campaign songs. One exception is
will.i.am’s “Yes We Can,” which features various artists with
lyrics consisting entirely of select clips of Barack Obama
speeches during the 2008 presidential primaries.
There have also been some ironic and humorous uses of
songs that have caused some politicians mild embarrassment.
Republicans and Democrats alike have used Bruce Springsteen
songs at campaign events, until the Boss specifically forbade
the use of his songs at Republican events. In the 2012 election,
Republican vice presidential candidate Paul Ryan raised eye-
brows when he said one of his favorite bands was Rage Against
the Machine—a band whose angry lyrics attack much of what
conservative Republicans stand for.
Catchy slogans and symbols have also been widely used in
political campaigns. Although an eye-catching logo would likely
not be responsible for electing a president, a bad one could hurt
a candidate’s image in subtle but powerful ways, especially for
Political campaigns in the nineteenth century often used
undecided voters who may not keep up with political issues and entertainment such as bands and popular music to attract the
rely more heavily on peripheral cues when deciding whom to public to campaign events.
vote for, such as how the candidate looks.

POLITICAL DEBATES
Although not intended to be entertainment, political debates today have many of
the trappings of show business, including the backdrops, the positioning of can-
didates, and the careful selection of live audience members. Carefully choreo-
graphed aspects aside, the actual debate remains one of the most important areas
of political communication. Debates have been a proving ground for candidates to
test their mettle against an opponent and to reveal their character and platform
to the public.
Early debates were quite different from today’s televised debates. For instance,
a debate between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas during the 1858
Senate race lasted more than five hours, with each candidate offering detailed
commentary of an hour or more on a single issue, such as abolition, their first
debate topic. Further, because television or radio did not yet exist, these exchanges
were not heard by anyone other than those present for the live event, although the In 2013, President Obama apologized
for calling Kamala Harris “the best
public could read about them in newspapers. Today, a five-hour televised debate looking attorney general in the
between political candidates is hard to imagine. country.” Some research indicates that
Arguably the most important debate between U.S. presidential candidates in focus on a female politician’s
appearance, even in ways that stress
the twentieth century occurred in 1960, when for the first time presidential can- her physical attractiveness, damages
didates debated live on broadcast television and radio. Research conducted at the her overall appeal to voters. CRITICAL
time showed that viewers of the televised debate rated John F. Kennedy, who was THINKING QUESTIONS: Why do you
handsome and well groomed, as clearly superior. Nixon, whose dark stubble and think compliments about a female
politician’s appearance might hurt her
“shifty” eyes gave him a more sinister look (the debate was scheduled for the even- chances of being elected? Do you think
ing and Nixon had not shaved since the morning), was deemed to have lost. this may be true for male politicians too?
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The 1960 Kennedy–Nixon presidential debate showed how powerfully television could influence public
perceptions of candidates.

Meanwhile, on radio, with listeners only able to hear what the candidates said,
Nixon was judged the clear winner for his more convincing arguments. Kennedy
ultimately won the presidential contest in an extremely close election, and it is not
clear whether the debate was the deciding factor. But it has been the touchstone
for televised campaigning ever since. Today, it is a given that one’s television per-
sona is essential for winning an election.

going viral Social Media and Political Campaigns

The phenomenon in which a media Electronic media have been increasingly significant in political elections ever since
item spreads rapidly from person to
the first use of radio in political campaigning in 1924, and the Internet and social
person via the Internet.
media have created even greater changes in recent years.
In the early years of radio, Democrats employed radio effectively in the elec-
tions of both 1936 and 1940. The majority of newspapers throughout the United
States openly endorsed Republican candidates for office, but the Democrats did
better in the elections. Democratic President Franklin Roosevelt was masterful in
his use of radio to reach the masses, providing his regular “Fireside Chats” during
the 1930s and 1940s. This ushered in an era in which radio, and later, television,
had the personal qualities of candidates, rather than their political-policy stances,
take center stage in the campaign process.
The Internet further transformed the political communication landscape, es-
pecially regarding elections. Voters can go to a candidate’s website to obtain infor-
mation about a candidate’s stance on an issue, make a campaign contribution, or
volunteer to help the candidate’s party.
Although a candidate website may have been considered groundbreaking in
1998, by 2012, it was only a part of much more robust communication strategies
that included YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter. Social media allowed candidates to
communicate in more informal ways with voters than they could via other media
channels; and social media can also generate more media attention, particularly if
an item goes viral. In the 2012 election, President Obama famously tweeted a
response the day after Clint Eastwood’s bizarre performance at the Republican
National Convention in which he spoke to an invisible President Obama in an
Twitter is often a medium for pithy,
snarky comments from the public and empty chair. The tweet—a simple picture of the back of President Obama’s chair
politicians. (with him in it) saying, “This seat’s taken”—perfectly fit the terse and snarky mode
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 399

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
Image Is Everything
Although the obsession with a politician’s image did not have facial hair. Of course, no correlation exists between the
begin with television, it certainly took on much greater ability to govern and the presence of facial hair, yet it has
been considered a political taboo for at least eighty years.
The increasing role of women in positions of political leader-
ship may also be a contributing factor.
It has been claimed that several presidents would have
never been elected had television had been available to
broadcast their looks or disabilities. These include Abraham
Lincoln, with his gawky, awkward appearance; William
Howard Taft, weighing in at three hundred pounds; and
wheelchair-bound Franklin Delano Roosevelt, stricken by
polio at age thirty-nine. FDR would never be able to get the
press today to agree, as they did then, not to publish images
of him getting in and out of his wheelchair.
Today, image consultants help political candidates look
the part, advising on shirts, ties, and hairstyles, among other
fashion concerns. These style choices can sometimes back-
fire, however. In late September 2012, Mitt Romney drew criti-
cism when he appeared on the Hispanic TV network Univision
importance than it ever had in the age of print. Even so, politi- looking unnaturally tanned. Romney almost cancelled the
cians then were hardly fashion icons. Presidential portraits interview until Univision bussed in Hispanic Republicans to
show that after a spate of presidents with facial hair in the fill the hall. “Fake tan. Fake fans. Really sad,” wrote one Face-
latter 1800s, the fashion for men at the time, the last presi- book commenter. The expected prominence of female candi-
dent with a beard or mustache was William Howard Taft dates in the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign may shine the
(1909–1913). Today, except perhaps for Sinn Fein president spotlight on image even more brightly, the question of facial
and Irish MP Gerry Adams, almost no Western politicians hair notwithstanding.

so characteristic of Twitter. Eastwood’s comical exchange also inspired one of the

most famous memes from the election and even spawned its own verb “East- meme
wooding,” the act of speaking to an empty chair. A media item of cultural interest
Every social media user is a potential media producer, or “produser,” of text that spreads through repetition
and images that may be created and distributed with equal ease, two social media and replication via the Internet.
trends that can conspire by accident or by design to derail or even ruin a political
career. Congressman Anthony Weiner became the poster boy for sexting scandals
in 2011, and again in 2013, as a NYC mayor hopeful. In December 2014, Elizabeth
Lauten, a congressman’s aide, was also the digital architect of her own demise
after a snarky post to her Facebook page about Malia and Sasha Obama went viral
and public backlash prompted her resignation. A 2006 clip from the campaign
trail of Virginia senator George Allen recorded him publicly calling an opponent’s
campaign worker of Indian descent “macaca,” a European racial slur for African
immigrants. The video circulated widely on the Internet and left indelible impres-
sions that no amount of subsequent press-release apologies could successfully
whitewash or counter.
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A video of Virginia senator George Allen repeatedly using the racial slur “macaca” at a campaign stop in
2006 was widely circulated on the Internet and credited in part with his defeat.

But digital media can, of course, disseminate more significant items than
witty retorts or embarrassing videos. Obama’s social media team proved master-
ful at fundraising and increasing voter registration and turnout in both the 2008
and 2012 elections. So successful was Obama’s 2008 campaign at getting small
donations from many people that he was the first presidential candidate to refuse
taxpayer funding (and, not coincidentally, the spending restrictions that went
with that). Some even claim that President Obama owed his first election win to
the Internet. Joe Trippi, Howard Dean’s presidential campaign manager in 2004,
said that the extent and kind of Obama’s Internet activity would have required “an
army of volunteers and paid organizers on the ground.”12
In 2012, Obama once again tapped this network, even though the media often
commented as the race tightened in the fall that Obama supporters lacked the
enthusiasm of 2008. Nevertheless, in election postmortems, many commentators
observed that part of the credit for Obama’s win went to his well-organized cam-
paigns, especially in swing states, with organizing facilitated by social media and
online communication between campaign managers and volunteers.

CHANGES WITH SOCIAL MEDIA

Social media were more prominent in the changed media landscape of 2012. An
October 2012 study by the Pew Internet & American Life Project found that 39
percent of Americans used social media to discuss politics. In 2012, over 10 mil-
lion tweets were sent during the first presidential debate between Obama and
Romney; whereas in 2008, only 1.8 million tweets were sent on Election Day itself.
President Obama’s speech at the Democratic National Convention initiated over
2.5 million online conversations.
In the 2008 election, YouTube proved key in promoting Obama, according to
Arianna Huffington, founder of the Huffington Post. It purposely positioned itself
to play a potentially important role in the elections by launching the YouTube You
Choose ’08 campaign, which gave presidential candidates their own YouTube
channels. In posted videos that the public could watch when they wanted, without
commercials, candidates could speak at greater length than the sound-bite culture
that dominates the mainstream news allows. YouTube also allowed people to re-
peatedly watch and share these videos with friends.
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 401

The transformations produced by social

media are even more remarkable when we con-
sider that neither YouTube nor Twitter even ex-
isted during the 2004 election. Yet within eight
years, they had become integral components of
the electoral process. Scholars and political con-
sultants continue to study and analyze the im-
plications for future campaigns of this evolution
in mass communications, one that has recast
expectations and interactions of American
voters with their political candidates.

CHANGING RULES FOR POLITICIANS

The changes in political campaigns produced by
YouTube, Facebook, and other social media tech-
nologies are still not fully understood and will After his 2012 election victory, President Obama turned his campaign’s highly
successful online component into a means of organizing popular support on key
likely continue to develop as technologies con- issues.
tinue to evolve. Certain fundamental shifts,
however, can already be identified from the 2008 and 2012 presidential campaigns.
Candidates seem not to have yet learned that there is no such thing anymore
as an “off the record” event. In another era, journalists attending fundraisers or
other gatherings that were off the record respected that whatever was said there
by a candidate could not be reported. But today’s citizen-journalists and bloggers
often ignore these unwritten rules. When damaging material can be readily redi-
rected to the public sphere via the Internet, the assumption that those present
constitute a partisan audience wholly sympathetic to one’s cause or sensitive to a
remark’s context is a dangerous supposition.
At a private fundraiser for wealthy donors in May 2012,
Romney infamously characterized 47 percent of Americans
as government freeloaders who paid no taxes and who con-
sidered themselves victims. A bartender catering the event,
who explicitly invoked his Boston blue-collar roots when ex-
plaining his actions to ABC News, surreptitiously taped and
subsequently released the “47 percent video” to the media
months later as the election campaigns were heating up. It
further reinforced negative perceptions of Romney as elit-
ist, someone who if elected would be more concerned about
the rich rather than the middle class.
Campaign gaffes also generate a life of their own on
social media. During the first televised presidential debate in
2012, Mitt Romney claimed that he would cut funding of
public television if president but added, “I love Big Bird,” gen-
erating more than 200,000 tweets that mentioned the be-
loved Sesame Street character. In the days that followed,
people posted humorous, and often profane, photos and The different seating formats in the three presidential debates
videos of Big Bird “responding” to Romney’s comments. between President Obama and Mitt Romney affected the
Social media have allowed some topics to thrive in candidates’ interactions. The second debate, in which they could
walk around, was considered the most aggressive; and the third
online conversations long after they would have disap- debate, in which they were seated, was seen as much calmer and
peared from the regular news cycle. One example is more reasoned.
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Missouri Senate Republican candidate Rep. Todd Akin’s comments in August 2012
that in cases of “legitimate rape,” women could control whether they got pregnant
or not. This statement, and similarly controversial assertions from other conserv-
ative Republican candidates about abortion and a woman’s right to choose, became
the subject of closer scrutiny and extended discussion on social media.
A more prominent Internet presence in campaigns has made the electoral
landscape more attractive to young people, a demographic that has recently proven
a powerful force in helping to organize and volunteer. This bucks a trend, going
back at least thirty years, of steadily declining youth participation in elections.
Realizing much of his voter base was comprised of young people, Obama cam-
paigned on college campuses days before the election in battleground states such
as Ohio and Virginia. Often he appeared with Bruce Springsteen, who gave free
concerts to support Obama.
Not only do the Internet and social media help politicians communicate better
and organize more efficiently, they also provide the public with media and infor-
mational tools to organize their efforts more effectively and improve their com-
munication with the government.

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Crowdsourcing Election Monitoring
Some historical election practices in the nineteenth crowdsourcing, using raw data gathered from the public,
century in the United States look downright fraudulent make this process a little easier. The Venezuelan
to us today—political parties offering voters free trans- presidential election of April 2013 saw a close result be-
tween the incumbent, President Nicolás Maduro, who
took over after Hugo Chávez’s death, and the challenger,
Henrique Capriles Radonski. Venezuela’s Citizen Election
Network challenged President Maduro’s victory, using
Twitter to document charges of election fraud in various
polling stations. Follow-up investigation of the tweets
confirmed dozens and in some cases hundreds of in-
stances of election fraud and misconduct.
In Kenya’s 2013 election, a company that had previ-
ously created an interactive mapping tool to track elec-
portation to polling places, providing free turkeys to tion violence reworked it to allow for crowdsourcing of
families, and ballot stuffing (putting false names in the country’s election. Posting updates to Uchaguzi via
ballot boxes or people voting in more than one district Twitter, SMS, mobile phones, email, and the Web, citi-
under different names). In the past, however, they were zens documented 4,500 cases of both good and bad
not considered so. Over time, more stringent rules and acts during voting, and nearly 60 percent of the cases
laws helped ensure fair elections and reduce voter fraud, were investigated.13
incidents of which are now rare in U.S. elections. In cer- In 2014, Indonesia’s electoral commission (KPU)
tain foreign countries, charges of election fraud are fre- took steps to ensure extensive crowdsourcing of elec-
quent and include not only vote buying but also tions by putting large volumes of voting data online,
intimidation and actual physical violence against voters. such as scanned images of every polling station’s final
Election monitoring can be time consuming and report. Citizens can access the data, compare it to their
difficult, for accusations must be investigated and evi- own experience with local polling places, and report any
dence gathered at each polling site. Social media and irregularities or potential fraud.
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 403

Social Media and Civic Engagement

With the Internet, never before have candidates and the public had such ability to
communicate directly with one another. The public can see online databases that
indicate how much their neighbors have contributed to which candidates. They
can look at fact-checking sites, sometimes in real time, via social media to see
whether candidates are telling the truth during political debates. In the 2012 elec-
tion, several media organizations had post-debate fact-checking stories that ana-
lyzed various claims and their degree of truthfulness.
Email initially seemed to promise a faster, more efficient way for constituents
to communicate directly with their members of Congress. A study released in
2004 by the Congress Management Foundation as part of the Communicating
with Congress series of reports revealed this to be the case, although not without
some pitfalls. In 2004, the House received 10.4 million communications by post
and over 99 million over the Internet, while the Senate received 7.9 million com-
munications by post and 83 million over the Internet. Overall, Congress received
four times as many communications from citizens than in 1995, all due to the
Internet. Staff, however, had not increased during this time, meaning offices of
the same size now had more work.
According to the report, almost 80 percent of congressional staffers believe
that the Internet has made it easier for people to become involved in public policy,
and over half believe it has increased public understanding of what takes place in
Washington. A plurality of nearly half also believes that it makes politicians more
responsive to the public.
Mass email petitions and form letters created by sites like change.org do have
their weaknesses, however. Politicians said that original, individual communica-
tions hold more weight for them. In general, a personal written letter or telephone
call is given more priority than a prewritten form email in which a constituent
simply clicked a button to forward to her representative. That is why online peti-
tion sites encourage people to write about the issue in their own words, even if
they can provide a form letter.

DATABASES AND GOVERNMENT TRANSPARENCY

Online databases and sites that provide direct information about political dona-
tions, voting records, and other political activities have become especially useful
tools for journalists and citizens. Visitors to such sites can customize information
on demand about any community in the United States or any person who
may have contributed to a candidate, using data from the Federal Election Com-
mission. The user simply enters a zip code and immediately obtains a list of every-
one in that geographic area who has contributed to federal campaign committees.
Alternatively, entering the first three or more letters of a last name will produce a
detailed inventory of that person’s contributions during any election cycle dating
back to 1990.
OpenSecrets.org maintains the database and offers online a wide range of
other political information, such as details on the activities of political action
committees (PACs), the spending of lobbyists (which can be extremely revealing
about organizations’ or industries’ efforts to shape the nation’s political agenda),
and the fundraising and spending on various political races. Not everyone agrees
these public records should be widely available on the Internet.
 404 PART 4 >> MEDIA AND SOCIETY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

The Sunlight Foundation offers a number of social media tools to make government more transparent and
accountable.

Government transparency has become increasingly important in the digital

age, as citizens want to see how their elected leaders and government operate. The
Sunlight Foundation is one of the leaders in to the movement to make govern-
ment more open and accountable. This not-for-profit, nonpartisan organization
has created a range of apps and online tools to enable citizens to do everything
from search for deleted tweets by U.S. politicians (Politwoops) to track influence
of political donations at the federal and state levels (Influence Explorer) to search
for organizations buying ads or using other forms of political communication
(Follow the Unlimited Money). One of Sunlight Foundation’s projects includes
Churnalism U.S., a web tool and browser add-on that highlights articles whose
similarities to press releases or other material suggest plagiarized content.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Use one of the tools on the Sunlight Foundation’s website to
learn something about a bill or your local politician that you have not seen in the news.
Discuss what you learned and whether it has altered your view of how the news business
does its job.

SMART MOBS
smart mob Digital media can also facilitate physical gatherings, dubbed smart mobs by
A term coined by author Howard
author Howard Rheingold. Some political activists use cellular phones and wire-
Rheingold to define a group of less networks to organize groups and communicate rapidly with each other. Smart
people communicating with each mobs contributed to the 1998 overthrow of President Suharto in Indonesia and to
other via text messaging or wireless the 2001 ousting of Philippine President Joseph Estrada, orchestrating protests
networks to coordinate their
activities.
via cell phone text messages. With wireless technology, mass demonstrations in
various parts of a city can be roughly coordinated in real time, affording protes-
tors a communication network almost as effective as that of police or the military.
In 2011, social media tools helped the Occupy Wall Street protestors masterfully
coordinate protests and attract many participants.
Handheld video- and audio-recording equipment has also aided activism. Pro-
testors at the Republican National Convention in New York City in 2004 were
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 405

encouraged to record what was happening around them, especially as police

started arresting people. Hundreds of protestors were arrested; and in some of the
subsequent trials, video footage that directly contradicted authorities’ testimony
about activists’ behavior was presented in their defense.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: What are your perceptions of social movements that protest at
national conventions or at international meetings like those of the World Trade Organiza-
tion (WTO)? What influenced these perceptions?

Political Polarization and Media Habits

Those unfettered by concerns about evidence or logic can simply rely on
their gut response to a politician’s claims, what Stephen Colbert on The
Colbert Report would often invoke as the “truthiness” of a matter. For
others, tools, such as the aptly named PolitiFact, can help determine the
veracity of political assertions. Another group may not follow their in-
stincts alone yet feel little need to seek out independent fact checkers
when they have trusted news sources they consider credible.
Not surprisingly, where people look for truth, which news sources
they trust, may be influenced by their political ideology, especially
for those at both the far right and the far left of the spectrum, about
20  percent of the overall public. According to an October 2014 Pew
report entitled “Political Polarization and Media Habits,” nearly half of
consistent conservatives identify Fox News as their main news source
(see Figure 13-1). No other outlet comes close, although conservative
talking heads Sean Hannity, Rush Limbaugh, and Glenn Beck also
ranked high on the dimension of trust. Consistent liberals tend to
gather news from a broader array of sources, trusting more media to

Occupy Wall Street protesters used social media

effectively to organize activists and to inform the
FIGURE 131 Political Polarization and Media Habits public about their actions.

Main Source of
Trusted Government and Trusted
News Sources Political News News Sources

NPR CNN Fox News

72% 15% 88%
PBS NPR Fox News Hannity
Consistent Consistent
71% 13% 47% 62%
Liberals Conservatives
BBC MSNBC Limbaugh
69% 12% 58%
The N.Y. Times ABC News The N.Y. Times Glenn Beck
62% 52% 10% 51%
NBC News MSNBC
56% 52%
CNN CBS News
56% 51%
Source: Pew Research Center (October 21, 2014)
406 PART 4 >> MEDIA AND SOCIETY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

provide information on politics and the government. Their main news sources are
CNN, NPR, MSNBC, and the New York Times; yet a majority also trust PBS, BBC,
and the national networks NBC, ABC, and CBS.

MEDIA PIONEERS
Bill Adair
presidential election.14 Adair gathered a team of reporters to
fact check statements by public figures and groups and
report their truthfulness on the PolitiFact.com website. By
2008, PolitiFact was operational, and it was soon awarded
the Pulitzer Prize for distinguished reporting on national
affairs.15 Adair’s creative efforts to popularize such reporting
include the Truth-O-Meter, a six-category scheme that as-
sesses a claim’s accuracy, ranging from true to pants-on-fire
false. PolitiFact also features a Flip-O-Meter and an evalua-
tion of whether presidential promises have been kept.16 This
journalistic form is growing. PolitiFact now has affiliates in
ten other states and most recently Australia.17
In 2014, the Truth-O-Meter shed valuable light on the
contentious matter of the Common Core curriculum trans-
forming American schools. The Truth-O-Meter revealed that
the following claim by U.S. Senator Kay Hagan (D-North
Carolina) was “mostly true”: “The Common Core was not put
together by the Department of Education in Washington. It
was put together by governors and by states.” In sharp con-
trast, Wisconsin State Sen. Joe Leibham (R) asserted that
Common Core is a federal mandate, a claim the Truth-O-
Meter determined to be false.
Working in various journalistic endeavors while majoring
in political science at Arizona State University, Adair naturally
gravitated toward political journalism. Covering the
Washington beat for the Times, he was a 1997 recipient of
the Everett Dirksen Award for Distinguished Coverage of
Congress, among numerous other awards. In April 2013,
Duke University appointed him their Knight Professor of
Computational Journalism, where his goal at the Reporters’
In this multimedia, multisource world, it is increasingly dif- Lab in the Sanford School of Public Policy is to develop new
ficult to sort through the competing claims of politicians, tools and forms of journalism to address public policy and
government officials, and advocacy groups. Journalist fact political arenas.18
checking helps people evaluate these claims and, ideally, Adair notes, “This is a time of great promise in journalism,
encourages those making claims to be more careful in their when we can reinvent how we tell stories and how we hold
public pronouncements. government accountable.” He advises students in the digital
PolitiFact arose from an assessment by Bill Adair, age “to learn not only journalism but also how to code—to
Washington correspondent for the Tampa Bay Times build websites and mobile apps.”19 Bill Adair’s career demon-
(formerly the St. Petersburg Times), that too little had been strates the potential reward for developing the skill set to
done to address distortions perpetrated in the 2004 work in today’s convergent media environment.
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 407

MEDIA CAREERS

Media jobs in the political field as traditionally conceived are increasingly rare.
Pursuing a career in journalism and politics requires more today than a question-
ing mind and advanced knowledge of politics and political processes, although
these are still essential. Increasingly critical is an understanding of data and of
algorithms that can analyze the data. Political and electoral process are increas-
ingly defined by so-called Big Data, massive data sets often based on social media
and voter information, and the analytics used in their interpretation.
News organizations such as The New York Times, Politico, and Huffington Post
now have extensive staff led by data scientists devoted to quantitative, or numeri-
cal, inquiry, particularly political analysis. Digital companies such as Google,
Facebook, and Twitter similarly employ social media and data analytics and ana-
lysts, especially during political campaigns. The emergence of computational jour-
nalism in both academy and industry underscores the increasing importance of
data and its digital analysis in the tool kit of political journalists and other media
professionals.
For those who may not have a penchant for data, another career possibility
lies at the intersection of media and politics—satire. As the tragic terrorist attack
on Charlie Hebdo in 2015 reveals, this pathway is not without its risks.20 But, for
those who want to provide humorous observations about institutions and public
figures such as elected officials, writing satire for TV shows or other media, online
or off, is an option to consider.

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

As we have seen, political communication is not simply about elections and politi-
cal campaigns. Media companies employ lobbyists just like other industries to in-
fluence political and regulatory decisions that may harm their business yet protect
the public.
Citizens should be knowledgeable about how the media work within our po-
litical system and how they may affect basic rights such as privacy or determine
the kinds of stories we see. The role of mass communication in democracies will
likely be even more important in the future as the focus moves from a perceived
need to inform the public to that of engaging the public in dialog. To that end,
social media will also play an important part, facilitating conversations between
members of the public and between the public and its elected officials.
Fostering more dialog may be one of the biggest shifts in political campaigns
and elections. Encouraging participation may engage more people than ever before
in these democratic processes. Something as simple as tweeting about what took
place at a school board meeting or blogging for a local news organization could
affect the way leaders govern as they observe citizens becoming more responsive
to policy issues. Maintaining our rights to privacy while keeping governance as
transparent as possible will be ongoing efforts. Many government leaders may see
the greater transparency that social media in part represent as a threat to stand-
ard ways of conducting political business.
408 PART 4 >> MEDIA AND SOCIETY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Transparency will also be vital in the international arena, where the policy
decisions of a growing number of international organizations, such as the World
Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), can affect entire nations and
the global economy. Whereas leaders within democratic nations may face in-
creased pressure to be more transparent, the heads of these international groups,
who may arguably have more power to affect national policies than elected offi-
cials do, will not be beholden to any specific public and have little incentive to
make their decision-making processes transparent.
Activist groups call for closer monitoring of the increased powers of certain
organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). To raise public aware-
ness about the WTO’s policy decisions on global business and trade, they routinely
stage demonstrations that sometimes turn violent. These social movements adopt
organizing and protest tactics similar to those of antinuclear and environmental
groups in the 1970s and 1980s while exploiting the power of new social media to
communicate with each other and to attract media attention for their causes.

MEDIA MATTERS PLAYING POLITICS

1. Consider a political candidate in the most they would fight such a ruling, and what
recent election. What are your impressions of implications do you think greater transparency
the candidate, and what policies does he or she might have for media organizations?
stand for? Now consider where you got most of 3. Have you ever volunteered or participated in a
this information—was it from news sites, from government election campaign? If so, in what
appearances on entertainment shows such as a way, why did you participate, and what was
late-night talk show or The Daily Show, or from your impression of the experience?
ads? What implications do these main sources 4. Have you ever participated in a protest or
have for your impression of the candidate and some other form of activism, such as signing
important political issues? a petition online or offline or posting a
2. Media companies fought an FCC ruling that political message on social media? What was
would require them to be more transparent the campaign or issue, and what persuaded
about the sources of their political advertisers you to participate? Did it have the desired
and how much they spent. Why do you think effect?

FURTHER READING

The Myth of Digital Democracy. Matthew Hindman (2008) Princeton University Press.
Mosh the Polls: Youth Voters, Popular Culture and Democratic Engagement. Tony Kelso, Brian Cogan
(eds.) (2008) Lexington Books.
Into the Buzzsaw: Leading Journalists Expose the Myth of a Free Press. Kristina Borjesson (ed.) (2002)
Prometheus Books.
 CHAPTER 13 >> MASS COMMUNICATION AND POLITICS IN THE DIGITAL AGE 409

Media Spectacle and the Crisis of Democracy: Terrorism, War, and Election Battles. Douglas Kellner
(2005) Paradigm Publishers.
Media Politics: A Citizen’s Guide, 2nd ed. Shanto Iyengar (2011) W. W. Norton.
unSpun: Finding Facts in a World of Disinformation. Brooks Jackson, Kathleen Hall Jamieson (2007)
Random House Trade Paperbacks.
Tuned Out: Why Americans Under 40 Don’t Follow the News. David Mindich (2005) Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
The Press Effect: Politicians, Journalists, and the Stories That Shape the World. Kathleen Hall Jamie-
son (2004) Oxford University Press.
The Obama Victory: How Media, Money, and Message Shaped the 2008 Election. Kathleen Hall Ja-
mieson, Kate Kenski, Bruce Hardy (2010) Oxford University Press.
The Nightly News Nightmare: Network Television’s Coverage of U.S. Presidential Elections, 1988–2000.
Stephen J. Farnsworth, S. Robert Lichter (2002) Rowman & Littlefield.
Mass Media and American Politics, 9th ed. Doris A. Graber (2014) CQ Press.
Bloggers on the Bus: How the Internet Changes Politics and the Press. Eric Boehlert (2009) Free Press.
Entertaining Politics: Satiric Television and Political Engagement, 2nd ed. Jeffrey Jones (2009)
Rowman & Littlefield.
Cyberprotest: New Media, Citizens, and Social Movements. W. Van De Donk (ed.) (2004) Routledge.
Blowing the Roof Off the Twenty-First Century: Media, Politics, and the Struggle for Post-Capitalist
Democracy. Robert W. McChesney (2014) Monthly Review Press.
 CHAPTER PREVIEW

413 Four Theories of

International Mass
Communication
416 The Public, the Public
Sphere, and Public
Opinion
418 Political and
Socioeconomic Issues
with Global Media
423 Global Media, Local
Values
 14

Global Media in the

Digital Age
T
he gruesome images and graphic stories in the global media about LEARNING OBJECTIVES
the Islamic State or Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS)—beheadings of
Western hostages, mass executions, and other human rights violations >> Describe the role of mass
in territory they control—certainly have not painted an appealing pic- communication in democratic
ture of ISIS. and nondemocratic countries.
Yet despite regular news reports of their atrocities, a small but steady stream of >> Define the public sphere and
Westerners—3,400, including 200 Americans, according to counterterrorism officials— public opinion.
have traveled abroad to join ISIS. Many have responded to recruitment efforts that in- >> Discuss the implications of the
volve encrypted communications on what officials call the “dark space” of the Web, an digital divide for citizen
apt location for campaigns to expand an Islamist state of the darkest nature.1 participation in the public
Counterterrorism officials and media experts, while decrying these media cam- sphere.
paigns as ISIS propaganda, admit these media-savvy efforts have been remarkably >> Explain the concept of
effective. Advanced marketing techniques commonly used by cutting-edge adver- hegemony and its relevance
to media in an age of
tising and PR agencies have supplemented their social media campaign with profes-
globalization.
sionally produced online magazines and high-quality videos depicting life in the
Islamic State.
>> Outline the role of developed
and developing nations in a
ISIS is just the latest, yet perhaps the most successful, example of terrorists utiliz-
global flow of news and
ing the Internet. In the early 2000s, the FBI reported that groups such as Al Qaeda entertainment media.
were communicating online to organize and coordinate activity within and between
>> Assess the importance of
cells. The suspects in the lethal Boston Marathon attack allegedly learned about indigenous media to local and
bomb making from Al Qaeda material available on the Web.2 Swaying disaffected global culture.
people within Western countries, encouraging and guiding them to commit terrorist >> Explain how the rise of digital
acts at home in the name of ISIS, is a greater concern for law enforcement and coun- media has affected national
terterrorism officials than a mass exodus to ISIS-controlled territory. and international security.
Despite Western experts’ grudging acknowledgment of extremists’ strategic
success employing media, terrorism, like other human enterprises, is fallible. A colos-
sal error occurred in mid-2015 when a militant posted a selfie on social media, a
photo of him at a command and control center inside ISIS territory, with boastful
comments about their military capabilities. This item on social media quickly became

411
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intelligence information for the U.S. Air Force, unwittingly supplied by the enemy himself,
whose building was identified and destroyed with a missile airstrike—a mission accom-
plished within 24 hours of the original post.

Global media, interconnected either technologically or economically and often in

real time or near real time, developed in the mid-nineteenth century. Since the
mid- or late 1800s, most countries have had printed media, such as newspapers
and books; and since the early to mid-1900s, many have had systems of electronic
broadcasting and motion picture production, albeit generally on a smaller scale
than in the United States.
Before the rise of mass electronic communication in the twentieth century,
print journalism was a primary driver of media globalization. In the 1840s, Paul
Julius Freiherr von Reuter (Baron
de Reuter), founder of the Reuters
News Agency in the French city of
Aachen, used carrier pigeons to
deliver news to Brussels. This gave
him a competitive edge over other
international news agencies,
which used trains, slower than pi-
geons, to transport the news
across borders. By 1851, the car-
rier pigeon was superseded by the
newly invented electric telegraph,
which could spread the news from
country to country at the speed of
light.
The convergence of television
and the communications satellite
with the launch of the Telstar satel-
lite in 1962 enabled delivery of tel-
evision programming in real time
Carrier pigeons provided state-of-the-art international news delivering in the 1840s for Baron de between Europe and the United
Reuter, until surpassed by the electric telegraph. States. The growth of the Internet,
broadband communications, and
mobile digital devices has only ex-
panded interconnection among the world’s media. Government regulations around
the world have increasingly favored media globalization. Ownership of media on a
global scale has grown dramatically since the 1970s as technology enabled broad-
casters and publishers to extend their reach worldwide. At the same time, however,
it appears that some executives of publicly owned global media conglomerates have
become more concerned with company revenue and stock value than with the qual-
ity of the media products themselves.
Yet even in an era of increasing globalization, media operations around the
world are diverse. Variations in local regulations and culture shape media practice
and content, whether in the form of news or entertainment. In this chapter, we
examine the global media system and the issues it raises for an increasingly inter-
connected world. We begin with an examination of four enduring theories about
the nature and function of international mass communication.
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 413

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Why do you think ISIS media strategies have been so success-
ful? How can Western countries counter ISIS media campaigns to recruit young men and
women?

Four Theories of International Mass

Communication
In 1956, social scientists Fred S. Siebert, Wilbur Schramm, and Theodore Peterson
presented four theories of international mass communication.3 These theories ex-
plain how the press operates in different political, historical, and cultural environ-
ments around the world. Although the authors referred specifically to “the press,” authoritarian theory
we can apply their four theories to all mass communication, including television, A theory of international mass
radio, and the Internet: communication that contends
authoritarian governments exert
1. Authoritarian theory direct control over the media.
2. Libertarian theory
3. Social responsibility theory libertarian theory

4. Soviet theory A theory of international mass

communication that supports the
individual’s right to publish
whatever she or he wants, even
AUTHORITARIAN THEORY material critical of the government
Authoritarian theory describes the oldest system of mass communication or of government officials.
whose roots extend to sixteenth- and seventeenth-century England. This system
exists in authoritarian states whose governments exert direct control over the
mass media. Countries governed by a small ruling class are especially likely to
have an authoritarian media system.
Media in authoritarian systems are not permitted to print, broadcast, or web-
cast anything the government feels might undermine its authority. Content that
threatens or challenges the existing political system and its values is prohibited.
Anyone who violates the rules is subject to harsh punishment, including impris-
onment, expulsion, or even death.
Government uses the media not only to inform the public of important events
but also to shape public opinion in support of its policies. Although ownership of
media can be private or public, media professionals lack editorial independence
Watchdog group Reporters Without
within their organizations. Foreign media are also subordinate to governmental Borders ranked Singapore 153 out of
authority. Countries where the authoritarian theory most accurately describes 180 countries in its World Press
current systems of mass communication include China, Cuba, North Korea, Saudi Freedom Index, the lowest ranking the
country has ever received. Pictured
Arabia, and to slightly lesser extents Singapore and Russia. here is the cover of The Straits Times, a
newspaper closely monitored by the
Singaporean government. CRITICAL
LIBERTARIAN THEORY THINKING QUESTIONS: Do you
approve of authoritarian governmental
Libertarian theory, also called free press theory, rests on the belief that the in- control of the media as long as a
dividual should be free to publish whatever she or he likes. Its roots lie in the work country’s citizens are safe and happy?
What kind of penalties should these
of seventeenth-century philosopher and writer John Milton, who argued in Areo- governments be able to impose for
pagitica (1644): “And though all the winds of doctrine were let loose to play upon media transgressions?
 414 PART 4 >> MEDIA AND SOCIETY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

the earth, so Truth be in the field, we do injuriously by licensing and prohibiting to

misdoubt her strength. Let her and Falsehood grapple; who ever knew Truth put
to the worse, in a free and open encounter?”
In libertarian theory, criticism of the government and its policies is accepted
and even encouraged, and the import and export of media messages across na-
tional borders is not restricted. Media professionals have full autonomy within
their organizations. Although the libertarian model is an ideal that does not real-
istically apply in full anywhere, elements of the theory are clearly in practice in the
media of many countries.

social responsibility
theory SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
A theory of international mass
Social responsibility theory best describes the systems of mass communica-
communication that perhaps best tion in most democratic societies. It holds that to provide the most reliable and
describes the media’s role in impartial information to the public, the media in a democracy should be free from
democratic societies. It asserts that most governmental constraints. To operate effectively in this environment, how-
the media should be free from
most governmental constraints to
ever, the media must act responsibly. In 1947, the Commission on Freedom of the
provide the most reliable and Press (known as the Hutchins Commission) articulated the media’s obligations to
impartial information to the public. society, which included truth, objectivity, balance, and diversity. The commission

ETHICS IN MEDIA
J-Ethinomics—Teaching Ethics and Economics in
Journalism
Bhutan, tucked into the eastern Himalayas and bordered
by India and China, held its first national parliamentary
elections in 2008. Officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, the
constitutional monarchy was among the last countries
to introduce television and to allow the Internet, enter-
ing the world of digital media in 1999. This new democ-
racy sought to develop an effectively functioning local
news media. To help achieve this goal, twenty Bhuta-
nese journalists attended a workshop in J-Ethinomics, a
unique media ethics program developed by the Center
for International Media Ethics (CIME). J-Ethinomics ad-
dressed the challenge of training a largely inexperi-
enced group of reporters, editors, and Bhutanese media
owners in the fundamental principles of media freedom
and responsibility.
The CIME program seeks to balance truth-telling Bhutanese journalists attend a CIME workshop addressing journalism
and ethics with profitability and other critical media ethics, especially truth-telling, and the economic demands of profitability.
influences on culture, environment, and business.
J-Ethinomics teaches reporters and editors to frame
every story, especially those involving economics, with jour- their potentially harmful consequences, such as their effects
nalistic ethics in mind. Rather than report stories uncritically, on the environment. Ethical reporting increases public trust
reporters learn to ask questions about business activities and as it enhances media credibility.
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 415

argued that a responsible media system must do more than simply report the
facts. It must place them in context. This means the media must provide analysis,
explanation, and interpretation.
Although social responsibility theory may best describe the system of mass
communication in democracies such as the United States, Canada, France, and the
United Kingdom, prioritizing public good over corporate profit both at home and
abroad is a challenge in the age of global media expansion. Siebert, Peterson, and
Schramm cautioned, “The power and near monopoly position of the media impose
on them an obligation to be socially responsible, to see that all sides are fairly pre-
sented and that the public has enough information to decide; and that if the media
do not take on themselves such responsibility it may be necessary for some other
agency of the public to enforce it.”
They added, “Freedom of expression under the social responsibility theory is Soviet theory
not an absolute right, as under pure libertarian theory.… One’s right to free ex-
A theory of international mass
pression must be balanced against the private rights of others and against vital communication that states that the
social interests.” A socially responsible news organization would exercise extreme media should be publicly owned
care in reports about terrorist activities, for example, especially ones that might and used to further the needs of
detail how bioterrorism is conducted or specify a city’s disaster plans, information the working class.
terrorists might use to plan future attacks.

SOVIET THEORY
The Soviet theory of the press is based on a
specific ideology: the communist system of
government practiced in the former Soviet
Union. Siebert traced the roots of this theory
to the 1917 Russian Revolution and the views
of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. According
to the Soviet theory, media should serve the
interests of the working class and should be
publicly, not privately, owned.
Despite certain similarities between the
Soviet and authoritarian systems, notably, the
media being subordinate to the government,
there are also important differences. In par- The Soviet Union’s main newspaper was Pravda, meaning “truth.”
ticular, the Soviet theory asserts that the
media should recognize their responsibility to the people and self-regulate their
content. Government censorship is not the norm. With the demise of the Soviet
Union in the 1980s, this theory is now most useful as a historical reference point.
One can see some elements of its philosophy, however, in the media-reform move-
ment that argues for-profit media have been harming democracy and claims some
news organizations should be publicly funded.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Visit a website for a non-U.S. media enterprise, such as Cana-
da’s The Globe and Mail (www.theglobeandmail.com), the British Broadcasting Corpora-
tion (www.bbc.com/news), or The Times of India (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.
com/international-home). What value, if any, do you see in visiting internationally pro-
duced news websites and in the content they present?
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The Public, the Public Sphere,

and Public Opinion
“The public” and “public opinion” are surprisingly complex concepts whose defini-
tions are still debated by scholars today. In some ways, the public can be consid-
ered an audience for governments or politicians, but this description would be an
oversimplification that fails to consider exactly how the public has evolved
throughout history, how it differs today from the public in the Middle Ages, for
example.
Most scholars agree that the notion of the public did not come about until the
late sixteenth or early seventeenth century, when Europe was beginning to enter
the modern era and governments were changing from monarchies to more repre-
bourgeoisie sentative forms of government. A new middle class arose, the bourgeoisie, which
A class of society that translates
began to recognize the differing economic and political interests of business, gov-
approximately to “middle class,” ernment, and citizens. More importantly, the bourgeoisie recognized themselves
distinguished from the aristocracy as a separate group, apart but also a part of government and economics. Through
above and the proletariat (or media of the day, primarily newspapers, pamphlets, journals, and other periodi-
workers) below.
cals, the bourgeoisie were able to communicate with each other about common
interests and challenge government policies that did not suit them.
The forums in which the bourgeoisie debated matters of public interest in-
cluded popular coffeehouses in England and salons in France, where material dis-
seminated in print publications inspired conversation and where a sense of
public sphere conventional wisdom developed through discussion among peers. The public
An idealized conversational forum
sphere, as first described by German social theorist and philosopher Jürgen
in which people discuss and debate Habermas, was an arena for rational-critical debate, where the best argument won
mutual interests and societal issues. the day and where rank or privilege took a backseat to the quest for knowledge and
truth. This ideal was not realized, of course, for a number of reasons. Women, for
example, played an integral role in French salons but were excluded from discus-
sion in bourgeoisie English coffeehouses.
Despite its many flaws in practice, the public sphere remains a rich concept in
theory, a popular subject in media and mass-communication research today. Many
scholars take a critical view, some argu-
ing that commercial media have taken
over the public forum and imposed new
forms of (often hidden) control over what
is discussed and how it is discussed. Hope
still exists, though, for the Internet to
rejuvenate the public sphere as a forum
where users discuss subjects of mutual
concern civilly and openly without fear
of  government censure or commercial
manipulation. Nevertheless, a coherent
public sphere in which all participants
abide by shared rules of rational argu-
ment and civic-mindedness, the Haber-
masian gold standard, has proven elusive,
Coffeehouses and salons in the eighteenth century were important locations for particularly given the diversity of people
development of the public sphere. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION: How might gender online and their various, often conflict-
have affected the substance and style of discussions in the coffeehouse compared to the
ing, interests and perspectives.
salon?
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 417

The public sphere is key to the formation of public opinion, itself a contested public opinion
concept, which can nevertheless be broadly defined as “what the public thinks.” The notion that the public, as a
Public opinion pertains directly to efforts to define who exactly “the public” is and group, can form shared views or
how a commonly shared opinion is formed and advanced. Is public opinion simply ideas about topics and that these
the aggregate of individual beliefs, writ large, or does it become something greater ideas guide the public’s actions.
than the sum of its parts? If so, how does it change? And what are the effects of
such changes?
The public is more complex than a mere mass of people, to which the enduring
debates over proper definitions attest. Many contemporary scholars question the
premise of a sole and united public, positing instead a multiplicity of publics and
spheres whose interests, agendas, and access to mainstream media vary. The more
recent theoretical concept of counterpublics recognizes a public forum of resist- counterpublics
ance for those who “perceive themselves to be excluded from or marginalized Public forums of resistance created
within mainstream or dominant publics and communicate about that marginality by those who consider themselves
or exclusion.”4 to be excluded from or marginalized
Public opinion, however it may be defined, is a foundational concern of de- within dominant media and
communication.
mocracies, and consequently so too are the media that create, shape, and spread
ideas that inform and influence public opinion. Few major policy decisions are
made without first testing the public waters to gauge their reaction. This is not to
suggest, however, that the government is controlled by what French political his-
torian Alexis de Tocqueville referred to in Democracy of America (1835) as the
tyranny of the majority. Various groups can manipulate public opinion for their tyranny of the majority
own ends, and an entire media industry—public relations—exists for the primary A situation in which governmental
purpose of swaying public opinion with campaigns that cast their clients and their laws and policies benefit the
policies in the most attractive light possible. majority without concern for the
PR professionals are not the only ones who can influence the masses. Just as welfare or rights of other groups or
individuals.
the bourgeoisie in eighteenth-century coffeehouses found themselves with power-
ful new tools of mass communication, the range of media platforms people enjoy
today has expanded, the result of advanced digital technology. We can start online
petitions on any topic we choose, create sites that complain about products or
parody politicians, post news scoops on blogs or videos of embarrassing moments
in the lives of public and private figures, and act as citizen-journalists reporting
injustices that other media may choose to ignore. Examples of this include the
2011 revolutions in several Arab countries. During the Arab Spring, people posted
powerful images that the government-controlled media in those countries would
not publish, for fear—proven correct—that it would sway public opinion.
Clearly, democratic countries are not the only nations that use social media to
advance political and humanitarian causes. When a major earthquake hit China’s
Sichuan province on April 20, 2013, killing 20,000 persons, China’s social-
networking communities instantly went into action. One microblogger, Zuoyeben,
who had some 5.6 million followers, posted a call for help for victims. Followers
retweeted his post, prompting a wave of volunteerism and donations. A similar
appeal from Li Chengpeng, a Chinese sportscaster with 7 million followers on
Sina Weibo (a Chinese site similar to Twitter), yielded five hundred tents and more
than twelve hundred blankets, all within two days of the quake.
Social media have also provided a forum to expose local corruption in China,
even leading to the prosecution of some public officials. The government only
allows citizens a voice, however, when it aligns with governmental interests, such
as President Xi Jinping’s anti-corruption campaign. In March 2015, for example, a
documentary appeared on YouTube entitled Under the Dome about the severe air
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pollution in many Chinese cities that forces school children to play “outside” under
plastic domes. The video struck a nerve with the Chinese public and quickly went
viral. The Chinese government, despite initially approving the content, subse-
quently decided the topic could undermine its authority and removed the video
from websites, effectively sending a clear message that the subject was not to be
discussed publicly.

Political and Socioeconomic Issues

with Global Media
Radio and television are frequently used to reach remote agricultural regions in
developing countries with information on health issues, agricultural techniques,
and government policies. Broadcast stations are often among the first places taken
in a coup because those in power—or those wishing to gain power—recognize the
importance of controlling the distribution of information. Print media often
foster business development in a region, although their effectiveness is limited in
countries with low literacy rates or many different languages. In the networked,
digital age, authoritarian governments increasingly monitor media, censoring or
shutting down digital and mobile communications seen as threats to the existing
regime or social order.
Foreign governments tend to control the content of their mass-communication
organizations, especially television and radio, as well as online and mobile
communications, far more than in the United States. In some cases, broadcasting
stations are entirely government owned or run, and access can be limited by
licensing restrictions for television sets or media devices such as satellite dishes.

MEDIA IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

The media and companion communication technologies are instruments of eco-
nomic development throughout the world. Western companies hoping to take ad-
vantage of cheap labor costs in other nations look for developed infrastructure,
including transportation routes and communication networks—in addition, of
course, to stable governments and corporate-friendly policies, such as low taxes.
Countries like India have become sources of relatively cheap software and
computer-programming workers as well as home to database and information-
processing centers. India’s generally well-educated workforce who speaks English
makes it well positioned to profit from meeting low-end information-economy
needs such as scanning documents, transcribing documents, and providing tech-
nical support for computer makers and software companies. It has also become a
major producer of content, especially recorded music, motion pictures, and news
media.
Some countries in Africa have been making similar moves toward fulfilling
the information-processing needs of industrial countries. A data-processing com-
pany in Ghana, for example, inputs minor violations that occur in New York City,
ranging from parking tickets to jaywalking. For Ghanaian workers, the pay and
the working conditions are better than many other industries can offer, although
hours are long and breaks short by Western standards.
Critics argue that moving information-processing work overseas is no
different than sending factories there to obtain cheaper labor and avoid
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 419

CONVERGENCE CULTURE
Through a PRISM of Global Surveillance
Breaking news has become a global media phenomenon around the world was swift. Some applauded Snowden for
with worldwide repercussions. In the late spring of 2013, the blowing the whistle on the top-secret program perceived as
United Kingdom’s Guardian news site published a story that an egregious intrusion into citizens’ privacy. Others called
affected people and politics around the globe, riveting the for his arrest along with those who had published the
public, pundits, and politicians for story, alleging they were coconspira-
months. It involved the existence and tors, spies, and traitors who had vio-
nature of the U.S. government’s top- lated federal law.
secret surveillance program known as Media around the world subse-
PRISM. quently tracked the whereabouts of
The Guardian revealed that the Snowden, who fled the United States to
National Security Agency (NSA) had seek asylum abroad. Relegated to five
tapped into the servers of major digital weeks of limbo in a Russian airport,
communications and media enterprises— Snowden was finally allowed to remain
including Google, Apple, and Microsoft— in Russia, a decision that caused a rift in
to monitor the online communications U.S./Russia relations.6 Snowden has
and activity of many foreign nationals since been granted three-year residency
and some U.S. citizens. Although many there, with the possibility to apply for
had suspected that governments con- citizenship after five years.
ducted online surveillance, few if any The media question whether pri-
foresaw the extent of the NSA program vacy can exist in an age of ubiquitous
and the far-reaching consequences of a digital communications and whether it
project whose stated purpose was specifically the detection of should in an age of international terrorism. Years later, jour-
terrorist plots. nalists and academics continue to examine this epic leak of
When the Guardian reported that former NSA contrac- top-secret documents, particularly its impact on interna-
tor Edward Snowden had provided top-secret documents tional relations and future governmental surveillance and
detailing the massive digital surveillance program, 5 reaction counterterrorism efforts.

pollution problems and employee-benefits

costs. Others who support this trend, how-
ever, respond that the information technol-
ogy (IT) industry is not like industrial-era
factories: It is generally nonpolluting. It can
be created using existing buildings. And em-
ployees receive training and education on the
job that makes them qualified for other jobs
within information societies. The hope is
that developing countries can avoid the worst
effects of the industrial age as they move di-
rectly into the information age, although this
remains to be seen.
Some factors hinder the growth of IT in
these countries. Excessive government regu-
lation often impedes the creation of telecom- Outsourcing IT services to developing countries has provided new job opportunities for
munication infrastructure that could better workers in those countries.
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reach all citizens within a country. A lack of other infrastructure, such as regular
electrical power, political instability, and policy changes—all these can hurt the
development of telecommunication technologies.
To attract Western businesses, Singapore, Malaysia, and other Southeast Asia
nations have been promoting themselves as high-speed Internet ecommerce
zones. They promise a broadband infrastructure enabling the production and dis-
tribution of video and other media content, especially to mobile users. Yet from a
cultural or political perspective, rather than a technical one, the free flow of infor-
mation raises important concerns. Singapore strictly controls most forms of
media, even banning certain Western newspapers critical of the government; and
it attempts to control citizens’ access to the Internet, restrictions that Western
companies, especially media organizations, may not abide.

SEARCHING FOR TRUTH: SELFCENSORSHIP IN CHINA

China has also become increasingly attractive to Western media as growing num-
bers of this massive market go online. Similar to Singapore, however, China’s re-
strictions on the press and Internet access remain at odds with Western practices
and policies. China blocks a wide range of websites, those that publish pornogra-
phy or that criticize the government, mentioning, for example, the 1989 protests
and deaths in Tiananmen Square or the banned group Falun Gong.
Reporters Without Borders publishes an annual index highlighting obstacles
to and violations of press freedom of information around the world. Scores on the
World Press Freedom Index are based on a weighted scheme of seven different in-
dicators: pluralism, media independence, environment and self-censorship, legis-
lative framework, transparency, infrastructure, and abuses. (See Figure 14-1.) In
2015, it reported a decline on all fronts.
The 2015 World Press Freedom Index ranks China 176 out of 180 countries,
continuing to identify it as one the worst violators of press freedom. Earlier,
Reporters Without Borders noted that since Xi Jinping took office, “the authori-
ties have arrested more journalists and bloggers, cracked down harder on
cyber- dissidents, reinforced online content control and censorship and stepped
up restrictions on the foreign media.” 7 Vietnam, ranked in 2015 only one rung
above China, introduced a law in 2013 that banned sharing developments in
the news on blogs and social media. Reporters Without Borders describes
Decree 71 as part of “an all-out offensive against the new-generation Internet,
which [Vietnam] sees as a dangerous counterweight to the domesticated tradi-
tional media.”8
In 2006, Google was roundly criticized when the company chose to censor
itself to enter the Chinese search engine market. Many observers noted the irony
in Google’s “Don’t Be Evil” mantra regarding its business philosophy and won-
dered how the search engine giant could rationalize its decision not to include full
access to sites on the Internet. Google responded that providing some access, with
the hope that it might help China open its media system more, was better than
offering nothing at all. Despite compromises made to enter to the Internet market
in China, Google still remains less popular there than homegrown search engine
company Baidu.
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 421

FIGURE 141 2015 World Press Freedom Index

Kalaallit Nunaat

Scores range from 0 to 100, with 0 representing the highest Rank Country Country Score
degree of press freedom and 100 the lowest. The world map 1 Finland 7.52
divides 180 nations into five categories: 8 Canada 10.99
18 Poland 12.71
White: good situation, from 0 to 15 points (21 countries) 34 United Kingdom 20.0
42 Botswana 22.91
49 United States 24.41
Yellow: satisfactory situation, from 15.01 to 25 points
57 Argentina 26.11
(31 countries)
73 Italy 27.94
101 Israel 32.09
Orange: noticeable problems, from 25.01 to 35 points 122 Afghanistan 37.44
(62 countries) 136 India 40.49
152 Russian Federation 44.97
Red: difficult situation, from 35.01 to 55 points (46 countries) 164 Saudi Arabia 59.41
176 China 73.55
Black: very serious situation, from 55.01 to 100 (20 countries) 180 Eritrea 84.86

Source: Reporters Sans Frontières, http://index.rsf.org/#!/

Yahoo faced heavy criticism from the press a year earlier when the company
provided user information requested by the Chinese government that helped put
a Chinese journalist in jail for ten years. As long as the Communist government in
China maintains strict controls over media access and the types of content al-
lowed, Western media companies will have some difficult ethical choices to make
if they do business in China.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Find the most recent World Press Freedom Index on the web-
site for Reporters Without Borders. Guess the ranking for your country before looking
closely at the index, then discuss why it might be ranked higher or lower than where you
expected. Do you agree with the reasons cited by the index?
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THE DIGITAL DIVIDE

Nearly 80 percent of people in developed nations have Internet
access. For some countries, such as Iceland, Sweden, and Norway,
the number is over 90 percent. As more people get online, however,
the gap widens between those who have access to the Internet and
those who don’t. Existing within and between nations, the digital
divide is particularly acute for broadband, high-speed, wireless,
and mobile Internet access. Because Internet access generally
has  a  cost attached—in equipment and establishing a network
connection—this gap reflects larger socioeconomic trends that al-
Baidu is the homegrown search engine rival of Google in ready separate citizens. Some experts and policy makers worry
China. that, if ignored, the digital divide could have increasingly serious
negative consequences for society.
In the United States, early Internet users tended to be more wealthy and edu-
digital divide
cated than later users. Given the importance of the information economy, some
The gap between regions and observers fear that the poor or less educated could fall even further behind given
demographics that have access to the distinct advantages of being connected, increasing the capacity to get impor-
modern, digital-communications
technology and those that have
tant information, make decisions, and improve social and economic status. Interna-
limited or no access. tionally, Internet usage has grown, particularly among consumers of mobile media.
Yet the digital divide persists, for those with low incomes are hard pressed to afford
even the least expensive smartphone, tablet computer, or wireless service.
The digital divide is apparent when looking at the different rates of Internet
penetration across global regions and countries, as seen in Figure 14-2. Although
the world average for Internet penetration is 42.4 percent, rates vary significantly
from region to region. Consider, for example, North America’s 86.9 percent and
Africa’s 27.5 percent. But such percentages tell only part of the story. Another
perspective on Internet access addresses the actual number of people who are
using the Web in different countries. There are now more users in Asia than
Europe, North America, and Latin America combined, despite having an Internet
penetration of only 34.8 percent, slightly below the world average. This suggests
that Asian users will truly dominate Internet access across the globe once users in
Asia reach the percentages now shown for North America and Europe.
These figures are always increasing, although at different rates. Africa has
shown remarkable growth in Internet penetration since 2000, growing nearly
7,000 percent. Expansion in the Middle East has also been considerable, more
than 3,300 percent since 2000. Asia has grown more than 1,100 percent in Inter-
net penetration during the same period, and even developed countries have in-
creased their Internet penetration rates since 2000 by between 450 percent
(Europe) and 187 percent (the United States). Yet even with this pervasive growth,
many people still lack Internet access.
Access to the Internet is one component, but access to high-quality informa-
tion is also important. Lowbrow entertainment does little to inform or educate
the public. Mere access, therefore, will not bridge the digital divide if users lack
the critical-thinking skills to discern high-quality information and employ it for
helpful purposes, or if access is limited to a barrage of reality or game shows that
Providing affordable technology to do little to further public knowledge of important issues and events in the world.
access the Internet is only part of Thus, the digital divide issue has two major components. The first factor is
solving the digital divide; the other part
involves teaching users how to be technological: providing communications technologies and access to the Internet.
critical consumers of information. Computers, software, and other tools need to be purchased, and a relatively small
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 423

FIGURE 142 World Internet Users and Penetration Rates

45.6%
18.
9

%
10.1%
Europe Asia

North America 582,400,000 1,405,100,000

310,300,000 70.4%
3.7% 34.8%

Middle East
86.9%
113,600,000
48.1%
10.5%

Latin America/
Carribean 10.3%
Percentage of world internet users
322,400,000 Africa Geographic region 0.9%
Oceania/Australia
52.4% 318,600,000 Number of internet users
27.5% Penetration rate percentage 26,800,000
72.1%

Source: Internet World Stats; www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm

Internet subscription fee for someone in the West may constitute an entire
month’s wages for someone in a developing country. The second factor is educa-
tional: teaching people how best to benefit from the online communication tools
available to them. Entertainment will always be an attractive category of online
media, but it is not the sole genre available to the more affluent, nor should it be
for the less privileged.
Complex political and socioeconomic issues such as the digital divide and the
role of the Internet in society require long-term commitments to widespread
dialog. Such discussions must also consider larger quality-of-life issues such as
basic health care, clean water, and education. Corporate concerns may ultimately
prevail over public interests, particularly if companies feel such discussions
threaten profits. Media will help (or hamper) this inquiry, although their role may
not always be apparent.

Global Media, Local Values

Media content that exposes audiences to different lifestyles and cultures provides
access to new worlds and new ways of thinking. The Web has further expanded
the possibilities for exploration, especially with video-sharing sites such as
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YouTube and a proliferation of other social media. But given the impact of concen-
trated media ownership on the production of media content, questions arise re-
garding the actual diversity of voices heard. Yes, there are more cable channels
than ever, but how fundamentally diverse are many of the police crime shows or
reality TV programs, and how many DIY (do-it-yourself) channels such as HGTV
do viewers need?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Most media organizations rely increasingly on digital paywalls

for revenue, but is it fair to expect the economically disadvantaged to pay for news and
entertainment content? What might be done to address the problem of the global digital
divide?

NEW WORLDSOR CULTURAL IMPERIALISM?

The global reach of media giants and their ability to promote their programming
cultural imperialism in foreign markets raises the issue of cultural imperialism: when a foreign coun-
A condition that occurs when a
try dominates a domestic media market through an influx of its products. The
powerful foreign country large viewership for current and past shows imported from the United States,
dominates a domestic media such as NCIS, House, Grey’s Anatomy, and The Simpsons, suggests that this program-
market through an influx of its ming meets some need unfulfilled by domestic television fare.
products.
This may be true to some extent because many countries that cannot afford to
create shows with high production values air local programs that appear relatively
amateurish in visual quality. Precisely because of the flood of media imports,
however, many domestic television and movie production companies may not get
a chance to develop fully. Countries with small populations can also discourage
the growth of robust movie and television industries, as high production costs
cannot be recouped in limited markets, especially when the local language is not
widespread.
Of great concern from an ethical perspective to many in these countries is the
possibility that citizens are absorbing alien cultural values in conflict with domes-
tic ones. People in a conservative Muslim nation, for instance, may object to the
frequently explicit content in many American television shows or movies. Al-
though such exposure can encourage viewers to question governmental positions
on freedom and democracy, shows such as Grey’s Anatomy do not necessarily deal
with political topics in any meaningful way. Still, critics argue that appreciation of
and pride in traditional culture may be undermined with a slickly produced, ideal-
ized version of what it is to be American. People may lose touch with native tradi-
tions and values as they adopt distorted values based on skewed, unrealistic
images of the United States.
Hegemony is the claim that the ideas of the ruling class translate into the
media hegemony ideas that rule the masses in society. Media hegemony, as explained by scholars
A condition that occurs when
such as Italian Antonio Gramsci, is a concept that asserts the dominant class in
dominant groups in society control society control the mass media, largely through ownership. A Marxist economic
the mass media, largely through concept, hegemony is rooted in the belief that the content of the mass media in
ownership. the United States is designed to cater to the interests of the capitalist ruling elite
and maintain the status quo, keeping those with wealth and in power wealthy and
powerful. Hegemony suggests that a U.S.-driven global media system will turn the
world into a giant commercial marketplace, and there is some evidence to support
this view.
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 425

A contradictory body of research exists regarding the hegemonic nature of

media content. The work of professional journalists, socialized according to cer-
tain widely held guidelines and routines, is increasingly being complemented and
often contested by that of citizen reporters, freelancers, and public service jour-
nalists with diverse methods, procedures, and perspectives. And although some
news stories may resonate around the world, reports vary, with different accounts
that are not perceived as equally credible. For instance, during the early days of
the most recent war in Iraq, most mainstream U.S. news media supported the
position that the distinct possibility of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq justi-
fied military action. Yet at the same time, media beyond American borders chal-
lenged this claim, which proved ultimately to be false.
There is also little evidence that most journalists around the world tend to
present pro-American positions and negative coverage of other countries. Since
the early 2000s, independent international reporting has grown, and sources
such as the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Japan’s Asahi Shimbun, and
Argentina’s Clarin have featured voices emanating from diverse perspectives free
of American influence. Britain is also known for world-famous
Moreover, global media production and viewership in the entertainment and cultural products such as the Beatles,
James Bond, Adele, the 2012 Summer
sports realms have grown dramatically in the digital age as production costs have
Olympics, and the royal family.
fallen and distribution possibilities have increased. Consider the success of India’s CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS:
Bollywood, the Hindi-language movie industry based in Mumbai. While the name When do cultural exports become a
evokes America’s Hollywood, Bollywood movies have their own distinct character form of cultural imperialism? How
would your media consumption be
and flavor that have proven to be hugely popular with both Indian and non-Indian affected if you were to limit it to
audiences around the world. The 2014 film PK, the top-grossing film of all time in American products only?
India, has made over $110 million worldwide in box office receipts, only half of
which were generated domestically in India. Of course, Bollywood, like Holly-
wood, is a highly commercial system of motion picture entertainment, although
its stories may differ.
Still, scholars such as Robert McChesney maintain that American hegemony
shapes global digital media.9 Google and Facebook are Internet corporate giants.
Apple also plays a leading role on the world stage, with iTunes and its hugely popu-
lar mobile devices. Yet there are countervailing trends and forces. In 2014, for ex-
ample, South Korea’s Samsung sold more smartphones than Apple.10 In 2012, the
year not coincidentally that London hosted the Summer Olympics, Great Britain
topped Monocle magazine’s list of the most culturally influential nations, beating
the United States for the first time.11

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: How powerful a force is American hegemony in global digital

media? What specific cultural products, trends, and events, both historical and current,
support your view?

CONVERGENCE AND ITS DISCONTENTS

In Civilization and Its Discontents, Sigmund Freud, the famous Viennese creator of
psychoanalysis, articulated what he saw as the basic tension between the individ-
ual and civilization.12 This tension, according to Freud, stems from the instinctive
desire of the individual for freedom that conflicts with civilization’s inherent need
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for order and stability achieved through the imposition of standard norms of be-
havior, or social conformity.
Similar tensions arise between global media and local culture. At its best, local
culture provides a rich tapestry of diverse ideas, customs, and behaviors that can
be presented on the world stage. Because of its global reach and impact, media
convergence can provide unprecedented access to this richness but also generate
conflict among diverse values. Ultimately, media convergence may also encourage
increased cultural homogeneity, particularly given the common ownership of var-
ious media types (horizontal integration), such as book publishers, newspaper
chains, and TV station groups.

MEDIA PIONEERS
Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed Karim
given its international founders.15 Chad
Hurley was born and raised in Pennsyl-
vania. Steve Chen, born in Taiwan, emi-
grated to the United States when he
was 15. Jawed Karim was born in
Germany, the son of a Bangladeshi
father and a German mother, who emi-
grated to America in 1992.
Like so many digital innovations,
YouTube was a collaborative effort of
young people: Its founders were in
their late twenties when it launched.
Chen and Karim studied computer sci-
ence at the University of Illinois, leaving
there to join PayPal, a new venture in
California. Hurley, a graduate of Indiana
University of Pennsylvania, became a
designer at PayPal. After profiting from
eBay’s $1.5 billion purchase of PayPal in
Only since 2005 have we been able to see events global and 2002,16 they sought out new projects. The universal difficulty
local, past and present, historic and mundane, whenever we in sharing video online was their inspiration for YouTube,
choose. Whether it be the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, a and the rest is global history.
Beyoncé concert, an interview with Russian President Vladi- In less than two years after its inception, YouTube was
mir Putin, or just “me at the zoo” (the first YouTube video up- sold to Google for $1.65 billion in stock.17 After YouTube,
loaded), YouTube has forever changed our capacity to Chen and Hurley founded AVOS. Chen then left to join
observe the activities of others and to display our own. In any Google Ventures as an entrepreneur in residence, while
month this year, more than 1 billion individuals will view a Hurley focused AVOS efforts on developing video-sharing
YouTube video, and more than a hundred hours of video will service MixBit.18 Karim left shortly after the sale, earning a
be uploaded in less time than it takes you to read this box.13 master’s degree in computer science at Stanford University.
In 2013, YouTube became “the leading source of Internet Subsequently, he founded Y Ventures that seeks to “help
traffic in the entire world.”14 That some 60 percent of You- talented teams with innovative products to take the next
Tube views come from outside a creator’s country is apt, step.”19
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 427

On the other hand, digital technology can also disempower companies that
have traditionally controlled media production and distribution. Authors, for ex-
ample, can self-publish and sell their works on sites such as Amazon, bypassing
traditional publishers and bookstores. Digital technology also offers the potential
for new players (such as Apple and Google) to enter the field of media production
and distribution. It is important to consider who benefits financially from these
transformations and what cultural consequences may ensue.
Digital music distribution is another domain where media convergence may
create cultural conflict. For example, within months of Apple’s 2003 launch of the
iTunes Store, music distribution to its iPod helped Apple achieve dominance in the
music market through downloads, subscriptions, and other services. By 2005, Ap-
ple’s iTunes store branched out into the delivery of video; and by 2013, iTunes had
begun delivering other forms of media content including books, newspapers, and
magazines. The cultural consequences of a dominant horizontally integrated digi-
tal media distribution system could be profound. Such a system could increasingly
foster a consumer culture worldwide as it shapes global tastes. The fundamental
question remains: Does media convergence foster greater cultural uniformity, or
does it advance cultural variety by enabling diverse groups to produce and con-
sume cultural products (such as a book, a movie, or a website) of their choice?

GLOBALIZATION OF MEDIA PRODUCTION

Media production has increasingly become an international phenomenon. One of
the principal forms this takes is the international coproduction of movies and
television shows, which has become much more common since the early 1990s.
For example, the blockbuster film Iron Man 3 was coproduced in China by the Walt
Disney Company and China’s DMG Entertainment Group. Coproductions allow
companies with differing strengths and capabilities to combine creative, financial,
and technological resources across countries. They also offer international loca-
tions for storytelling.
Typically, such coproductions involve international treaties and regulations,
with host countries often providing tax incentives to the companies involved.
They also often receive public funding that can enhance production budgets. As a
result, movies and television shows coproduced internationally have significant
economic benefits for both American and foreign media companies. Coproduc-
tions were once conceived as a means to increase collaboration between countries
with large and small production industries.20 Ideally, coproductions feature mate-
rial intended for and generated by local markets whose lone funding is inadequate
to support the high production values seen in American movies and television
shows that typically dominate the market. In the case of Iron Man 3, four minutes
of extra footage of Chinese actors with whom local viewers could identify were
added to the Chinese version of the film.
Rather than creating culturally relevant or authentic programming, however,
coproductions often recreate common Hollywood media derived from popular
genres. These include reality series, adventure shows, situation comedies, science
fiction, and the like. In the end, economics drives global media program produc-
tion and distribution. Increasingly, Hollywood executives make movies with a
global market in mind, shaping both the selection of subject matter and the
manner in which stories are told. Local, authentic culture tends to take a backseat.
Kathleen Kennedy, president of Lucasfilm, identifies the globalization of
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audiences and the industry as one of the greatest challenges currently confronting
Hollywood. As countries increasingly and rightly want to create their own content
and tell their own stories, “it puts the pressure on the creative community to ac-
knowledge and recognize that it’s a bigger world and you need to tell many, many
different kinds of stories.”21

GLOBAL MEDIA FLOW

In the mid-1970s and 1980s, the United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cul-
tural Organization (UNESCO) led a global examination of the flow of news and
media entertainment around the world, dubbed the New World Information and
Communication Order (NWICO). The UNESCO-sponsored discussion and debate
identified a number of important issues, such as long-standing concerns about
the dominant influence of media from the developed world and media cover-
age  of the developing world. Another matter was the role of new technologies
with important military and commercial uses, including satellite and computer
technologies.
Advances in digital technology since the 1970s have altered the debate about
intercultural communication, regional coexistence, and the relative dominance
of the developed world. Mass-media content, including movies and television
shows, has tended to move from the developed world, particularly the United
States, to less-developed countries. Moreover, the launch of satellite and cable
systems around the world has facilitated a multichannel viewing environment in
many places, enabling international viewing on an extraordi-
nary level.
Research also indicates that Western news agencies have his-
torically produced as much as 80 percent of the news distributed
globally. Some observers fear that this reporting often reflects
the priorities of news agencies based in New York, London, or
Paris and focuses on topics such as natural disasters and military
coups rather than the basic realities of poverty, pollution, and un-
employment. This situation has improved more recently, how-
ever, with the growth of social media, citizen reporting, and
regional news agencies such as Al Arabiya in the Middle East.
Advertising agencies and marketers of goods and services in
the developed world also tend to dominate the world’s global
media system, with commercial messages from the West often
featuring significantly in many international markets. Since the
1980s, most companies, recognizing the cultural diversity and
sensitivities in various markets, adapt their messages to the local
market. But the process is not seamless. In 2012, Ikea apologized
for digitally removing women from its product catalog for distri-
bution in Saudi Arabia.22 The global company believed it had
been  appropriately adapting its commercial message for local
Islamic sensibilities regarding the representation of women in
photographs. Once the newspaper Metro in Ikea’s native Sweden
reported these alterations, though, the story stirred such contro-
versy in the West that the company backtracked, stating it re-
Western backlash forced Ikea to apologize for having digitally
removed images of women from its catalog produced for and gretted this editorial decision not in keeping with its corporate
distributed in Saudi Arabia. values.
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 429

PROTECTING LOCAL VOICES

Many media critics argue that Western media, typically profit-driven and pri-
vately owned and operated, not only dominate the global flow of news and enter-
tainment media but also carry a commercial or corporate bias. To counterbalance
the influx of foreign commercial media, many countries around the world have
sought to develop internally more authentic, culturally relevant media program-
ming and content for their citizens. Although these initiatives to promote national
media content often involve government funding and other incentives to buy or,
as the case may be, broadcast locally, these media efforts may also succeed in at-
tracting a more global audience.

Some Developing Nations

Many alternative sources of local media content now exist in developing countries
to help redress the historical dominance of Western information and entertain-
ment, especially from American media companies. In Asia, examples include In-
dia’s Bollywood, films that tend to reflect indigenous culture and traditions. In
Africa, GhanaWeb reports local and national news and information.
In Australia or Brazil, for example, indigenous peo-
ples, who often live in rural areas, promote a message of
environmental stewardship and respect for the earth. Yet
people of indigenous heritage often suffer disproportion-
ately from poverty and other social ills, their marginal-
ized voices drowned out by dominant world media.
“Consider that indigenous peoples make up just 5 percent
of the world’s population,” explained Kanavo F. Nwanze,
president of the International Fund for Agricultural De-
velopment (IFAD). “But they are 15 percent of those living
in poverty.”23
IFAD financed the 2012 launch of the first commu-
nity radio station in Malaysia. Bario Radio enables indig-
enous Malaysians to make vital contributions to the local
and global dialog on environmental sustainability and Genghis Khan’s empire took over much of Asia at the speed of his
poverty with stories about the environmental impact of mounted armies, but today the world can reach even remote areas in
development on Central Borneo, for example, and the Mongolia at the speed of light.

disastrous consequences of global warming. Bario Radio

also confronts stereotypes and affirms indigenous peoples’ rights and identities.
Indigenous, noncommercial media complement the dominant, for-profit
media channels from the West. They tell seldom-heard stories of those frequently
marginalized by the economically powerful institutions that sponsor and control
most commercial media. Known globally for rich oral traditions, indigenous voices
are especially well suited to the use of community radio, online video, and social
media. These tools have allowed them to inform and educate local audiences while
reaching global ones.

A Neighbo(u)ring Nation
Many governments fund the internal production of music and other media arts as
well as news and information sources. Although the United States provides lim-
ited funding for such endeavors through the National Endowment for the Arts
(NEA) and the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB), its neighbor to the
430 PART 4 >> MEDIA AND SOCIETY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

north has extensive programs. In 1957, Canada created the Council for the Arts to
“foster and promote the study and enjoyment of, and the production of works in,
the arts.”24 Production grants are awarded in a variety of artistic fields, including
media arts, writing, and publishing. Such initiatives help offset commercial influ-
ences in imported mainstream media while promoting artistic innovation and ex-
pression at home.
In 1968, a broadcasting act was also passed that ensured Canadian voices and
stories access to Canadian airwaves. Radio and television broadcasts must feature
a high percentage of “CanCon”—Canadian content created primarily by Canadian
talent. At least 35 percent of the popular music broadcast on commercial radio
stations between 6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. Monday to Friday must be Canadian. On
CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation), the national public radio and televi-
sion broadcaster, 50 percent Canadian popular music content is required.25
The digital distribution of media content, though, is circumventing these and
similar long-standing regulations intended to strengthen Canada culturally, so-
cially, and economically. American provider Netflix proved an attractive option
for Canadians once it crossed the border, although the content Canadians may
choose to stream is more limited. Canadians engage more with video than Ameri-
cans, however, spending 5.1 more hours per month watching videos online.26 “The
competition in digital is, more or less, borderless,” says Neil McEneaney, interim
executive vice-president of CBC’s English Services, “and many of those competi-
tors have access to vast content resources and deep pockets.”27

PROMOTING GLOBAL VOICES

Farther abroad, similar initiatives have also been implemented. The Doha Film
Institute in the Middle East, for example, receives arts funding from the govern-
ment, with financial support from the Qatar Foundation. Also based in Qatar is
the Al Jazeera Network, a pan-Arab news service and media company launched in
1996 with $137 million in funding from the emir of Qatar. Al Jazeera was the only
international news organization with correspondents in Iraq during Operation
Desert Fox in 1998, a U.S. military operation.28 By 1999, Al Jazeera had begun
broadcasting 24 hours daily, and it became increasingly well known for its cover-
age of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
In January 2013, it acquired former vice president and Nobel Laureate
Al  Gore’s Current TV. Paying an estimated $500 million for the cable channel,
Al Jazeera almost instantly gained a significant foothold in the American televi-
sion market. Al Jazeera English, which debuted in 2006, reached only 4.7 million
U.S. households. Launched in 2013, Al Jazeera America (AJAM), their new
English-language 24-hour cable and satellite news channel, is available in over 64
million U.S. households. The new AJAM channel, headquartered in New York City,
has some two hundred journalists with several news bureaus around the country
to build news programming content. It competes with other cable and satellite
news channels, such as CNN, Fox, and MSNBC.
Al Jazeera has positioned itself as an impartial news source. Yet some con-
tend the network offers a pro-Arab slant, while others claim its perspective is
anti-Arab. “The network’s weaknesses,” notes observer Everette E. Dennis, dean
of Northwestern University in Qatar, “are a lingering reputation that conjures up
images of Al Qaeda videotapes, mostly a thing of the past if still etched in
memory; suspicions about the network’s obligations to the Qatari government;
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 431

With its 2012 acquisition of Current TV, Al Jazeera brings news and other types of programming in the
Middle East and beyond to an increasingly global audience. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION: What
concerns, if any, do you have about the increasing presence of Al Jazeera programming in the United
States, and why?

and a general anti-Arab bias which is still something of an ‘acceptable’ prejudice

in the U.S.”29
Criticism notwithstanding, Al Jazeera has developed a reputation for quality
journalism, specifically, according to the Index on Censorship, for combatting cen-
sorship and contributing to the free and open exchange of news and information
in the Arab world. Al Jazeera has also won numerous American awards for news
coverage, such as the Peabody Award, the Columbia University Journalism Award,
and the People’s Choice Award.
The Al Jazeera Network operates multiple sports channels, a children’s chan-
nel, and a documentary channel. Other international Al Jazeera channels include
Al Jazeera Balkans (a Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian-languages channel that debuted
in 2011) and Al Jazeera Turk. Al Jazeera English is known for The Stream, a TV and
online program based on social media, especially Twitter. Competition for regional
news coverage in the Arab world has grown, however, since the Arab Spring of
2011. For example, Al Arabiya, founded in 2003 by a group of Saudi investors, has
captured a significant share of the region’s audience.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Compare and contrast treatment of a global issue or recent

big news event as reported by Al Jazeera America and another news site such as CNN or
Fox News. What are some of the key differences in how the story is presented and told?

CYBERSECURITY AND MEDIA

Media convergence—technological, economic, and cultural—continues to bring
countries and peoples closer together and in so doing produces new challenges,
not only for local cultural identity but also for global national security. Backlash
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against American foreign policy sometimes takes the form of cybercrime. Hackers
from various countries have attempted to break into Western computer networks,
often with considerable success. In early 2013, cybercriminals hacked the systems
of several digital-media companies. A Chinese-based group hacked Apple, Face-
book, and even Google, according to the FBI. The same or a related group also at-
tacked news organizations, including the Washington Post and the New York
Times.30 In late 2014, North Korea hacked Sony Pictures, and the ensuing scandal
rocked Hollywood. In mid-2015, a hacking group based in China accessed the pri-
vate information of four million U.S. federal employees.
In St. Petersburg, Russia, a group called the Internet Research Agency has
been known to coordinate complex disinformation campaigns using social media,
fake websites, doctored news footage, and multiple Twitter accounts that target
influential Twitter users to maximize the spread of their messages. These tech-
niques promote pro-Kremlin messages but also to try to provoke panic by claim-
ing (and ostensibly showing) supposed terrorist acts, such as a bombing of a
chemical plant in Louisiana on the anniversary of 9/11, an incident that did not in
fact occur.31
As the nature of online cybercrime has evolved to include cyberterrorism, the
United States has made cybersecurity a top national defense priority. The Com-
merce Department is working with both technology and media companies to de-
velop rules and protocols for sharing online-threat information with the
government as well as strategies for cyberdefense. President Obama defended the
PRISM surveillance program as vital in the war against terrorism, while others
praised NSA whistle-blower Edward Snowden as a champion of the individual’s
rights to civil liberty and privacy.
For the media and for society, the truth likely lies somewhere in between.
United States Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black argued that constitutional pro-
tection was necessary to empower a free press that should hold the government
publicly accountable for secrets and deceptions.32 Yet, without the tools to combat
terrorist threats, the government cannot protect its citizens. A sustainable bal-
ance must be struck between the competing interests of freedom, security, and
public accountability.

MEDIA CAREERS

As the fields of journalism, advertising, PR, and entertainment media are all prac-
ticed all over the world, opportunities abound for people with foreign-language
skills. Fluent professionals can successfully navigate the local media in the re-
gion’s native language while working in English-language media abroad or operate
exclusively in the local language.
The United Nations (UN) and a variety of nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs) need people with good professional communication skills in the field of
development communication, an enterprise intended to improve the lives of
locals. These campaigns focus on health communication, education, and environ-
mental or wildlife conservation, among other areas. Communication students
who major or minor in political science, international relations, foreign languages,
sociology, anthropology, education, or one of the life sciences could be well-
positioned for jobs with NGOs in foreign countries.
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 433

Typical PR functions also exist in this field, such as media relations, publicity
and promotion, and donor and volunteer recruitment. These jobs could take you to
developing nations but are just as likely to be based at an NGO’s main office in a
developed country. With field offices throughout the world and many large re-
gional offices in big cities, besides its New York headquarters, the UN strongly
encourages employees to request postings in various locations every few years to
expand their range of knowledge and skills.
In addition to the obvious interest in foreign cultures, a successful
development-communication professional must be able to readily adapt to local
customs. This career is ideally suited to people who love to travel and experience
foreign cultures in depth but who are also willing to accept hardships, sometimes
dangerous living conditions, and often a lower standard of living (e.g., everything
from regular electricity to flush toilets may be considered a luxury, depending on
the country).

LOOKING BACK AND MOVING FORWARD

Globalization is transforming media as digital and networking technologies

enable media empire building. These conglomerates can overwhelm local media
enterprises and stifle indigenous voices. While government funding for interna-
tional coproductions may help support authentic, local media, it does little to
improve access for the masses who lack the means to buy an iPad, iPhone, An-
droid, or Windows mobile device or subscribe to broadband telecommunications
service.
The consequences of this problem, especially acute in developing nations, in-
clude reduced access not only to entertainment but also to ecommerce, public af-
fairs news, and educational content. Although nearly 80 percent of the world’s
population has Internet access, the digital divide is widening between those with
access and those without. As media have become more digital and networked,
costly broadband or high-speed Internet service has become near ubiquitous in
developed nations, exacerbating this disparity. Moreover, a growing number of
digital-media enterprises on the global stage are implementing digital paywalls,
an additional financial obstacle to media access.
The forms and functions of mass communication are evolving in the digital
age. Siebert, Schramm, and Peterson’s four theories of the press are still relevant
but are best seen as ideal types and not exact models for twenty-first-century
media. Traditional media are converging with social media and global ownership,
and international coproduction and digital distribution are increasingly common.
Media play a critical role in political and social-cultural systems around the
world. Western media have tended to dominate the worldwide flow of news and
entertainment, generating pressures and tensions resulting from hegemony. Yet
at the same time, digital and networked technologies have dramatically lowered
the cost and other barriers to media production and distribution, enabling more
global and widespread movie, television, and news production. Alternative voices
are being heard more frequently on the global stage, including those of indigenous
peoples and local producers. Social media and mobile technology are also enabling
citizen reporters around the world to cover breaking news, from Tahrir Square to
Timbuktu, through photos, video, and tweets.
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Global terrorism has expanded from the physical to the virtual realm, with
cyberterrorism a growing threat. While the digital landscape holds great promise
for global communication, it also presents many hazards and dangers. Cyberciti-
zens will need to be vigilant to ensure that the benefits of globally networked digi-
tal media continue to outweigh the risks.

MEDIA MATTERS GLOBAL MEDIA

1. Identify a country that follows the authoritarian population in a developing country? Why do
theory of communication. If offered some kind you think so?
of media position there, would you consider it? 5. What role have social media played in the
2. Which theory of communication do you think aftermath of disasters like the 2013 Ya’an
is best equipped to most effectively utilize earthquake in China or the 2015 Yangtze River
digital and social media? Why do you think so? ship sinking?
3. Define the concept of the public sphere. Where 6. Which do you think are more susceptible to
online do you feel this ideal has the greatest cyberattacks, established multinational
possibility of being realized? media corporations or media companies in
4. Which form of mass communication—print, developing countries that have recently
radio, or television—is most effective in been using the Internet to reach the global
reaching a broad cross section of the stage?

FURTHER READING

The Myth of Digital Democracy. Matthew Hindman (2008) Princeton University Press.
Into the Buzzsaw: Leading Journalists Expose the Myth of a Free Press. Kristina Borjesson (ed.) (2002)
Prometheus Books.
Media Spectacle and the Crisis of Democracy: Terrorism, War, and Election Battles. Douglas Kellner
(2005) Paradigm Publishers.
(Un)Civil War of Words: Media and Politics in the Arab World. Mamoun Fandy (2007) Praeger.
Cyberprotest: New Media, Citizens, and Social Movements. W. Van De Donk (ed.) (2004) Routledge.
Religious Broadcasting in the Middle East. Khaled Hroub (ed.). (2012) Hurst & Company.
Arab Media: Globalization and Emerging Media Industries. Noha Mellor, Muhammad Ayish, Nabil
Dajani, Khalil Rinnawi (2011) Policy Press.
Real-Time Diplomacy: Politics and Power in the Social Media Era. Philip Seib (2012) Palgrave
Macmillan.
Global Media, Culture, and Identity: Theory, Cases and Approaches. Rohit Chapra and Radhika Gajj-
ala (2011) Routledge.
 CHAPTER 14 >> GLOBAL MEDIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE 435

Detecting Bull: How to Identify Bias and Junk Journalism in Print, Broadcast and on the Wild Web, 2nd
ed. J. H. McManus (2012) Unvarnished Press.
The Ethics of Reality TV: A Philosophical Examination. W. N. Wyatt, K. Bunton (2012) Continuum.
After Broadcast News: Media Regimes, Democracy, and the New Information Environment. Bruce A.
Williams, Michael X. Delli Carpini (2011) Cambridge University Press.
American Indians and the Mass Media. Meta G. Carstarphen, John P. Sanchez (eds.) (2012) Univer-
sity of Oklahoma Press.
Communication for Development and Social Change, 2nd ed. Jan Servaes (ed.) (2008) Sage.
The Handbook of Development Communication and Social Change. Karin Gwinn Wilkins, Thomas
Tufte, Rafael Obregon (eds.) (2014) Wiley-Blackwell.
The International Television News Agencies: The World from London. Chris Paterson (2011) Peter
Lang “Media and Communication” Series.
Public Relations in Global Cultural Contexts: Multi-Paradigmatic Perspectives. Nilanjana Bardhan, C.
Kay Weaver (eds.) (2011) Routledge.
Glossary
actualities Edited audio clips from interviews with people. banner ad Original form of advertising on the Web, it appears
ad-agency commission A percentage amount of the cost of an across the top of a website.
advertisement taken by the advertising agency that helped create beat Reporter’s specialized area of coverage based on geography
and sell the ad. or subject. Common beats in large or medium-sized newspapers
advertising An ancient form of human communication designed include education, crime, and state politics.
to inform or persuade members of the public with regard to some behavioral targeting Advertisers tracking individuals’ Web-
product or service. browsing behavior to provide ads that closely match the topics of
advertorial Display advertisement created to look like an arti- sites visited or searches made.
cle within the publication, although most publications have the Benjamin Day Publisher of the New York Sun who originated
words “advertisement” or “paid advertisement” in tiny print the penny press in 1833 by offering his paper on the streets for
somewhere nearby. a penny.
agenda setting Media’s role in deciding which topics to cover big data A collection of data sets too large for traditional ana-
and consequently which topics the public deems important and lytic techniques to sort, analyze, and visualize.
worthy of discussion.
blog Short for weblog, a type of website in which a person
Alien and Sedition Acts A series of four acts passed by the U.S. posts regular journal or diary entries, with the posts arranged
Congress in 1798 that, among other things, prohibited sedition, or chronologically.
spoken or written criticism of the U.S. government, and imposed
Bobo doll studies Media–effects experiments in the 1950s that
penalties of a fine or imprisonment on conviction. Although they
expired in 1801, other sedition acts have been passed periodi- showed children who watched TV episodes that rewarded a vio-
cally, especially during times of war. lent person were more likely to punch a Bobo doll than children
who saw episodes that punished a violent person.
amplitude modulation (AM) Radio carrier signal modified by
variations in wave amplitude. bourgeoisie A class of society that translates approximately to
“middle class,” distinguished from the aristocracy above and the
Associated Press Founded in 1848 as a not-for-profit members’ proletariat (or workers) below.
cooperative by a group of six New York newspaper publishers to
share the costs of gathering news by telegraph. Today, some 1,500 branding Process of creating in the consumer’s mind a clear
newspapers and 5,000 television and radio stations are members. identity for a particular company’s product, logo, or trademark.

astroturfing Creating a movement controlled by a large orga- broadband A network connection that enables a large amount
nization or group designed to look like a citizen-founded, grass- of bandwidth to be transmitted, which allows for more informa-
roots campaign. tion to be sent in a shorter period of time.
astroturfing campaign A movement or campaign that looks as broadcast Originally a reference to casting seeds widely in a
though it was created by concerned citizens as a grassroots move- field that was subsequently applied to the fledgling electronic
ment when in fact it was actually created or controlled by an orga- medium of radio and later television.
nization with a vested interest in the outcome. camera obscura A dark box or room with a small hole that
asynchronous media Media that do not require the audience to allows an inverted image of an outside scene to be shown on the
assemble at a given time, such as printed materials and recorded opposite inner wall.
audio or video. categorical imperative In ethical thought, Kant’s concept of an
augmented reality Digital overlays of information on a screen unconditional moral obligation that does not depend on an indi-
that correspond to what is being looked at in the real world vidual’s personal inclinations or goals.
through the screen. catfish Someone who fakes an online profile, usually to encour-
auteur Director as storyteller. age another to fall in love with the false persona.
authoritarian theory A theory of international mass commu- cathode-ray tube (CRT) Device in older televisions and comput-
nication that contends authoritarian governments exert direct ers using electron beams to transmit images to the screen.
control over the media. censorship The act of prohibiting certain expression or content.
balance Presenting sides equally and reporting on a broad range Censors usually do not target the whole publication, program, or
of news events. website but seek to prohibit some part of the content.
bandwidth The carrying capacity and speed of telecommunica- Children’s Television Act (CTA) Created in 1990, it limits the
tion networks that determine how much information can be sent amount of commercial content that programming can carry, forces
and how fast it can travel over the networks. stations to carry certain amounts of educational programming

G-1
 G-2 GLOSSARY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

for children sixteen and under, and includes other provisions to and the economy in understanding and eventually transforming
protect children. society.
chilling effect The phenomenon that occurs when journalists cross-sectional study A study that gathers data on subjects at a
or other media producers decide not to publish stories on a topic specific point in time.
after a journalist has been punished or jailed for such a story. crowdsourcing Using raw data gathered from the public and
circulation Number of newspaper copies sold or distributed. citizen-journalists to help create a news report.
citizen journalism The gathering and sharing of news and cultivation analysis A theory of media effects that claims tele-
information by public citizens, particularly via mobile and social vision cultivates in audiences a view of reality similar to the world
media, sometimes via traditional media. portrayed in television programs.
classified advertising Advertising traditionally found in print cultural imperialism A condition that occurs when a powerful
media, especially newspapers but also in some magazines and foreign country dominates a domestic media market through an
now increasingly online, that consists of messages posted by indi- influx of its products.
viduals and organizations to sell specific goods or services. cultural studies An interdisciplinary framework for studying
clear and present danger A restriction on speech when it meets communication that rejects the scientific approach while investi-
both of the following conditions: (1) It is intended to incite or gating the role of culture in creating and maintaining social rela-
produce dangerous activity (as with falsely shouting “Fire!” in a tions and systems of power.
crowded theater), and (2) it is likely to succeed in achieving the cultural transmission The process of passing on culturally rel-
purported result. evant knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values from person to per-
son or group to group.
click-through rate (CTR) Rate at which people click on an online
advertisement to access more information. culture industry A term coined by the Frankfurt School to
describe how media companies produce or “make” culture in the
codex Manuscript book of individually bound pages.
same way that other companies produce products.
community antenna television (CATV) Cable television devel-
daguerreotype Photograph created by exposing a positive
oped in 1948 so communities in hilly or remote terrain could still
image on a metal plate.
access television broadcasts.
David Sarnoff Head of RCA, he promoted the development of
consolidation A process whereby traditional media companies television as a mass medium yet blocked the development of FM
have grown fewer and much larger in the past fifty years through radio for years because RCA produced and sold AM radio receivers.
mergers and acquisitions.
daypart A segment of time radio and television program plan-
convergence The coming together of computing, telecommuni- ners use to determine their primary audience during that time of
cations, and media in a digital environment. day or night.
cookies Information that a website puts on a user’s local hard digital divide The gap between regions and demographics that
drive so that it can recognize when that computer accesses the have access to modern, digital-communications technology and
website again. Cookies also allow for conveniences like password those that have limited or no access.
recognition and personalization.
digital immigrant An individual who grew up in the analog
copyright a form of intellectual property law that protects the media era and who generally has more trouble adapting to new
right to use, publish, reproduce, perform, display, or distribute a digital technologies, despite perhaps a desire to use and under-
literary or artistic work, such as a piece of writing, music, film, stand them.
or video.
Digital Millennium Copyright Act A 1998 act of Congress that
cord-cutters Those who have switched from cable or other con- reformed copyright law comprehensively to update it for the digi-
nections to Internet-delivered TV. tal age. Key provisions addressed the circumvention of copyright-
cord-nevers Those who have known only mobile or wireless protection systems, fair use in a digital environment, and Internet
Internet-delivered TV. service providers’ liability for content sent through their lines.

correlation Media interpretation ascribing meaning to issues digital native A term coined in 2001 by author Marc Prensky for
a member of a younger generation who has grown up with and is
and events that helps individuals understand their roles within
consequently very comfortable using digital media and adapting
the larger society and culture.
to rapid technological changes.
cost per thousand (CPM) Standard unit for measuring advertis-
digital rights management (DRM) Technologies that let copy-
ing rates for publications based on circulation.
right owners control the level of access or use allowed for a copy-
counterpublics Public forums of resistance created by those righted work, such as limiting the number of times a song can be
who consider themselves to be excluded from or marginalized copied.
within dominant media and communication.
digital television (DTV) Television system in which all infor-
critical theory A theoretical approach broadly influenced by mation broadcast by cable or through the air is in digital, or
Marxist notions of the role of ideology, exploitation, capitalism, computer-readable, form.
 GLOSSARY G-3

digital watermark Computer code (usually invisible but some- fair use Allowable use of someone else’s copyrighted work that
times visible) inserted into any digital content—images, graph- does not require payment of royalties, with a number of fac-
ics, audio, video, or even text documents—that authenticates the tors that determine if something falls under fair use or violates
source of that content. copyright.
digitization The process that makes media computer readable. fairness News reporting on all relevant sides of an issue that
allows representatives of those various sides the same coverage.
dime novel First paperback form whose cost of ten cents made it
accessible even to the poor. Fairness Doctrine Adopted by the FCC in 1949, it required
broadcasters to seek out and present all sides of a controversial
direct effects model Model of mass communication that claims
issue they were covering. It was discarded by the FCC in 1987.
media have direct and measurable effects on audiences, such as
encouraging them to buy products or to become violent. fear appeal Advertising technique that attempts to persuade
the audience by scaring them, such as antismoking ads that show
display advertising Advertising in print media that usually disfigured former smokers.
consists of illustrations or images and text that can occupy a
small section of a page, a full page, or multiple pages. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Established in
1934, the principal communications regulatory body at the fed-
distributed computing Individual, autonomous computers eral level in the United States.
that work together toward a common goal, typically a large, com-
Federal Radio Commission (FRC) Formed by the Radio Act of
plex project that requires more computing power than that of any
1927, the commission, the precursor to the FCC, created a policy
individual computer.
that favored fewer high-power radio broadcasting stations rather
earned media Favorable publicity prompted by a public rela- than more numerous low-power stations.
tions source rather than advertising, such as a news conference, First Amendment Guarantees that Congress shall make no law
an event, or a press release; the opposite of paid media, such as restricting freedom of speech, press, or religion.
advertising or product placements.
focus group A small group of people assembled by researchers to
echo effect A phenomenon that occurs when people surround discuss a topic. Their interactions are closely observed, recorded,
themselves with online voices that echo their own, reinforcing and analyzed to determine people’s opinions.
their views and the belief that those opinions are in the majority
folksonomies Collection of tags created by users that provide
when in fact they may not be.
metadata (data about data) regarding information.
Edward R. Murrow A radio and, later, television journalist and fourth estate Another term for the press, or journalism, which
announcer who set the standard for journalistic excellence during acts as a fourth branch of government, one that watches the other
TV’s golden age. branches (executive, legislative, and judicial).
Edwin Howard Armstrong Columbia University engineering frame Structure or angle given a news story that influences
professor who invented FM radio transmission. reader understanding covering the event.
electronic news-gathering (ENG) equipment Tools such as framing The presentation and communication of a message in a
video cameras and satellite dishes that allow journalists to gather particular way that influences our perception of it.
and broadcast news much more quickly.
free and open-source software movement (FOSS) A move-
encoding/decoding A theoretical model that states media pro- ment that wants software to be freely available and the source
ducers encode media products with meanings, decoded in various code open to anyone to make modifications and improvements.
ways by various audiences. freemium Subscriptions that provide some content for free but
entertainment Providing or being provided with amusement or require a monthly subscription to take advantage of all the site
enjoyment. has to offer.
epistemology A study or theory of the limitations and validity frequency modulation (FM) Radio carrier signal modified by
of knowledge; more simply, a way of, or framework for, under- variations in wave length/frequency.
standing the world. gamification The use of game-like mechanics in nongame set-
equal-time rule The requirement that broadcasters make avail- tings, such as earning points, badges, or rewards for performing
able equal airtime, in terms of commentaries and commercials, certain actions.
to opposing candidates running for election. It does not apply genres Topical categories.
to candidates appearing in newscasts, documentaries, or news- going viral The phenomenon in which a media item spreads rap-
event coverage. idly from person to person via the Internet.
ethical consumerism A kind of activism in which consumers gramophone Developed by inventor Emile Berliner, it used a
buy only products that they believe are produced ethically. flat disc rather than a cylinder to record sound.
ethnography A variety of qualitative research techniques that Granville T. Woods Inventor of railway telegraphy in 1887, a
involve immersion of a researcher in a particular culture to allow type of wireless communication that allowed moving trains to
interaction with participants through observation, participation, communicate with each other and with stations, greatly reducing
interviews, or a combination of methods. the number of railway collisions.
 G-4 GLOSSARY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

graphical user interface (GUI) Computer interface that shows include those producing only one or two albums a year as well as
graphical representations of file structures, files, and applications larger independents such as Disney.
in the form of folders, icons, and windows.
infomercial Also called “paid programming,” a thirty- or sixty-
graphophone An improvement on Thomas Edison’s phono- minute television show that seeks to sell a product and that usu-
graph in recording audio, it used beeswax to record sound rather ally involves a celebrity spokesperson and customer testimonials.
than tinfoil. Developed by Alexander Graham Bell and inventor
information overload The difficulties associated with manag-
Charles Tainter.
ing and making sense of the vast amounts of information avail-
greenwashing The practice of companies making themselves or able to us.
their products appear to be organic, environmentally friendly, or
supportive of free trade when in fact they are not. information society A society where information production
has supplanted industrial production, dramatically transforming
Guglielmo Marconi Italian inventor and creator of radio teleg-
cultural, economic, and political activity.
raphy, or wireless transmission, in 1899.
instant messaging Often abbreviated IM, a form of real-time
Gutenberg Bible Bible printed by Johannes Gutenberg in
communication through text typed over a computer network.
Europe in 1455, considered one of the first mechanically printed
works. integrated communications All channels of communication
Hays Code A code established in 1930 by the movie industry to about a company or brand working together to create a cohesive
censor itself regarding showing nudity or glorifying antisocial message.
acts. Officials for the Hays Office had to approve each film distrib- intellectual property (IP) Ideas that have commercial value,
uted to a mass audience. such as literary or artistic works, patents, trademarks, business
Heinrich Hertz Demonstrated the existence of radio waves in methods, and industrial processes.
1885, setting the stage for the development of modern wireless interactivity For digital-media purposes, it consists of three
communications. The measurement unit of electromagnetic fre- main elements: (1)  a dialog that occurs between a human and
quencies was named for Hertz. a computer program, (2) a dialog that occurs simultaneously or
high-definition television (HDTV) Modern television technol- nearly so, and (3) the audience has some measure of control over
ogy that produces a much higher-resolution image, sharper color, what media content it sees and in what order.
a wider aspect ratio, and superior audio. Ultra-high definition is
interpersonal communication Communication between two or
next-generation TV with even higher resolution video. 4K TVs can
more individuals, often in a small group, although it can involve
display video at 4,000 lines of resolution, compared to the 420
communication between a live speaker and an audience.
lines of standard definition TV.
human–computer interaction Any interaction between humans interpretive reporting Reporting that places the facts of a story
and computers, either through devices such as keyboards, mice, in a broader context by relying on the reporter’s knowledge and
and touch screens or through voice recognition. experience.

hyperlink Clickable pointer to other online content. interstitial ad Online advertisement that opens in a new win-
dow from the one the user was in.
hypertext Text online linked by HTML coding to another Web
page or website or to a different part of the same Web page. James Carey Communications scholar and historian who has
shaped a cultural-studies approach to communication theory.
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) A coding format that
describes how information should look on the Web. James Gordon Bennett Founder of the New York Herald in
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) A protocol that enables 1835. He initiated features found in modern newspapers includ-
the standardized transfer of text, audio, and video files, as well as ing a financial page, editorial commentary, and public-affairs
email, from one address to another. reporting.
hypodermic-needle model A model of media effects, also called Johannes Gutenberg German printer credited with creating
the “magic bullet,” that claims media messages have a profound, the first mechanical printing press in 1455.
direct, and uniform impact on the public. joint operating arrangement (JOA) Legal agreement per-
ideology A comprehensive and normative body of ideas and mitting newspapers in the same market or city to merge their
standards held by an individual or a group. business operations for economic reasons while maintaining
indecent speech Language or material that, in context, depicts independent editorial operations.
or describes, in terms patently offensive as measured by contem- Joseph Pulitzer American newspaper magnate whose publi-
porary community standards for the broadcast medium, sexual or cations competed vigorously with those of Hearst. After 1900,
excretory organs or activities. Pulitzer retreated from sensational journalism, favoring instead
independent films Films made by production companies sepa- more socially conscious reporting and muckraking. He founded
rate from the main Hollywood studios. the Pulitzer Prizes, annual awards for outstanding journalism.
independent labels Small companies that produce and distrib- laugh track A television sitcom device that generates prere-
ute records. Not part of the three major-label corporations, they corded laughter timed to coincide with punch lines of jokes.
 GLOSSARY G-5

Lee de Forest Considered the father of radio broadcasting or regulation issues that may affect what is presented and in what
because of his invention that permitted reliable voice transmis- form.
sions for both point-to-point communication and broadcasting.
media oligopoly A marketplace in which media ownership and
libertarian theory A theory of international mass communica- diversity are severely limited and the actions of any single media
tion that supports the individual’s right to publish whatever she group affect its competitors substantially, including determining
or he wants, even material critical of the government or of gov- the content and price of media products for both consumers and
ernment officials. advertisers.
listservs Automated mailing-list administrators that allow medium A communication channel, such as talking on the tele-
for easy subscription, cancellation, and delivery of emails to phone, instant messaging, or writing back and forth in a chat
subscribers. room.
long tail The principle that selling a few of many types of items meme A media item of cultural interest that spreads through
can be as or more profitable than selling many copies of a few repetition and replication via the Internet.
items, a practice that works especially well for online sellers such
as Amazon and Netflix. mods Short for “modifications,” user-created code changes that
alter how video games are played or look.
longitudinal study A study that gathers data on subjects over a
long period of time. muckrakers Journalists, particularly magazine journalists, who
conduct investigative reporting on major corporations and gov-
Louis Daguerre Inventor of the daguerreotype, an early type of
ernment; they were dubbed muckrakers in the early twentieth
photography.
century for the “muck” they uncovered.
lurking Only reading what others write in online discussion
boards but not contributing to the discussions. multicast Simultaneous transmission of multiple channels of
compressed content or the same content but at different times.
machinima A combination of machine and cinema that uses 3-D
animation techniques and characters from popular video games multitasking In a computer environment, doing several activi-
to make movies. ties at once with a variety of programs, such as simultaneous
word processing, spreadsheet, and database work while conduct-
major labels Universal Music Group, Sony Music, and Warner
ing real-time chat through an instant-messenger service.
Music Group—the three biggest recording-arts companies, which
control much of the music industry partly through their power- Network neutrality The principle that broadband networks
ful distribution channels and ability to market music to mass should be free of restrictions on content, platforms, or equipment
audiences. and that certain types of content, platforms, or equipment should
not get preferential treatment on the network.
mass communication Communication to a large group or
groups of people that remain largely unknown to the sender news hole Amount of total space available after advertisement
of the message. space has been blocked out, typically in newspapers.
mass-market paperback Inexpensive, softcover books small news leak Secret information deliberately given to journalists
enough for a back pocket and sold in bookstores, supermarkets, with the hope that they will publish the item.
drugstores, and other public places.
Newspaper Preservation Act Created in 1970 to preserve a
Mathew B. Brady Nineteenth-century photographer acclaimed diversity of editorial opinion in communities where only two
for his Civil War images and portraits of famous people. competing, or independently owned, daily newspapers exist.
mean-world syndrome A syndrome in which people perceive objectivity Journalistic principle that says reporting should be
the world as more dangerous than it actually is, the result of view- impartial and free of bias. Because of the difficulties involved in
ing countless acts of media violence. complete objectivity, this principle has largely been replaced by
media bias A real or perceived viewpoint held by journalists and the concepts of fairness and balance.
news organizations that slants news coverage unfairly, contrary obscenity One of the forms of speech not protected by the First
to professional journalism’s stated goals of balanced coverage and Amendment and thus subject to censorship. Although an exact
objectivity. definition of the term has been difficult to achieve in various
media ecology The study of media environments and their court cases, generally a three-part standard is applied for media
effects on people and society. content: It must appeal to prurient interests as defined by com-
media grammar The underlying rules, structures, and patterns munity standards, it must show sexual conduct in an offensive
by which a medium presents itself and is used and understood by manner, and it must on the whole lack serious artistic, literary,
the audience. political, or scientific value.
media hegemony A condition that occurs when dominant groups oligopoly An economic structure in which a few very large, very
in society control the mass media, largely through ownership. powerful, and very rich owners control an industry or collection
of related industries.
media literacy The process of interacting with and critically
analyzing media content by considering its particular presenta- open access A system that makes information accessible to all to
tion, its underlying political or social messages, and its ownership discourage power imbalances that may arise from unequal access.
 G-6 GLOSSARY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

opinion poll Usually conducted by a professional polling orga- pragmatism A school of thought affirming truths found in
nization, a poll asking members of the public their opinions on actions that work and rejecting the possibility of overarching or
issues or political candidates. purely objective notions of truth.
opt in When consumers choose to receive mailings or marketing preferred-position balancing theory A legal theory that says
material, usually by checking a box on a website when registering that a balance must be struck between speech and other rights,
for the site. although speech has a preferred position.
outdoor advertising Billboards and other forms of public press agentry Getting media attention for a client, often by cre-
advertising, such as on buses or taxis. ating outrageous stunts to attract journalists.
participant-observation A qualitative research technique in print-on-demand (POD) Publication of single books or tiny
which researchers participate as members of the group they are print runs based on customer demand using largely automated,
observing. nontraditional book-printing methods such as the color laser
partisan press A press, such as colonial newspapers, typically printer.
aligned with a particular political party and presenting informa- prior restraint When the government prevents or blocks the
tion to help its cause, with no sense of objectivity or balance in publication, broadcasting, showing, or distribution of media con-
news coverage. tent, whether in print, over the air, in movie theaters, or online.
patent A form of intellectual property law that protects the right product placement A form of advertising in which brand-name
to produce and sell an invention. goods or services are placed prominently within programming
payola Cash or gifts given to radio disc jockeys by record labels or movie content that is otherwise devoid of advertising, dem-
in exchange for greater airplay of the label’s artists or most recent onstrating the convergence of programming with advertising
songs. After several scandals in the 1950s, the practice is now content.
illegal. produsers Audiences who no longer are simply consumers but
peer-to-peer (P2P) The basis of file-sharing services, a computer also produce content.
communications model and network whose computers are con- propaganda The regular dissemination of a belief, doctrine,
sidered equal peers who can send, store, and receive information cause, or information, with the intent to mold public opinion.
equally well. pseudo-events Events staged specifically to attract  media
penny press Newspapers that sold for a penny, making them attention, particularly the news.
accessible to everyone. Supported by advertising rather than sub- public information campaign Media program funded by the
scriptions, they tried to attract as large an audience as possible. government and designed to achieve some social goal.
performance-based advertising Any form of online ad buying public opinion The notion that the public, as a group, can form
in which an advertiser pays for results rather than paying for the shared views or ideas about topics and that these ideas guide the
size of the publisher’s audience or the CPM. public’s actions.
phonograph First patented by Thomas Edison in 1877 as a public service announcement (PSA) Advertising-like message
“talking machine,” it used a tinfoil cylinder to record voices from from an organization with a worthy purpose that ostensibly ben-
telephone conversations. efits the public and for which the media donate time or space.
pitch Request to review a client’s new product or do a story about public sphere An idealized conversational forum in which peo-
the client or the product. ple discuss and debate mutual interests and societal issues.
place shift Viewing TV from anywhere using the Internet to puffery A type of advertising language that makes extravagant
access video originally delivered digitally to the home (or another and unrealistic claims about a product without saying anything
location). concrete.
political economy An area of study inspired by Marxism that push poll A type of political advertising that appears to be a
examines the relationship between politics and economics with telephone poll but is actually a telemarketing campaign to sway
media ownership and the influences they all have on society and voters by making a favored candidate look good or by misrepre-
perpetuating the status quo. senting the opposition.
positivism A view, common among scientists in the physical or qualitative research A method of inquiry favored in the
natural sciences and many social sciences, that affirms an objec- social sciences that explores typically unstructured phenomena
tive reality to be discovered and explained through rigorous sci- through interviews, focus groups, and participant observation
entific research. among other techniques that produce descriptive rather than pre-
postmodernism A broad category of viewpoints that rejects dictive results.
grand narratives attempting to explain the world and absolute quantitative research A method of inquiry favored in the physi-
truths because truth is relative and unknowable. cal sciences that focuses on numerical data and statistical mea-
postpositivism A view that agrees largely with positivism but sures to describe phenomena. Researchers often attempt to prove
also recognizes knowledge that may not be revealed through sci- or disprove a hypothesis through the empirical method, particu-
entific inquiry. larly controlled experimentation.
 GLOSSARY G-7

Radio Act of 1912 The act assigned frequencies and three- and smart mob A term coined by author Howard Rheingold to define
four-letter codes to radio stations and limited broadcasting to the a group of people communicating with each other via text mes-
360-meter wavelength. saging or wireless networks to coordinate their activities.
Radio Act of 1927 An act of Congress that created the Federal social constructionism A view that claims much or all of what
Radio Commission, intended to regulate the largely chaotic air- we know and understand about the world, including scien-
waves and based on the principle that companies had a civic duty tific knowledge, is constructed through social interactions and
to use airwaves, a limited public good, responsibly. language.
random sample A sample in which every person has an equally social games Online or mobile games that are played in real
probable chance of being selected, intended to represent the time with others or that encourage simultaneous group playing.
entire population of study. social marketing Advertising and marketing techniques that
rate card List of advertising rates by size, placement, and other persuade people to change bad or destructive behaviors or adopt
characteristics, such as whether ads are black and white or full good behaviors.
color. Frequency discounts are also usually offered, and the listed social responsibility theory A theory of international mass
rates are usually negotiable, especially for large advertisers. communication that perhaps best describes the media’s role in
rating Used in broadcast media to explain the number of house- democratic societies. It asserts that the media should be free from
holds that watched a particular show. most governmental constraints to provide the most reliable and
impartial information to the public.
readership Number or percentage of newspaper readers.
soft news day A day in which not much has happened that is
rhetoric One of the ancient arts of discourse that focuses on the newsworthy, entailing the addition of features with less real news
art of persuasion. value, such as human-interest stories.
sampling error Error in a statistical analysis that results from sound bite The length of time a news subject is allowed to speak
selecting a sample that does not represent the entire population. without editing. It also has come to refer to short, catchy utter-
scrolling Simply repeating the same message in a chat room, ances designed to capture media attention.
which quickly draws the ire of other participants. Soviet theory A theory of international mass communication
search-engine marketing Paying for certain keywords to show that states that the media should be publicly owned and used to
up high in rankings in a search engine, such as Google or Bing. further the needs of the working class.

sedition Speech or action that encourages overthrow of a gov- spam Unwanted mass emailing from advertisers.
ernment or that subverts a nation’s constitution or laws. spiral of silence A theoretical construct that explains why peo-
ple may be unwilling to publicly express opinions they feel are in
semiotics The study of signs and symbols.
the minority.
sensational journalism News that exaggerates or features lurid
subliminal advertising Persuasive messages that have suppos-
details and depictions of events to increase its audience.
edly unconscious effects on the audience, such as an image or
serious games Games created to be fun and educational that use word flashed almost imperceptibly on a screen.
game dynamics to instruct players on topics.
superstation A local TV station that reaches a national audi-
shield law A law intended to protect journalists from legal chal- ence by beaming its programming nationwide via satellite to local
lenges to their freedom to report the news. cable systems.
simplified communications model Developed by Wilbur superstitial ad Online advertisement that covers part of the
Schramm in  1954 and based on the mathematical theory of existing screen or moves over part of it without opening a new
communication. It includes a source who encodes a message, or window.
signal, which is transmitted (via the media or directly via inter- surveillance Primarily the journalism function of  mass com-
personal communication) to a destination where the receiver munication, which provides information about processes, issues,
decodes it. events, and other developments in society.
six degrees of separation Notion that everyone in the world swarming The process used by some P2P systems in which mul-
is separated from all other individuals by at most six additional tiple downloads of the same file are temporarily coordinated to
nodes in a social network. accelerate the downloading process.
slander A type of defamation that is spoken, as opposed to writ- synchronous media Media that take place in real time and
ten (libel), and that damages a person’s reputation or otherwise require the audience to be present during the broadcast or perfor-
causes harm. mance, such as live television or radio.
slashdot effect When a smaller news site’s Web server crashes tagging Using searchable keywords to define a piece of informa-
because of increased traffic after its mention on popular websites, tion, file, image, or other type of digital media in a nonhierarchi-
named for a frequent occurrence on the very popular technology cal system.
news site Slashdot.org. technological determinism The belief that technology causes
small world Tight-knit social network with many strong ties. certain human behaviors.
 G-8 GLOSSARY www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Telecommunications Act of 1996 The first major regula- tyranny of the majority A situation in which governmental laws
tory overhaul of telecommunications since 1934, designed to and policies benefit the majority without concern for the welfare
open the industry to greater competition by deregulating many or rights of other groups or individuals.
aspects of it.
usenet One of the earliest discussion forums in use today in
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) The princi- which participants discuss topics in categories called newsgroups.
pal communications regulatory body, established in 1934, at the
federal level in the United States. user-generated content (UGC) Content created by the general
public for distribution by digital media.
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) The principal commerce
regulatory body, established in 1914, at the federal level in the user interface (UI) Junction between a medium and the people
United States. who use it.
theory of cognitive dissonance Theory of persuasion that uses-and-gratifications research A branch of research on
states we act first and then rationalize our behavior afterward to media effects that examines why people use media, what they do
make our actions consistent with self-perceived notions of who with media rather than what media do to them.
we are.
V-chip A computer device that enables parents or any other
third-party cookies Cookies put on a computer by those other viewer to program a TV set to block access to programs containing
than the website being visited, such as advertisers. violent or sexual content based on the program rating.
third-person effect The tendency for people to underestimate viral marketing Promoting a product, service, or brand online
the effect of a persuasive message on themselves while overesti- through word of mouth, usually via online discussion groups,
mating its effect on others. chats, and emails.
Thomas Alva Edison His inventions included the electric light, virtual reality The replacement of the real world with a digitized,
the phonograph, and the Kinetoscope. Edison’s lab in Menlo Park,
virtual one, a mainstay of science fiction stories hyped in the late
New Jersey, had over sixty scientists and produced as many as
twentieth century.
four hundred patent applications a year.
voice-over An unseen announcer or narrator talking while
time shift Recording of an audio or video event for later listening
or viewing. other activity takes place, either on radio or during a television
scene.
trademark A form of intellectual property law that protects the
right to use a particular sign, logo, or name. wiki Website that lets anyone add, edit, or delete pages and
content.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) A part of the main proto-
col for the Internet that allows computers to easily communicate William Randolph Hearst American newspaper magnate dur-
with each other over a network. ing the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries whose
trial balloon Leaking information to the press about a proposed newspapers across the United States were noted for sensational
plan or idea to see how the public will respond. journalism and political influence.

trolling Posting deliberately obnoxious or disruptive messages word-of-mouth marketing Marketing that takes place among
to discussion groups or other online forums simply to get a reac- customers through discussions with one another.
tion from the participants. yellow journalism Style practiced notably by publishers Pulit-
two-way symmetric model Model of public relations that zer and Hearst during the late 1890s in which stories were sen-
emphasizes the profession as a system of managing relationships sationalized and often partly or wholly fabricated for dramatic
among organizations, individuals, and their many publics. purposes.
Notes
CHAPTER 1 15. J. W. Carey, “A Cultural Approach to Communications,”
1. Lance Liebl, “The Interview Becomes Sony’s #1 Online Communication 2 (1975): 1–22.
Film of All Time,” Gamezone (January 8, 2015), accessed 16. Werner J. Severin and James W. Tankard Jr., “Introduc-
January 8, 2015, http://www.gamezone.com/news/the- tion to Mass Communication Theory,” in Communication
interview-becomes-sony-s-1-online-film-of-all-time-2231- Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media, 5th
jrrl. ed. (New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 2001), 16.
2. “Apple Wins Big in Patent Case,” Wall Street Journal, 17. “Wired, Zapped, and Beamed, 1960’s through 1980’s,”
August 25, 2012, accessed February 19, 2013, http:// FCC website, accessed October 20, 2011, http://tran
www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390444358404 sition.fcc.gov/omd/history/tv/1960–1989.html.
18. Gary Gumpert and Robert Cathcart, eds., Inter/Media:
577609810658082898.
Interpersonal Communication in a Media World, 3rd ed.
3. Irving Fang, A History of Mass Communication: Six Informa-
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986).
tion Revolutions (Boston: Focal Press, 1997).
19. World Internet Project, accessed February 19, 2013,
4. Malcolm Gladwell, “Creation Myth,” The New Yorker,
http://www.worldinternetproject.net/.
May 16, 2011.
5. Walter Isaacson, “American Icon,” Time, October 17, 2011. CHAPTER 2
6. Adam Lashinsky, “Insights on the Writing of Steve
1. Chase Goodbread, “Michael Sam, NFL Draft Prospect,
Jobs,” Fortune, December 27, 2011, http://fortune.com/
Announces He’s Gay,” NFL.com, Feb. 9, 2014, accessed Feb-
2011/12/27/insights-on-the-writing-of-steve-jobs/.
ruary 9, 2015, http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap200
7. Xiyun Yang, “China’s Censors Rein in ‘Vulgar’ Reality TV
0000324603/article/michael-sam-nfl-draft-prospect-
Show,” New York Times, July 18, 2010, accessed April 12,
announces-hes-gay.
2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/19/world/asia/
2. Chase Goodbread, “Reaction to Michael Sam News
19chinatv.html?pagewanted=all.
Explodes on Twitter,” NFL.com website, February 9, 2014,
8. Kevin Widdop, “Desperate Chinese Boy, 17, Sells Kidney accessed Feb. 9, 2015, http://www.nfl.com/news/story/
for £2000 to Buy an iPad and iPhone,” Mail Online, April 7, 0ap2000000324616/article/reaction-to-michael-sam-
2012, accessed April 12, 2012, http://www.dailymail news-explodes-on-twitter.
.co.uk/news/article-2126172/Chinese-boy-sells-kidney- 3. “Tennis Star Martina Navratilova, Among First
buy-iPad-iPhone.html. ‘Out’ Pro Athletes, Congratulates NBA’s Jason Col-
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1999). 2013, http://www.democracynow.org/2013/5/1/tennis_
10. “Social TV and second-screen viewing: The stats in 2012.” star_martina_navratilova_among_first.
TheGuardian.com, October 29, 2012, accessed February 4. W. James Potter, Media Literacy, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks,
19, 2013, http://www.theguardian. co.uk/technology/ CA: Sage Publications, 2001), 4–7.
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CHAPTER 14 17. Miguel Helft, “YouTube’s Payoff: Hundreds of Millions for

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Is Turning the Internet Against Democracy (New York: New .crtc.gc.ca/eng/cancon/r_cdn.htm.
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Britain-tops-global-soft-power-list.html. everything_b_3654983.html.
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www.youtube.com/yt/press/statistics.html. a Business Proposition,” Arab Business, February 2013.
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www.sandvine.com/downloads/documents/Phenomena_ ers Who Hit Facebook,” Daily Times News, February 20,
1H_ 2013/Sandvine_Global_Internet_Phenomena_ 2013, accessed July 16, 2013, http://www.delcotimes.
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www.youtube.com/yt/press/statistics.html. 31. Adrien Chen, “The Agency,” New York Times Magazine, June
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New York Times, October 17, 2006, accessed August 13, 2015/06/07/magazine/the-agency.html?emc=edit_th_20
2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/17/technology/ 150607&nl=todaysheadlines&nlid=69673382.
17paypal.html?pagewanted=all. 32. New York Times Co. v. United States, 403 U.S. 713 (1971).
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 www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Index
A product placement, 32–33, 273
radio, 115, 278t, 279
asynchronous media, 24
Atari, 174, 175, 175–76
ABC network, 51, 52, 116, 148 regulations, 341–44 The Atavist, 58, 248
academic freedom, 364 selling products and ideas, 271 AT&T. See American Telephone and
accessibility social media and, 262, 289, 291–92 Telegraph Company
Internet, 17, 422–23, 423f strategic communications and, 261–63 attitude changes, 20–23
mass communication, 16 subliminal, 343–44 auction sites, online, 275–76
open access, 350 television, 125, 142, 156, 260, 266–67, audience, 10, 11–12
action 278, 278t changes, 18–20
consequence-based ethics in, 302 tobacco, alcohol and marijuana, 343 creating meaning, 367–68
dialogical ethics in, 304–5 toy, 282 distribution and, 18
duty-based ethics in, 300 in video games, 185–86 fragmentation of, 20, 25
virtue ethics in, 298 world’s largest companies, 281t Internet, 18
Activision Blizzard, 179, 180 advertorials, 237, 272 participation increase, 16
activism, 214. See also civic engagement; advocacy journalism, 243 participation in journalism, 228, 242,
social movements African mobile phone users, 50 245–46, 248, 255, 256
anti-consumerist, 316 agenda setting, 194, 229, 295, 375–76 as produsers, 19–20, 212–18
Internet, 350, 350 Agha-Soltan, Neda, 303, 303 research and theory, 366–70
social media and, 303, 378, 408, 417–18 Akins, Todd, 402 television, 145, 146, 149, 153, 156
actors, 135, 158 alcohol advertising, 343, 343 audio media, 97–98. See also music; radio;
actualities, 46 Alexanderson, Ernst, 112 recording industry
ad-agency commission, 266 Alexis, Aaron, 357 augmented reality, 184–85, 185
Adair, Bill, 406, 406 Alien and Sedition Acts, 326, 326 auteur, director as, 135–36
Adbusters, 316 Allen, George, 399, 400 authoritarian theory, 413
Addario, Lynsey, 126 All in the Family, 148, 193 Avengers parody poster, 319
addiction ALS Ice Bucket Challenge, 277, 277
cell phone, 221 Alterman, Eric, 54
video game, 181 alternative journalism, 243–44
Advance Publications Inc., 83f
advertising, 18, 261, 264, 291–92. See also
AM. See amplitude modulation
Amazon, 21, 63, 71, 74, 106, 157. See also
B
communication law and regulation; Kindle ebook reader backpack journalism, 241
specific advertising and marketing American Idol, 151 Bacon, Kevin, 211, 211
structures; specific products American Society of News Editors (ASNE), Bagdikian, Ben H., 51, 52, 53
account manager salaries, 289f 252–53, 254 Baidu, 422, 422
agencies, 266, 279–80, 281, 281t, 314 American Telephone and Telegraph Baird, John Logie, 146
branding, 268, 268–70, 269t Company (AT&T), 6, 114, 154, 155t balance and fairness, in news, 53–54, 237
business of, 278–79 America Online (AOL), 13, 52, 245 bandwidth, 171
careers, 290–91 amplitude modulation (AM) radio, 110, banner ads, 268, 275
changing trends in, 288–89 112, 114–17 Barbie, 282
civil rights movement and, 308–9 analog media, 14, 15f, 58–59 Barnum, Phineas Taylor “P. T.,” 283, 283
cultural convergence and, 270 traditional theories of, 24t Bauerlein, Mark, 220
digital media and, 274–78 animation, 133–34 Bazin, André, 135
ethics in, 271, 302, 313–16, 377 AOL. See America Online BBC. See British Broadcasting Corporation
formats or channels, 272–74, 278t AP. See Associated Press beat, 240
global spending by medium, 278t Apple, 10, 59, 425, 427. See also specific behavioral advertising, 277
historical development, 264–69 products behavioral targeting, 22, 186
Internet, 12, 23, 216, 266, 267–68, antitrust suit against, 63 Bell, Alexander Graham, 5, 99
274–79, 278t Apple Watch, 168 benefits, 42
journalism and, 252, 290, 291 Arab Spring, 214, 246, 247, 417 Bennett, James Gordon, 230
magazine, 90, 91, 266, 278t, 279 arcade games, 174–76 Bennett, W. Lance, 54
by media organizations, 13 Aristotle, 28, 40 Berlin, Irving, 100, 101
movie, 142, 278t, 279 Armstrong, Edwin Howard, 114–15, 115 Berliner, Emile, 99
negative effects on sexes, 377 The Artist (2011), 132, 133 Bernays, Edward L., 282, 283, 284
negative political, 388, 394–96, 396 ASNE. See American Society of News Berners-Lee, Tim, 170, 170
newspaper, 84, 85f, 86, 86f, 265, 266, Editors BH Media Group, 82f
278–79, 278t Associated Press (AP), 230–31, 240 Bhutanese journalists, 414, 414
political, 388, 389, 393–96 astroturf campaigns, 316 The Big Bang Theory, 46
print media, 266, 272 astroturfing, 217 big data, 213

I-1
 INDEX I-2

billboard ads, 280, 280 advertising and public relations, classified advertising, 272, 275–76
Birth of a Nation, 131, 134 290–91 clear and present danger test, 327
blended mass-communication model, 25 book editor, 58, 93 click-through rate (CTR), 275
blogs, 21, 25, 204–5 communication law and regulation, 352 client/server network, 172f
Blu-ray format, 138, 145 ethics, 319 Clinton, Hilary, 394
“Blurred Lines” (Thicke), 111 global media, 432–33 CNN. See Cable News Network
Bobo doll studies, 362 interactive media, 186–87 Coca-Cola, 268, 268, 269
Bollywood, 425 journalism, 254–55 codes of ethics
books, 65, 66. See also ebooks; publishing political media, 407 advertising, 314–15
ancient Islamic, 66 radio and recording industry, 121–22 journalism, 312–13
categories of, 72f, 73 research and theory, 382–83 public relations, 317
censorship and burning of, 65–66 social justice, 58 codex, 66
cheaper and smaller, 68–71 social media, 222 coffeehouses and salons, 18th century,
current industry issues of, 71–72 visual media, 158 416, 416
distinctive functions of, 65–66 Carey, James, 31, 31 Colbert, Stephen, 304, 386, 387, 405
editor careers, 93 Carlin, George, 333, 333 collaboration, 195–96, 199–200, 223
entertainment and, 65, 71 Carpentier, Georges, 114 Collins, Jason, 37, 38
history of, 66–71 carrier pigeons, and news delivery, Collins, Suzanne, 74
outlook for, 74 412, 412 colonial press, 77, 77
sales and readership of, 72–74, 72f, 73f cartel, communications, 52 Columbia Broadcasting Station (CBS),
Borders, 71, 72 categorical imperative, 299 115–16, 147, 391
Bourdieu, Pierre, 374, 374 catfish, 219 Comcast, 9, 13, 52, 140t, 154, 155t, 198
bourgeoisie, 416 Catfish, 219, 220 comics, 332
boyd, danah, 371, 371 cathode-ray tube (CRT), 146 censorship, 331–32
Brady, Mathew B., 127 CATV. See community antenna television movies and, 137–38
branding, 268, 268–70, 269t CBS. See Columbia Broadcasting Station Comics Code Authority (CCA), 332
Breedlove, Sara, 265 CCA. See Comics Code Authority commercialism, and media
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), CDs. See compact discs ethics, 308–10
157 cell phones, 4–5, 7, 221. See also commercial media
British invasion, 101 smartphones debate, 49–51
broadband, 171 censorship, 9–10, 331–35 implications of, 47–53
broadcasting, 109, 153, 156. See also book burning, 65–66 commercial press, 77
communication law and regulation; China, 420–21 commercials, 260, 267
radio; television comics, 331–32 commercial speech regulation, 341–44
license renewal, 340–41 Internet, 338 commercial television, 266–67
spectrum auction, 341 character ethics, 297–98 Common Sense (Paine), 282, 388
Bruns, Axel, 214, 214 “Charlie Bit My Finger,” 25 communication. See also specific
Burns, Ken, 137, 137 Charlie Hebdo massacre, 247, 407 communication models; specific
Bush, George W., 54, 239 chat rooms, 185–86, 203–4 communication technologies; specific
Butler, Bob, 254 Chavez, Hugo, 227–28 types of communication
Chen, Steve, 426, 426 cartel, 52
Child Pornography Prevention Act of cultural studies approach, 30–31
1996, 335 dialogic, 193–94
C children
impact of films on, 360–61
face-to-face, 23
intermass, 34
Cable News Network (CNN), 32 television programming for, 345–46, rapid, 18, 19
cable television, 153, 154, 157 361–64 technologies, 4–8
business model, 156 Children’s Television Act (CTA), 345 theories, 28–31
consolidation, 154, 155t chilling effect, 325 communication law and regulation,
programming, 128, 148–49, 156 China, 11, 48–49, 325, 326, 427 323–24, 353. See also Federal
satellite versus, 155 self-censorship in, 420–21 Communications Commission; specific
system structure, 154 social media and, 417–18 laws
telephony and, 158 Chupa Chups ad, 270 careers and, 352
Cablevision, 10, 155t Cinématographe, 129, 130 children’s programming protections,
camera obscura, 126 circulation 345–46
campaigns. See also political campaigns magazine, 90–91, 91t of commercial and political speech,
astroturf, 316 newspaper, 76f, 84 341–45
disinformation, 21 citizen journalism, 20, 84, 84, 245–46, digital media and, 349–53
McDonalds campaign on Twitter, 310, 312 electronic media regulation, 335–39
304–5 Citizen Kane, 135, 234 freedom of expression and, 325–35
public information, 271 civic engagement. See also activism intellectual property rights, 346–48
Canada, 430–31 social media and, 403–5, 405 legal framework of, 324–25
Capital Cities/ABC, 52 civic hackathons, 199, 200 privacy and, 348–49
care, ethics of, 303–4 civil rights movement, 308, 308–9 unclear regulatory boundaries, 343
careers Civil War photograph, 127 Communications Act of 1934, 336–37
 I-3 INDEX www.oup.com/us/pavlik

community antenna television copyright, 19, 107, 108, 347–50 Day, Benjamin, 77
(CATV), 153 cord-cutters, 126 daypart, 117
compact discs (CDs), 105, 106 cord-nevers, 126 DBS. See direct broadcast satellite
compatibility, between systems, 6 Corley, Eric, 349 debate
computers. See also Internet; specific corporate media, 49–51 commercial-media, 49–51
technologies correlation function, of mass political, 397–98, 398
displays, 165 communication, 27, 228 deceptive advertising, 313–14
GUI, 165–66, 170 Cosby, Bill, 55, 55 de Forest, Lee, 112
human-computer interaction, 166 cost per thousand (CPM), 264 Dempsey, Jack, 114
keyboards, 166, 167 counterpublics, 417 Dentsu, 280, 281t
mouse, 166–67 CPM. See cost per thousand developing countries
natural input methods, 167 creation, media, 199 media in, 418–20, 429
tablet, 16–17, 17, 91, 93f Creative Commons, 19, 19 mobile telephony and, 50
touch screens, 167 critical theory, 30–31, 370 protection of local voices, 429
UI, 165–68, 170 criticism, and censorship, 335 radio in, 121
conflicts of interest The Croods (2013), 144 dialogical ethics, 302–5
in advertising, 314 cross-media enterprises, 51 dialogic communication, 193–94
in public relations, 316–17 cross-sectional study, 377 Diana Ross & the Supremes, 101
conglomerates. See also consolidation; crowdfunding, 104 Dickens, Charles, 88
monopolies crowdsourcing, 241 digital age. See also digital media
global media, 412, 433 election monitoring, 402 global media in, 411–12, 433–34
consequence-based ethics, 300–302 CRT. See cathode-ray tube mass communication in, 23–25
consolidation CTA. See Children’s Television Act digital books. See ebooks
book industry, 71, 72 CTR. See click-through rate digital divide, 373, 422–23, 433
cable television, 154, 155t cultivation analysis, 363–64 Digital First Media, 81, 82f
media, 9, 13, 14, 51–53 cultural convergence, 8f, 11–12, 57 digital immigrants, 15
newspaper chains, 80–81, 82f–83f, 85 advertising and, 270 digital media, 8–9, 14, 15f, 16, 19, 58–59.
radio station, 116–17 ethics and, 315 See also Internet; specific media
recording industry, 102 global media and, 419 absorption of traditional
video game industry, 180, 183, 187 journalism and, 241 media by, 20
Consumer Reports, 93 politics and, 399 advertising and, 274–78
consumers social media and, 211 communication law and, 349–53
anti-consumerist activism, 316 3-D movies and, 145, 145 convergence of, 21
critical, 20 video games and, 180, 181 global media and, 411–12, 433–34
ethical consumerism, 315 cultural imperialism, and global media, grammar of, 47
pattern tracking, 22 424–25 journalism and, 227–28, 239, 241,
producers and, 195, 222–23 cultural studies, 370–72 244–46, 248–55
consumption, 214 approach to communication, 30–31 magazines and, 91–93, 92f, 93f
content. See also media content cultural transmission, 98 mass communication and, 3
rights and responsibilities, 352 as mass communication function, print media challenged by, 64, 74
UGC, 18, 19, 151, 352 27, 228 privacy issues and, 21, 351–52
context, 41 movies and, 128 smart mobs use of, 404–5
convergence. See also cultural music and, 98–99 Digital Millennium Copyright Act of
convergence; specific types of photography and, 126 1998, 347
convergence and outcomes print media and, 64 digital natives, 15
attitudes and values changed by, 20–23 television and, 146 digital publishing, 70, 353
defined, 7–8 culture, 11 digital relationships, 21
of digital media, 21 industry, 308, 370 digital revolution, 58–59
discontents of, 425–27 Cunningham, Ward, 205 digital rights management
implications of, 12–23 curation, 198 (DRM), 107–8, 350–51
mass communication and, 25, 33 cyberbullying, 219, 219, 312 digital technology, 12. See also specific
media audience changes and, 18–20 cybersecurity, 431–32 technologies
media content changes and, 14–16 cyberterrorism, 432, 434 news production and, 241–42
media distribution changes and, 18 production and, 15
media organization changes and, 13–14 digital television (DTV), 152, 157
media profession changes and, 20 digital video recorder (DVR), 14, 31,
media type changes and, 14
media use changes and, 16–17
D 156, 272
digital watermark, 351
online journalism, 251, 252 Daguerre, Louis, 126 digitization, 15, 143–44
in telephony, 4–8 daguerreotype, 126–27 dime novels, 68, 69
television and, 31–33, 152 “The Daily Me,” 20 direct broadcast satellite (DBS), 154,
types of, 7–12 “The Daisy Spot” commercial, 267, 267 155, 155t
Cooke, Marvel, 254 databases, about politics, 403–4 direct effects model, 263
cookies, electronic, 22, 274–75, 277, 351 Dateline NBC, 309 direct mail advertising, 274
Cooper, Gary, 135 dating shows, 11, 11 DirecTV, 154, 155t
 INDEX I-4

discourse ethics, 299–300

discussion boards, 202–3
elections. See also political campaigns
crowdsourcing election F
disinformation campaigns, 21 monitoring, 402
Disney, Walt Elias, 133–34, 134 Electronic Arts (EA), 180 Facebook, 39, 161, 192, 207–9, 211, 212f,
Disney Company, 51 Electronic Frontier Foundation 276, 303, 327–28, 334
display advertising, 272 (EFF), 108 friends, 218–19
displays electronic journalism, 234–35 privacy and, 215–16, 217
computer, 165 electronic media fact checking, 406
flat-panel, 152–53 advertising, 272–73 fairness and balance, in news, 53–54, 237
LCDs, 152 international regulation, 338, 339 Fairness Doctrine, 267, 344–45
distributed computing, 196 regulation, 335–39 fair use, 348
distribution electronic news-gathering (ENG) Family Guy, 193, 193
audience and, 18 equipment, 235 FarmVille, 181, 216
Internet, 171–72, 430 Ello, 210–11 Farnsworth, Philo T., 146, 146
media, 13, 18 Elonis, Anthony, 327–28 FCC. See Federal Communications
movie, 142–44 email, 12, 25, 169, 201–2, 261, 403 Commission
music, 427 marketing, 275 fear appeal, 271
news, 242–43 spam, 202, 202, 267–68 Federal Communications Commission
recording industry, 106 embedded journalists, 245 (FCC), 106, 115, 116, 333–35,
television, 153–54, 155t encoding/decoding model, 368 337–46, 341
documentaries ENG. See electronic news-gathering Federal Radio Commission (FRC),
films, 136 Engelbart, Douglas C., 166 115, 336
interactive, 163, 164 Enough: Our Fight to Keep America Safe Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 106,
Dole labor conditions, 315 from Gun Violence (Giffords and Kelly), 313–14, 341–42
Dorsey, Jack, 206, 206 395, 395 feminist ethics, 303–4, 304
Douglas, Stephen A., 397 entertainment, 14, 98 Ferguson protests, 252, 252
Dow Jones and Co. Inc. v. Gutnick, 353 books and, 65, 71 Fessenden, Reginald A., 112
Dr. Dre, 98 ethics in, 318–19 file-sharing, 108. See also peer-to-peer;
DRM. See digital rights management industry careers, 158 specific services
drones, 322, 323–24 mass communication and, 27 films. See also movies
DTV. See digital television media bias and, 55, 58 independent, 135
duty-based ethics, 298–300 politics and, 396–98, 397 media grammar of, 46
DVDs, 138–39, 142, 143, 145 print media and, 65 Payne Fund study on violence in,
Dvorak, August, 166 sex in, 319, 319 360–61
Dvorak keyboard, 166, 167 stereotypes in, 27, 55, 318 film studios. See also movie industry
DVR. See digital video recorder violence in, 318, 319 ownership, 140t
Dylan, Bob, 101 epistemology, 378, 379 FindTheBest, 276
equal-time rule, 344 Firefox, 170
Erdely, Sabrina Rubin, 295 First Amendment, 14, 310, 323–27,
e-readers, 70 329–31, 333, 334, 342, 344–46, 349,
E Espionage Act of 1917, 327
ESPN, 37, 51, 150
353. See also freedom of expression
5-hour Energy, 269
EA. See Electronic Arts ethical consumerism, 315 Flaherty, Robert, 131
earned media, 260, 261 ethical decision making, 306–8 flat-panel displays, 152–53
Eastwood, Clint, 398–99 ethical reasoning, major systems of, Fleischman, Doris, 284, 284
eBay, 21, 276 297–306 FM. See frequency modulation
Ebony, 90 ethics. See also media ethics focus groups, 381
ebooks, 63, 69–71, 70, 73. See also Kindle in advertising, 271, 302, 313–16, 377 folksonomies, 198
ebook reader careers, 319 FOSS. See free and open source software
global marketplace for, 70 cultural convergence and, 315 4-D, 145
sales, 74 in entertainment, 318–19 fourth estate, 325
echo effect, 42 feminist, 303–4, 304 Fox Networks, 10
Eco, Umberto, 41 of interactive media, 185–86 Fox News, 42, 218, 405, 405
economic convergence, 8f, 9–11 in journalism, 130, 231, 252, 295, 296, fragmentation
economy 299–302, 306, 307–13, 414 of audience, 20, 25
political, 373 in media, 22, 55, 111 of media, 20
of scale, 51 morals, laws and, 296 frame, 238
Edelman firm, 21 in music, 111 framing
Edison, Thomas, 99–100, 128, 129 photography and, 130 media content, 56–57
The Ed Sullivan Show, 147, 147 in politics, 395 news, 42, 42t, 43t, 238
education public relations, 283, 285, 288, 315–17 research and theories, 369–70
media literacy and, 38–39 social media and, 216–17, 219, 303, FRC. See Federal Radio Commission
video games and, 182, 183 311, 312, 316 free and open source software (FOSS)
EFF. See Electronic Frontier Foundation ethnic television, 149 movement, 195
Eisenstein, Sergei, 131, 135 ethnography, 380–81 A Free and Responsible Press, 236–37
 I-5 INDEX www.oup.com/us/pavlik

freedom of expression (freedom of Goody, Jade, 263 HTML. See hypertext markup language
speech), 14, 323, 324, 364. See also Google, 9, 52, 209–10, 223, 276, 341, 348, HTTP. See hypertext transfer protocol
First Amendment 420, 426 Huffington, Arianna, 226, 227, 400
foundations of, 325–35 Google+, 209–10 Huffington Post, 13, 204, 227–28, 248, 400
freemium model, 109 Google Chrome, 170 Hull, Geoffrey P., 102
Freesheets, 85 Google Glass, 185 Hulu, 157
French New Wave films, 136 Gordy, Berry, Jr., 100–101 human-computer interactions, 166
frequency modulation (FM) radio, 110, “Got to Give It Up” (Gaye), 111 humor, and censorship, 335
114–17 government, 6–7. See also communication Hunger Games (Collins, S.), 74, 74
Fresh Off the Boat, 335 law; regulation Hurley, Chad, 426, 426
Freud, Sigmund, 283, 425 funding of media companies, 49, 50 Hutchins, Robert Maynard, 236–37
Friendster, 207 transparency, 403–4, 407 Hutchins Commission, 236–37, 414–15
FTC. See Federal Trade Commission A Grammatical Institute of the English hyperlinks, 14
funding Language (Webster), 68 hypertext, 47
crowdfunding, 104 gramophone, 100, 101 hypertext markup language (HTML), 170
of media companies, 49–51 Grand Theft Orchestra, 104 hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), 170
graphical user interface (GUI), hypodermic-needle model of media
167–68, 170 effects, 360, 366
graphical web browsers, 170
G graphophone, 99
greenwashing, 315
Game of Thrones, 148, 157
game shows, 149–50
Griffith, D. W., 131, 135
Guardian, 228, 419
I
gamification, 183, 183–84 Guardians of the Galaxy, 131 ideas
Gannett Company, 51, 81, 83f GUI. See graphical user interface print media and diffusion of, 64
Gaye, Marvin, 111, 111 gun control, 22 selling, 271
gay rights, 37–38 Gutenberg, Johannes, 24, 67, 77 ideology, and culture industry, 370
General Mass Media theory, 24t Gutenberg Bible, 67, 67 IE. See Internet Explorer
General Motors, 309 The Gutenberg Galaxy (McLuhan), 64 IFPI. See International Federation of the
genres, 137 Phonographic Industry
movies, 136–37 If You Are the One, 11
music, 45, 102 IGA. See in-game advertising
radio programming, 45, 118, 119t
television programming and, 147–52
H Ikea, 428
image, of politicians, 388, 397, 399
video game, 178, 178t–179t Habermas, Jürgen, 299–300, 416 imagery usage, by politicians, 395
Gentile, Bill, 241, 241 Hall, Stuart, 368, 370 immersive media, 185, 187
Gerbner, George, 363–64 HarperCollins, 48, 74 Incognito, Richie, 37
Giffords, Gabrielle, 395 Harper’s Weekly, 89 indecent speech, 333–34
Giuliani, Rudolph, 342 Harris, Benjamin, 68 independent films, 135
global ebook marketplace, 70 Harris, Kamala, 397 independent labels, 102
globalization, 412, 427–28, 433. See also Harrison, William Henry, 397 Indymedia groups, 244
global media Hays Code, 332–33 Indypendent, 244
global media Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier infomercial, 267
book industry and, 71 (1988), 331 information
careers, 432–33 HBO, 11, 148, 149, 157 evaluation of online, 57
cultural convergence and, 419 “H-Bomb Secret,” 327, 327 society, 372–73
digital divide, 422–23, 433 HDTV. See high-definition television information overload, 59
digital media and, 411–12, 433–34 Hearst, William Randolph, 233, information technology (IT), 419, 419
flow, 428 234, 234 in-game advertising (IGA), 270
historical development of, 412 Hearst Corporation, 83f Instagram, 219
international mass communication hegemony, media, 424 instant messaging, 203
theories and, 413–15 Hertz, Heinrich, 112 Instant Personalization, 216
local values and, 423–32 high-definition television integrated communications, 288–89
news and, 419 (HDTV), 152 intellectual property rights, 346–48
political and socioeconomic issues with, Hill and Knowlton firm, 317 interactive billboards, 280
418–23 Hill Street Blues, 148 interactive media, 20, 161–63, 187–88.
promotion of global voices, 430–31 Hollow (interactive documentary), 163, 164 See also augmented reality; Internet;
public, public sphere, public opinion Hollywood, 100. See also movie industry video games
and, 416–18 global market of, 427–28 careers in, 186–87
Godin, Seth, 59 Hays Code, 332–33 ethics of, 185–86
going viral, 398 movie moguls, 133–35 mass media versus, 163–65
Golden Mean, 298 star system, 135 interactivity, 162–63
Golden Rule, 297–98 Horkheimer, Max, 370, 370 interfaces. See user interface
Goldwyn, Samuel, 134 horse races, political campaigns as, 390 intermass communication, 34
Goodman, Mark, 336 Howard, Ronald, 306–7 international election monitoring, 402
 INDEX I-6

international electronic media regulation,

338, 339 J Kelly, Mark, 395
Kennedy, Anthony M., 335
International Federation of the Kennedy, John F., 397–98, 398
Phonographic Industry (IFPI), 97, 105 Jackson, Andrew, 396–97 Kennedy, Kathleen, 141, 141, 427
international mass communication Jamieson, Kathleen Hall, 394 Kenya, 50, 121, 402
theories, 413–15 Jaws theme, 98 Kerry, John, 17
international news, 246–48, 412, 430–31 Jay Z, 102 keyboards, 166, 167
international organizations, and Al Jazeera, 236, 254, 430–31, 431 Kickstarter, 104, 161, 196
transparency, 408 The Jazz Singer, 132, 133 Kindle ebook reader, 8, 9, 63, 70, 71
Internet, 5, 6, 10. See also communication Jefferson, Thomas, 324–25, 325 Kinect, 177
law and regulation; digital media; J-Ethinomics, 414 Knight Ridder, 52, 81
social media; Web; specific online topics JOA. See joint operating arrangement knowledge
access, 17, 422–23, 423f Jobs, Steve, 10, 10 print media and diffusion
activism, 350, 350 Johnson, John H., 90 of, 64–65
advertising, 12, 23, 216, 266, 267–68, Johnson & Johnson, 285 structures, 39
274–79, 278t joint operating arrangement (JOA), Korean copper-alloy type, 66
audience, 18 79–80 Korver, Clinton, 306–7
broadband and bandwidth, 171 journalism, 228, 255–56. See also Kurosawa, Akira, 136, 136
censorship, 338 communication law and regulation;
civic engagement and, 403–5 news; specific types of journalism
distribution, 171–72, 430 advertising and, 252, 290, 291
finding sources online, 286
global penetration rates, 422, 423f
audience participation in, 228, 242,
245–46, 248, 255, 256 L
history of, 168–69, 168–72 business of, 252–54 Lakoff, George, 42, 42
language and, 164 careers in, 254–55 languages, 371
movies and, 125, 138–39, 142 citizen, 20, 84, 84, 245–46, 310, 312 Internet and, 164
Network neutrality, 337, 338 cultural convergence and, 241 social networks of influential, 201
newspapers and, 80, 84, 85 digital media and, 227–28, 239, 241, LaPierre, Wayne, 357
politics and, 199, 221, 388, 398, 244–46, 248–55 Lasn, Kalle, 316, 316
398–405 electronic, 234–35 Lasswell, Harold D., 26, 28
public relations and, 286, 288 ethics in, 130, 231, 252, 295, 296, Lau, Richard, 394–96
research and theory, 371, 373, 299–302, 306, 307–13, 414 laugh tracks, 46
376–78, 383 expert sources, 238–39 laws. See also communication law and
speed, 17, 17f fact checking, 406 regulation; specific laws and regulations
Telecommunications Act foundations of, 236–39 ethics and, 296
and, 337 historical development of, 230–36 LCDs. See liquid crystal displays
television and, 125, 146, 153, 157, 158 legal, 330 LED. See light-emitting diode
terrorism and, 411–12 mass communication functions of, 228 Lee, Ivy Ledbetter, 283
trust on, 21 newspaper, 229–34, 237, 239, 240, Lee, Spike, 136, 136
Internet Archive, 69–70 242–45, 248–50, 252–55 Lee Enterprises, 82f
Internet-based media, 13 objectivity in, 53–54, 230 legal journalism, 330
Internet Explorer (IE), 170 online, 20, 239–55 Lehrer, Jonah, 312
Internet protocol (IP), 169 photojournalism, 130 Leslie, Frank, 89
Internet service providers (ISPs), 108, platypus, 241 libel law, 328–31, 352
109, 352 politics and, 388–92 libertarian theory, 413–14
interpersonal communication, 5, 23 protection against libel, 329 LibreOffice, 195, 196
mass communication and, 7, 12, public relations and, 261, 282–83, 285, Life magazine, 89
23, 25 286, 290 light-emitting diode (LED), 152, 153
mediated, 25 salaries, 253–54, 253f Limbaugh, Rush, 45
interpretive reporting, 243 sensational, 231, 233–34 limited-effects model, 363–66
interstitial ads, 275 social media and, 227–28 Lincoln, Abraham, 397
The Interview, 2, 3–4, 13 surveillance and, 26 linguistics, and framing, 42
intuitive user interfaces, 166–67 types of, 243–47 LinkedIn, 207, 210
IP. See Internet protocol undercover, 311 liquid crystal displays (LCDs), 152
iPad, 10, 63, 91, 93 values in, 230–31 listservs, 202
iPhone, 10 Journal News, 22 literacy, 39. See also media literacy
iPod, 10, 59, 427 beginnings of mass, 68
Iron Man 3, 427 literary journalism, 243
ISIS. See Islamic State of Iraq and Syria local values, and global media, 423–32
Islam, news framing of, 238
Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS),
K local voices, and global media, 429–30
Loew, Marcus, 134
411–12 Kahle, Brewster, 69 longitudinal study, 376
ISPs. See Internet service providers Kant, Immanuel, 299, 299 long tail marketing, 106
IT. See information technology Karim, Jawed, 426, 426 Lucas, George, 136, 137, 141
iTunes, 10, 97, 105, 108, 427 Karp, David, 204, 204 Luckey, Palmer, 161
 I-7 INDEX www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Lumière, Auguste and Louis, 128–29 McClatchy Company, 52, 81, 82f commercial media implications
Luntz, Frank, 42 McDonalds, 304–5 and, 47–53
lurking, 203 McGruff the Crime Dog, 271 education and, 38–39
McLuhan, Marshall, 48, 48, 64, framing and, 42–43
374–75, 383 McLuhan and, 48
mean-world syndrome, 364 media effects and, 43–44
M media. See also audio media; commercial
media; digital media; interactive
media grammar and, 44–47
mediated communication and, 40–43
machinima, 173, 173 media; print media; social media; online information evaluation, 57
magazines, 45, 94 visual media semiotics and, 40–41
advertising, 90, 91, 266, 278t, 279 audience changes, 18–20 skill development, 56–58
circulation of, 90–91, 91t careers, 58, 93 Media News Group, 81
current industry issues, 90 convergence type influence on, 8f media ownership. See also media
digital media and, 91–93, 92f, 93f distribution, 13, 18 companies
distinctive functions of, 87–88 ecosystem, 57–58 concentration of, 14, 51–53
history of, 89, 89 ethics in, 22, 55, 111 consolidated media, 9, 13, 14, 51–53
newspapers compared to, 87–88 fragmentation of, 20 film studio, 140t
outlook for, 91–93 iceberg, 15f monopolies, 51, 52
sales and readership, 90–91, 91t of mass communication, 4, 24–25 radio, 116–17
magic bullet model of media effects, oligopoly, 52 television, 154, 155t
360, 363 organization, 13–14 media pioneers
Magritte, René, 41, 41 political campaign expenditures, 393t Adair, 406, 406
major labels, 102, 103t, 105, 106 production, 12, 13, 15, 58 Boyd, 371, 371
Malaeska: The Indian Wife of the White profession changes, 20 Cary, 232, 232
Hunter (Stephens), 68 rape allegations in, 55, 295–96, Chen, Hurley and Karim, 426, 426
Marconi, Guglielmo, 112, 112 307–8 Dorsey, 206, 206
marijuana advertising, 343 relations and public relations, 285–86 Fleischman, Doris, 284, 284
mash-ups, 16, 105, 106, 111, 251, 251 role in persuasion, 263 Jobs, 10, 10
mass communication. See also advertising; societal role of, 38 Kennedy, Kathleen, 141, 141
public relations; specific models; specific source, 56 Lasn, 316, 316
technologies streaming, 138–39 Lewis, 330, 330
access, 16 transparency, 21 McLuhan, 48, 48
beginnings of, 68 use changes, 16–17 Palmer, Amanda, 104, 104
convergence and, 25, 33 media bias, 53–56, 58, 389 Salazar, 87, 87
correlation function of, 27, 228 media companies. See also media Super Mario, 176, 176
cultural transmission function of, ownership Walker, 265, 265
27, 228 government funding of, 49, 50 mediated communication, 40–43
in digital age, 23–25 private funding of, 49–51 mediated interpersonal
digital media and, 3 media content, 11–12, 13 communication, 25
entertainment and, 27 changes in, 14–16 media types. See also specific media types
functions of, 26–27, 228 framing of, 56–57 changes and convergence, 14
interpersonal communication and, 7, media types influence on, 309–10 media content influenced by, 309–10
12, 23, 25 purpose of, 56 medium, 23
journalism and functions of, 228 media ecology, 374–75 Méliès, Georges, 130–31
media of, 4, 24–25 media effects, 56 meme, 399
models, 24–25, 24t criticism of research on, 366 mergers. See consolidation
pervasive, 16, 17, 21, 38 early concerns of, 43–44 Metro, 85
politics and, 387–88, 407–8 limited, 363–66 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM)
research and theory, 359 research, 358, 359–66 Pictures, 134
surveillance function of, 26, 228 media ethics, 295–96, 320. See also ethics Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo
theories of international, 413–15 role of commercialism in, 308–10 (1974), 325
traditional model of, 24 media grammar microblogs, 205
massively multiplayer online games defined, 44 Milgram, Stanley, 211
(MMOGs), 179 of digital media, 47 Miller v. California (1973), 334
massively multiplayer online role-playing of film and television, 46 Milton, John, 413–14
games (MMORPGs), 179, 181 of media literacy, 44–47 Minecraft, 161, 180
mass-market paperbacks, 69 of newspapers, 44, 44–45 Minimash, 107
mass media of print media, 44, 44–45 Minitel, 200
General Mass Media theory, 24t of radio and recorded music, 45–46 minority newspapers, 230, 232
interactive media versus, 163–65 of Web, 47, 47 misrepresentation, by journalists, 312
Mathematical Theory of Mass media habits, 197–200 MMOGs. See massively multiplayer online
Communication, 28f political polarization and, 405, 405–6 games
Mayer, Louis B., 134 media hegemony, 424 MMORPGs. See massively multiplayer
McChesney, Robert, 49, 49, 52, 53, 59, media literacy, 37–40, 58–59 online role-playing games
373, 425 bias and, 53–56 mobile telephony. See also smartphones
 INDEX I-8

advertising, 276–77 online, 97, 98, 99, 105, 106–9 news conferences, 260
in developing world, 50 pricing structure, 107 News Corporation, 48, 51, 75, 83f,
Modern Family, 150 promotion, 106 208, 300
mods, 173 rock and roll, 100–102 news hole, 235
monastic scribes, 66 sales, 102, 105–8 news leak, 390
Monday Night Football, 148 subscription services, 108–9 News of the World phone-hacking scandal,
monopolies. See also conglomerates music industry, 97, 122. See also recording 300, 300
ebook, 63 industry Newspaper Preservation Act of 1970,
media, 51, 52 MySpace, 207–8 79–80
power, 6–7 newspapers, 94. See also specific newspapers
moral relativism, 305–6 advertising, 84, 85f, 86, 86f, 265, 266,
morals, 296 278–79, 278t
Mosaic, 170, 170
Motown Record Company, 101, 102
N chains, 80–81, 82f–83f, 85
circulation of, 76f, 84
movie industry Napster, 172 civil rights movement and, 308–9
business model, 143, 309 National Broadcasting Company (NBC), 9, current industry issues, 79–81
digitization, 143–44 115, 147, 234 declining number of daily, 81
DVDs and, 138–39, 142, 143, 145 National Commission on the Causes and distinctive functions of, 75–76
film studios ownership, 140t Prevention of Violence, 362–63 free, 85
global coproductions, 427 National Football League (NFL), 37, golden age of, 77–78
history of, 128–39, 132 259–60 history of, 76–78, 78–79
Hollywood, 100, 133–35, 332–33, National Geographic Society, 89 Internet and, 80, 84, 85
427–28 National Public Radio (NPR), 116 journalism, 229–34, 237, 239, 240,
outlook for, 143–44 national security, and law, 326–28 242–45, 248–50, 252–55
streaming, 138–39 National Security Agency (NSA), 419 local, 75
today, 139, 142 native advertising, 277–78 magazines compared to, 87–88
movies, 127–28. See also films Navratilova, Martina, 37 media grammar of, 44, 44–45
advertising and, 142, 278t, 279 NBC. See National Broadcasting Company minority, 230, 232
comics and, 137–38 NBC Universal, 13, 52 national, 75–76
cultural transmission and, 128 NCIS, 156 outlook for, 86–87
director as auteur, 135–36 Near v. Minnesota, 327 readership, 81, 84–86
genres and technological influences, negative political advertising, 388, 394– sales, 76, 76f, 77, 80, 81, 84–86
136–37 96, 396 Newsweek, 90
Internet and, 125, 138–39, 142 Neher, William, 297, 302 New York Sun, 77
marketing and distribution, 142–44 Netflix, 138, 139, 139, 157, 430 New York Times, 37, 57, 58, 75, 83f, 86,
milestones in early, 132 Netscape, 170 237, 242, 252, 253, 330
other entertainment sources for, Network neutrality (Net neutrality), New York Times Co. v. United States, 327
137–38 337, 338 New York Times v. Sullivan (1964), 328–29,
rating system, 333 New England Primer, 68 330
silent era, 129–31, 132, 133 New Journalism, 243 NFL. See National Football League
sound and color in, 131–33 New Media Monopoly (Bagdikian), 51 NGOs. See nongovernmental
television and, 32, 137, 142 news, 228–29. See also journalism organizations
3-D, 32, 145, 145 bias, 53–55 Nielsen, Arthur, 156
video games and, 137, 138 business and editorial operations Nielsen SoundScan and Billboard, 107
M-Pesa, 50 separation, 237 Niépce, Joseph, 126
MSNBC, 42 creation, 239–43 1989 (Swift), 97
MSOs. See multiple system operators digital technology and production of, Nintendo, 174, 176, 177, 178,
MTV, 98, 99, 148, 148 241–42 178t–179t, 181
muckrakers, 89, 243 distribution, 242–43 Nixon, Richard, 391, 397–98, 398
multicast, 152 diversity in newsroom, 254 Noelle-Neumann, Elisabeth, 365
multiple system operators (MSOs), fairness and balance in, 53–54, 237 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),
154, 155t framing, 42, 42t, 43t, 238 432–33
multitasking, 125, 166, 221 gathering, 240 NPR. See National Public Radio
Murdoch, Rupert, 48, 75, 300 globalization and, 412 NSA. See National Security Agency
Murnau, F. W., 131 global media and, 419 N. W. Ayer & Son, 266
Murrow, Edward R., 235, 235 international, 246–48, 412, 430–31
music, 97–98. See also recording industry personalization, 20, 251
cultural transmission and, 98–99 politician use of, 390
digital rights management and illegal
file sharing, 107–8
production, 240–42
radio, 234, 235
O
distribution, 427 social media as pathway to, Obama, Barack, 330, 344, 432
downloading, 108–9 211–12, 212f political campaigns, 199, 221, 396,
ethics in, 111 television, 234–35, 242, 309–10, 375 397–400, 401, 402
genres, 45, 102 top global sites for, 249t Romney debates, 400, 401, 401
media grammar of recorded, 45–46 values, 230–31 tweets about, 18, 218
 I-9 INDEX www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Obama, Michele, 153, 388 phone hacking, 300 pop-up ads, 275
objectivity, 54, 230 phonograph, 99 pornography, 334–35
obscenity, 334–35 photography portable media devices, 16, 91
Occupy Wall Street, 316, 378, 404, 405 cultural transmission and surveillance positivism, 379
Oculus Rift, 161 functions of, 126 postmodernism, 379
OhMyNews, 245 ethics and, 130 postpositivism, 379
oligopoly, 13 history of, 126–27, 128–29 Potter Box, 307, 307f
OmnicomGroup, 280, 281t industry today, 127 PR. See public relations
on-demand media content, 14 photojournalism, 130 pragmatism, 379
online information evaluation, 57 Phweeters, 218 Pravda, 415
online journalism, 239–47, 253–55 PIPA. See Protect Intellectual Property Act preferred-position balancing
contextualization, 251 piracy, 19, 144 theory, 328
convergence, 251, 252 pitch, 286 press. See also communication law and
nontraditional sources, 248–50 place shifting, 145 regulation; journalism; newspapers
personalization of, 20, 251 plagiarism, by journalists, 312 agentry, 283
user habits, 250 Plato, 40, 43, 44 colonial, 77
online music, 97, 98, 99, 105, 106–9 platypus journalism, 241 partisan, 77, 388
online radio, 117, 119 PlayStation, 177 penny, 77–78, 230, 230, 266
online reputation, 21 POD. See print-on-demand press kits, digital, 286
online video games, 177, 179 podcasting, 119–20 PRI. See Public Radio International
open access, 350 Poe, Edgar Allan, 88 Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time, 138
OpenSecrets.org, 403 political action committees (PACs), printing press, 24, 77
open-source model, 195–96, 350 387–88, 393, 394, 403 print media, 14, 63–64, 94, 242. See also
opinion polls, 391–92, 392 political campaigns books; magazines; newspapers
opt in, 275 crowdsourcing election monitoring, 402 advertising, 266, 272
Osgood, Charles, 29f, 30 entertainment and, 396–97, 397 digital media challenges to, 64, 74
outdoor advertising, 273–74, 278t, 279 as horse races, 390 functions of, 64–66
Oz, Dr., 305 media and nonmedia expenditures, 393t history, 64
Obama, 199, 221, 396, 397–400, media grammar of, 44, 44–45
401, 402 print-on-demand (POD), 69–70
radio and, 398 prior restraint, 327–28
P social media and, 199, 221, 388, 398,
398–402
PRISM, 419, 432
privacy, 21–22, 323
PACs. See political action committees political debates, 397–98, 398 digital media and, 21, 351–52
Page, Arthur W., 283 Obama-Romney, 400, 401, 401 rights versus public right to know,
Paine, Thomas, 282, 388 political economy, 373 310–11
Palin, Sarah, 395 political speech regulation, 341–42, social media and, 215–17, 311, 311
Palmer, Amanda, 104, 104 344–45 traditional media and, 348–49
Palmer, Janelle, 258, 259 politicians producers
Palmer, Volney B., 266 image of, 388, 397, 399 consumers and, 195, 222–23
Pandora, 109 imagery usage by, 395 produsers and, 212–18
paperbacks, 69 social media and changing rules for, social media and, 195, 212–18
Paramount Pictures, 134, 135 401–2 production
Parsons, Rehtaeh, 312 use of news by, 390 digital technology and, 15
participant-observation, 381 politics globalization of media, 427–28
participatory production. See social advertising and, 388, 389, 393–96 media, 12, 13, 15, 58
production civic engagement and social media, news, 240–42
partisan press, 77, 388 403–5 social, 195–96
patents, 347 cultural convergence and, 399 product placement, 31–32, 143, 272, 273
Patterson, Thomas, 391 entertainment and, 396–98, 397 products, selling, 271
pay for play, 106 ethics in, 395 produsers, 19–20, 212–18, 399
Payne Fund studies, 360–61 global media and issues of, 418–23 profession, media, 20
payola, 106 Internet and, 199, 221, 388, 398, The Progressive, 327, 327
PBS. See Public Broadcasting Service 398–405 promotion
peer-to-peer (P2P), 18, 171, 172, 172 journalism and, 388–92 of global voices, 430–31
penny press, 77–78, 230, 230, 266 mass communication and, 387–88, music, 106
Pepsi, 268 407–8 recording industry, 106
performance-based advertising, 264 media bias and, 54–55 propaganda, 26, 360, 360
personalization, 214 media careers in, 407 ProPublica, 227, 244–45
Instant Personalization, 216 media habits and polarization in, 405, prosumers, 214
of online journalism, 20, 251 405–6 Protect Intellectual Property Act (PIPA),
persuasive communication, 262–63 television and, 391, 398–99 338, 389
pervasiveness, of media, 16, 17, 21, 38 PolitiFact, 405, 406 PSA. See public service announcement
Peterson, Theodore, 413, 415, 433 polls, opinion, 391–92, 392 pseudo events, 229, 286
Phipps v. Clark Oil & Ref. Corp (1987), 328 Pool, Tim, 130, 130 P2P. See peer-to-peer
 INDEX I-10

public, 416–18 in developing countries, 121 Reddit, 194, 198, 198, 211, 350
information campaign, 271 distinctive functions of, 110 reframing, 42, 42t, 43t
right to know versus privacy rights, early, 110, 112–15, 113, 115, regulation, 7. See also communication law
310–11 335–36, 336 and regulation
Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), FM, 110, 114–17 relationships
148, 157 history of, 110–17 digital, 21
public domain books, 69–70 media grammar of, 45–46 ethics and, 302–5
Publicis Groupe, 280, 281t networks, 115–16 social media and, 218–20
public journalism, 244–45 news, 234, 235 remote controls, 165, 166
Publick Occurrences: Both Foreign and online, 117, 119 Reporters Without Borders, 413, 420
Domestick, 75, 75 podcasting, 119–20 Republican National Convention (2004),
public opinion, 390, 416–18 political campaigns and, 398 404–5
public radio, 116 programming genres, 45, 118, 119t reputation, 214–15
Public Radio International (PRI), 116 public, 116 online, 21
public relations (PR), 259–61, 282, revenues, 117, 118 research and theory, 357–58, 383. See also
291–92, 417 satellite, 110, 119, 120–21 specific theories
careers, 290–91 social effects, 361–62 audience, 366–70
changing trends in, 288–89 technology development, 113 careers, 382–83
developmental trends, 284–85 telephone as early, 6 cultural studies, 370–72
ethics in, 283, 285, 288, 315–17 widespread public adoption of, 113 intellectual history of, 374
firms, 286–88, 287t World War I and, 113 Internet, 371, 373, 376–78, 383
historical development, 282–84 Radio Act of 1912, 335–36 mass communication, 359
industry, 286–88 Radio Act of 1927, 115, 336 media effects research, 358, 359–66
Internet and, 286, 288 Radio Corporation of America new directions, 376–78
journalism and, 261, 282–83, 285, (RCA), 114 role of, 358–59
286, 290 radio industry science of, 378–82
media relations and, 285–86 outlook, 118–21 sociohistorical frameworks, 372–76
social media, 261, 282, 285, 286, today, 117 Reuter, Paul Julius Freiherr von, 412
289, 291–92 radio station rhetoric, 28, 262
specialist salaries, 290f consolidation, 116–17 RIAA. See Recording Industry Association
strategic communications and, 261–63 ownership, 116–17 of America
public service announcement programming, 45, 118, 119t Rice, Ray, 258, 259
(PSA), 271 Rage Against the Machine, 397 ridicule, and censorship, 335
public sphere, 416–18 random sample, 380 rights, 42
publish, then filter model, 194 rape allegations, in media, 55, 295–96, rock and roll, 100–102
publishing, 63–64, 309, 324. See also 307–8 Rockefeller, John D., Sr., 283
books rate card, 272 Rogen, Seth, 2, 3
antitrust suit, 63 ratings, 264 Rolling Stone magazine, 130, 130,
digital, 70, 353 Nielsen, 156 295–96, 307
puffery, 273, 314 rating systems, 214–15, 218 Romney, Mitt, 394, 399, 400, 401, 401
Pulitzer, Joseph, 233, 233, 388–89 movie, 333 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 398, 399
push polls, 392 Rawls, John, 301 Roots (television series), 148
RCA. See Radio Corporation of America Russia, 339, 432
readership Ryan, Paul, 397
of books, 72–74
Q colonial, 77
magazine, 90–91, 91t
Al Qaeda, 411
qualitative research, 379, 380–82
of newspapers, 81, 84–86
reality shows, 151, 151
S
quantitative research, 379, 380, 382 real-time mobile billing, 277 Sabato, Larry, 394
quiz shows, 149 reception analysis, 368 Sacco, Justin, 191
QWERTY keyboard, 166 recording industry, 98. See also music Said, Edward, 238
industry Salazar, Ruben, 87, 87
business models, 105–7, 108–9 sales
careers, 121–22 book, 72–74, 72f, 73f
R consolidation, 102
distinctive functions of, 98–99
ebook, 74
magazine, 90–91
racist stereotypes, 318 distribution, 106 music, 102, 105–8
radical journalism, 243–44 history of, 99–102 newspaper, 76, 76f, 77, 80, 81, 84–86
radio, 14, 110, 122. See also broadcasting outlook for, 107–9 Sam, Michael, 36, 37
advertising, 115, 278t, 279 promotion, 106 sampling error, 380
AM, 110, 112, 114–17 today, 102–5 Sandin, Paul, 297, 302
business model, 115 Recording Industry Association of Sarnoff, David, 114, 115
call letters, 117 America (RIAA), 102, 105, 108 satellite radio, 110, 119, 120–21
careers, 121–22 record labels, 102, 103t, 105, 106 satellite television, 154, 155, 155t, 157
 I-11 INDEX www.oup.com/us/pavlik

Saussure, Ferdinand de, 40 social justice, 58, 301–2 sound

Schenck, Charles T., 327 social marketing, 271, 301, 301 in movies, 131–33
Schramm, Wilbur, 29–30, 363, 413, social media, 57, 58, 222–23, 364, 371. sound bites, 391
415, 433 See also social-networking sites; Soviet theory, 415
Schramm-Osgood Model, of specific types of social media spam, 202, 202, 267–68
communication, 29f activism and, 303, 378, 408, 417–18 spectrum auction, 341
Schramm’s Simplified Communication advertising and, 262, 289, 291–92 spectrum scarcity, 336
Model, 24t, 29–30, 29f antisocial aspect of, 218–20 speech. See also freedom of expression
Schwartz, Tony, 267 careers in, 222 indecent, 333–34
Scott, Ridley, 142 civic engagement and, 403–5 regulation of commercial and political,
scrolling, 204 collaboration and, 195–96, 341–45
search-engine ads, 276 199–200, 223 Spielberg, Steven, 141
search engine marketing (SEM), conversation and, 197–98 spiral of silence theory, 365
264, 276 cultural convergence and, 211 SPJ. See Society of Professional Journalists
search engine optimization (SEO), 276 curation and, 198 sports television, 150–51
sedition, 326 cyberbullying and, 219, 219, 312 Spotify, 97, 109, 109
SEM. See search engine marketing defining, 192–96 Springsteen, Bruce, 397, 402
semiotics, 40–41, 41f dialogical ethics and, 304–5 Square, 206
sensational journalism, 231, 233–34 dumbing aspect of, 220–21 Star Trek, 25
SEO. See search engine optimization ethics and, 216–17, 219, 303, 311, Star TV, 48–49
Serial, 120 312, 316 Stein, Gertrude, 41
serious games, 183 good, bad and ugly, 218–22 Stephens, Ann S., 68
Sesame Street, 148 impact of, 191–92 stereotypes, 56, 57
Set Meter, 156 journalism and, 227–28 in entertainment, 27, 55, 318
sex media choice and, 197 racist, 318
advertising’s negative effects on media creation and, 199 Stern, Howard, 120, 120, 334
sexes, 377 as pathway to news, 211–12, 212f Stewart, Jon, 242, 304, 387
in entertainment media, 319, 319 political campaigns and, 199, 221, 388, Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), 338,
Hays Code and, 332 398, 398–402 350, 389
programming and V-chip, 346 privacy and, 215–17, 311, 311 storytelling, 43
violence and, 295–96, 299, 307, 319, producers and, 195, 212–18 The Strait Times, 413
346, 362 produsers and, 212–18, 399 strategic communications, 261–62
Shadd Cary, Mary Ann, 232, 232 public relations and, 261, 282, 285, media role in persuasion, 263
Shannon, Claude E., 24t, 28–29, 28f 286, 289, 291–92 persuasive communications, 262–63
shield laws, 329–31 relationships and, 218–20 streaming media, 138–39
Shirky, Clay, 194, 194 reputation, ratings, trust and, 214–15 Stubblefield, Nathan B., 112
Sholes, Christopher Latham, 166 social aspect of, 197–200 subliminal advertising, 343–44
Siebert, Fred S., 413, 415, 433 social movements and, 303, 378, 408 subscription services
Sigelman, Lee, 394–96 social production and, 195–96 music, 108–9
signified, 41, 41f strategic communication and, 262 television, 138, 139, 154, 155, 157
signifier, 41, 41f television and, 193 subvertisements, 316
signs, 41–42, 41f traditional media compared to, 192–95, subway billboard ads, 280, 280
silent films, 129–31, 132, 133 197, 199, 222, 223 Sullivan, L. B., 328–29, 330
simplified communications model, 24t, transparency and, 217–18 Sunlight Foundation, 404, 404
29–30, 29f types of, 200–205, 207–12 Super Bowl trademark, 347
Sina Weibo, 205 social movements, 308, 308–9, 316. Super Mario, 176, 176
Sirius Satellite Radio, 120, 121 See also activism Super PACs, 387–88, 393, 394
six degrees of separation, 211 social media and, 303, 378, 408 superstations, 32
Skechers, 313 social-networking sites, 207–12, 223. superstitial ads, 275
Slacker Radio, 109 See also social media; specific sites Supreme Court, 135, 139. See also
slander, 328 launches timeline, 208–9 specific cases
Slashdot effect, 250 most popular, 210t communication law and, 325, 327–30,
Slingbox, 145, 146 social networks, of influential 332–35, 342, 344, 349
small world, 211 languages, 201 surveillance, 26
smart mobs, 404 social production, 195–96 global, 419
smartphones, 7, 7, 16, 200. See also mobile social responsibility theory, 414–15 journalism and, 26
telephony societal role, of media, 38 as mass communication function, 26,
smart-screen television, 152–53 Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ), 228
Snapchat, 204 130, 312–13 newspapers and, 75
Snowden, Edward, 351, 378, 419, soft news day, 229 photography and, 126
419, 432 Sokal, Alan, 372 television and, 146
soap operas, 149 Soltani, Zahra, 303 swarming, 172
soccer, 150 Sony Pictures, 4, 13, 140t Swartz, Aaron, 350, 350
social constructionism, 379 SOPA. See Stop Online Piracy Act Swift, Taylor, 96, 97
social games, 181 Sorority Sisters, 309 synchronous media, 24
 INDEX I-12

T viewing habits, 31
violence and, 357, 362, 362–64, 365
trolling, 186
trolls, 207
television industry Trump, Donald, 286, 347
tablet computers, 16–17, 17, 91, 93f business models, 156–57 trust, 214–15
tagging, 198 outlook for, 157 on Internet, 21
The Talk, 53 today, 154–55, 155t Tsarnaev, Dzhokhar, 130, 130, 217
talk shows, 149 television programming Tumblr, 205
TCP. See Transmission Control Protocol cable, 128, 148–49, 156 Turkle, Sherry, 220
Technicolor Motion Picture Corporation, children’s, 345–46, 361–64 Turner, Ted, 32
131, 134 daytime, 149 Twitter, 25, 37, 57, 104, 191, 205, 206,
technological convergence, 8–9, 8f genres and, 147–52 250, 303
technological determinism, 375 Internet, 157 fake accounts, 217, 218
Telecommunications Act of 1996, 116, news, 234–35, 242, 309–10, 375 fake tweets, 18, 218
154, 158, 334, 337 prime-time network, 149–50, 157 McDonalds campaign on, 304–5
telegraphy, 5, 6, 112, 231 pushing envelope of, 148 political campaigns and, 398, 398,
telemarketing, 274 reality shows, 151, 151 398–99, 401, 402
telephony, 4. See also mobile telephony sports, 150–51 two-way symmetric model, 284–85
cable television and, 158 Te’o, Manti, 219 typewriters, 166
cell phones, 4–5, 7, 221 terrorism, 411–12 tyranny of the majority, 417
compatibility, 6 cyberterrorism, 432, 434
convergence in, 4–8 textbooks, 66, 68
developing world and mobile, 50 theories. See also research and theory;
as early radio, 6
government or privately run, 6
specific theories
cognitive dissonance, 263
U
lines, 5 communication, 28–31 Ubisoft, 180
transmission model of communication international mass communication, UGC. See user-generated content
and, 29 413–15 UI. See user interface
television, 4, 125–26, 144–46. See also A Theory of Semiotics (Eco), 41 UMG. See Universal Music Group
broadcasting; cable television; specific Thicke, Robin, 111, 111 Undercover Brother, 138
networks third-party cookies, 274, 351 United Nations, 428, 432
advertising, 125, 142, 156, 260, third-person effect, 365–66 United States v. Paramount Pictures, 135, 139
266–67, 278, 278t “This is not a pipe,” 41 Universal Music Group (UMG), 102
audience, 145, 146, 149, 153, 156 Thomson Reuters, 72 universal service, 340
color, 147 3-D University of Virginia (UVA), 294, 295–96
commercial, 266–67 movies, 32, 145, 145 USA Today, 75, 76
convergence and, 31–33, 152 television, 32, 153 Usenet, 203
cultural transmission and, 146 Thumb, General Tom, 283 user-generated content (UGC), 18, 19,
dating shows, 11 Time Inc., 89 151, 352
digital, 152, 157 time shifting, 25, 145 user interface (UI), 162, 165
distribution of, 153–54, 155t Time Warner, 13, 52, 89, 140t, 154, 155t computer, 165
first systems, 146 Tin Pan Alley, 100 GUI, 167–68, 170
flat-panel displays, 152–53 TMZ, 259 historical development of, 165–68
functions, 146 tobacco advertising, 343 intuitive, 166–67
HDTV, 152 Today, 310 television, 165–66
history of, 146–53 Tornberg, Pelle, 85 uses-and-gratifications research, 367–68
industry of China, 11 To Sell a War, 317 utilitarianism, 301
interactive, 32–33 touch screens, 167 UVA. See University of Virginia
interfaces, 165–66 trademarks, 269, 347
Internet and, 125, 146, 153, 157, 158 traditional mass-communication
media grammar of, 46 model, 24
modern, 146–47
movies and, 32, 137, 142
traditional media
digital media absorption of, 20
V
Nielsen ratings, 156 privacy and, 348–49 Valentine v. Chrestensen (1942), 342
objectivity of, 54 social media compared to, 192–95, 197, values
ownership, 154, 155t 199, 222, 223 changes, 20–23
politics and, 391, 398–99 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), 169 global media and local, 423–32
remote controls, 165, 166 transmission model of communication, of journalism, 230–31
risk-averse network, 149, 156 24t, 28–30 news, 230–31
satellite, 154, 155, 155t, 157 transparency V-chip, 346
social media and, 193 government, 403–4, 407 Venezuela election, 402
subscription services, 138, 139, 154, international organizations, 408 Vergara, Sofia, 150
155, 157 media, 21 Verizon, 154, 158
surveillance functions of, 146 social media and, 217–18 Vice News, 130
3-D, 32, 153 trial balloon, 390 victims, journalists victimizing, 311–12
time shifting and place shifting, 25, 145 Tribune Media Company, 82f Victor Talking Machine Company, 99, 100
 I-13 INDEX www.oup.com/us/pavlik

video games, 173, 270 VNRs. See video news releases Wood, David, 227
addiction, 181 VOD. See video-on-demand Woods, Granville T., 112
advertising in, 185–86 voice-overs, 45 word-of-mouth marketing, 215
bestsellers, 178t–179t voice transmission, 112 World Internet Project, 376
cultural convergence and, 180, 181 World of Warcraft, 179, 181
education and, 182, 183 World Press Freedom Index (2015),
eighth generation consoles, 177 420, 421
families and, 182
gamification, 183, 183–84
W World Trade Organization (WTO), 408
World War I, 113, 360
genres, 178, 178t–179t Walker, C. J., 265, 265 World Wide Web (WWW), 170, 200. See
historical development, 174–75, 174–77 Wall Street Journal, 75, 76, 253 also Internet
industry, 180–83, 187 “Wal-Marting Across WTO. See World Trade Organization
movies and, 137, 138 America,” 21 WWW. See World Wide Web
online, 177, 179 Warner Brothers, 133
trends, 182–83 War of the Worlds radio broadcast, 361,
violence in, 186, 357 361–62
video journalists (VJs), 14
video news releases (VNRs), 240, 283, 317
wartime propaganda, 26, 360, 360
Weaver, Warren, 24t, 28–29, 28f
X
video-on-demand (VOD), 142, 143 Web. See also Internet Xbox, 177
videos, ads in, 275 forums, 202–3 XM Satellite Radio, 120, 121
videotapes, 138 graphical web browsers, 170
violence media grammar of, 47 , 47
in entertainment media, 318, 319 World Wide, 170, 200
programming and V-chip, 346
research on media, 357–58, 360–64,
weblogs. See blogs
Webster, Noah, 68, 68
Y
366, 378 Weiner, Anthony, 218 Yahoo, 421
sex and, 295–96, 299, 307, 319, Welles, Orson, 361, 361–62 yellow journalism, 233
346, 362 Wells, Ida B., 232, 232 Yomiuri Shimbun, 76, 76
television and, 357, 362, 362–64, 365 Wertham, Fredric, 331 YouTube, 25, 52, 161, 193–94, 198, 426
in video games, 186, 357 The Who, 101 political campaigns on, 400–401
viral marketing, 18, 277 Who Wants to be a Millionaire, 149–50
Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Wii, 177, 179
Citizens Consumer Council, Inc. Wikinews, 245, 246
(1976), 342
virtual reality, 161, 184, 186, 187
Wikipedia, 16, 196, 205, 205, 207, 214
wikis, 15–16, 205, 207
Z
virtue ethics, 297–98 Williams, Brian, 312, 312 Zenger, John Peter, 328, 328
visual media, 125–26, 158. See also Williams, Pharrell, 109, 111 Zero Dark Thirty, 142
movies; photography; television wireless communications, 21, 109. See also Zool, 270
careers, 158 specific wireless technologies Zuckerberg, Mark, 161, 208
VJ. See video journalists wireless telegraphy, 112 Zynga, 181, 182, 216