Detailed Notes on important topics of all modules

Research and Methodology Submitted by: Yamini Johri

1. Module One

1.1 What are research methods?

The word ‘research’ is composed of two syllables, “re” and “search”. “Re” is a prefix
meaning “again, anew, and over again”. “Search” is a verb meaning to examine closely and
carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful,
systematic, patient study and investigation in any field of knowledge, undertaken to establish
facts or principles.
Research methods are the strategies, processes or techniques utilized in the collection of data
or evidence for analysis to uncover new information or create better understanding of a topic.
There are different types of research methods which use different tools for data collection.
According to Rajasekar et. al. (2006), research is a logical and systematic search for new and
useful information on a particular topic. It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific
and social problems through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge,
that is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The
information might be collected from different sources like experience, human beings, books,
journals, nature, etc. A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge.
Only through research is it possible to make progress in a field. Research is done with the
help of study, experiment, observation, analysis, comparison, and reasoning. Research is in fact
ubiquitous. More precisely, research seeks predictions of events and explanations,
relationships, and theories for them.
"Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue". Creswell
Characteristics of research
To qualify as research, it shall contain certain characteristics to be counted as successful
research. Following are the characteristics of a research:

a) Controlled - in real life

there are many factors that
affect an outcome. The
concept of control
Controlled
 a) in real life there are many
factors that affect an
outcome. The concept of
control
Implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your
study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.
Rigorous

b) you must be scrupulous in

ensuring that the procedures
followed to find answers
one must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedure followed to find answers to questions
are relevant, appropriate, and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly between the
physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
Systematic

c) this implies that the

procedure adopted to
undertake an investigation
follow a
This implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical
sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow
others.
Valid and Verifiable
This concept implies to whatever you conclude based on your findings is correct and can be
verified by you and others.
Empirical
This states that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.
Critical
Critical scrutiny of the procedures used, and the methods employed are crucial to a research
enquiry. The process of investigation must be full proof and free from drawbacks. The
process adopted and the procedures must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

Research Objective
From the viewpoint of objectives, research can be classified as:
a) Descriptive: It attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon,
service, or a programme, or provides information about living conditions of a
community, or describes attitude towards an issue.
b) Correlational: It attempts to discover or establish the existence of a
relationship/interdependence between the two or more aspects of the situation.
c) Explanatory: Attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between
situations or phenomenon.
d) Exploratory: It is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study.

1.2 Method versus Methodology

The two terms are often confused as one and the same. One of the primary differences
between them is that the ‘research methods” are the methods by which one conducts research
on a topic or subject. On the other hand, “research methodology” explains the methods that
can be used to proceed with one’s research. "Research methods are the particular strategies
researchers use to collect the evidence necessary for building and testing theories “Frey,
Botan, Friedman, & Kreps (1991). A method is a specific approach to collect data. There
can be several methods used. Few of them are as follow:
a) Interview
b) Surveys
c) Focus groups
d) Experiment
e) Case study
f) Observational study
g) Online data collection
On the other hand, research methodology involves learning of the various techniques that can
be used to conduct research and in conduction of tests, experiments, surveys, and critical
studies. It is systematic way to solve an issue. It basically is a science of studying how
research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedure by which researchers go about their
work of describing, explaining, and predicting phenomena are called research methodology.
Research methods are simply the various processes, schemes, and algorithms used in
research. These are essentially planned, scientific and value neutral. They include theoretical
procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approach etc. research
method helps us collect samples, data, and solutions to a problem. Particularly, scientific
research methods call for an explanation based on collected facts, measurements, and
observations and not on the reasoning alone.
In short, it can be said that research methods aim at finding solutions to research problem,
whereas, research methodology, aims at the employment of the correct procedure to find out
the required solutions. It is important to note that the research methodology paves the way for
research methods. It provides a blueprint to any research thus becoming the vital stage of any
successful research.
Importance of Research Methodology in research
It is necessary for a researcher to design a research methodology for the problem chosen. One
should note that even if the research method considered for two problems are same the
research methodology may be different. It is important for the researcher to know not only
the research methods necessary for the research undertaken but also the methodology.
The study of research methods gives training to apply them to a problem. The study of
research methodology provides us the necessary training in choosing research methods,
materials, scientific tools and training in techniques relevant for the problem chosen.
Research methodology includes a philosophically coherent collection of theories, concepts, or
ideas as they relate to a particular discipline or field of inquiry. Methodology refers to more
than a simple set of methods; rather it refers to the rationale and the philosophical
assumptions that underlie a particular study relative to the scientific method.
Therefore, scholarly literature often includes a section on the methodology of the researchers.
This section does more than outline the researchers’ methods (for example, “we conducted a
survey of 50 people over a two-week period and subjected the results to statistical
analysis”, etc.); might explain what the researchers’ ontological or epistemological views
are. Researchers acknowledge the need for rigor, logic, and coherence in their research
methodologies, which are subject to peer review.

1.3 Errors made in casual enquiry

a) Inaccurate observation: It is simply a failure to report accurately what one has witnessed.
This error is common when we are not mindful in our approach to observation.
b) Over Generalization: This fallacy occurs when we observe a phenomenon and misapply our
findings to the broader categories of the phenomenon’s components. For example: a tow truck
driver who observes that three out of the four car wrecks she has witnessed in a week have
involved female drivers as culprits and then pronounces that the females are bad drivers.
c) Selective Observation: It is to be thought of as an illusory correlation between variables
whereby observations of a phenomenon that fit with an observer’s pre-existing orientation
“count” more (cognitively speaking) than those that do not. For example: the driver would be
making a selective observation if her perspective that men are better drivers than women led
her to ignore the fact that over the course of the month, 18 out of 30 car wrecks observed
could be attributed to errors by male drivers in favour of the lesser number of cases where
females were the culprits.
d) Illogical Reasoning: It’s like drawing a false conclusion through a faulty analysis of
observations.  An example of this reasoning would be a belief that I will win a lottery jackpot
next week since I’ve had nothing but bad luck in this endeavour for the past three weeks (also
known as the gambler’s fallacy).
1.4 What are social science research?

“D. Slesinger and D. Stephenson define social science research as the manipulation of
things, concepts, or symbols to generalize to extend, correct, or verify knowledge whether
that knowledge aids in the construction of theory or the practice of an art”. It is a gift to the
advancement and enhancement of already known pieces of information.  Social science
researchers also follow scientific methods and techniques to conduct research. According to
P.V. Young: “Social research is a scientific undertaking which by means of logical methods,
aim to discover new facts or old facts and to analyse their sequences, interrelationships,
casual explanations and natural laws which govern them.” The main idea behind social
research is to discover new inter relations, new knowledge, new facts and to verify old ones.
Human behaviour may be involved by certain values and laws. The main purpose of social
research is to discover those laws which can be proper guidelines for studying human contact
and behaviour. it is difficult see the underlying uniformities in the diversity of complex
human behaviour. Social research can be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and
recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalization,
principles or theories resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events in
society. It attempts to answer or solve social problems.

1.5 Objective of social scientific research.

 To facilitate the understanding of human behaviour.

 To acquire knowledge about social phenomena, events, issue, problems etc.
 To identify functional relationship existing in the social phenomena.
 To find out the natural laws that regulates or directs social phenomena.
 To standardize the society concept, e.g., culture, struggle, generation gap, social distance
 To formulate solution to social problems.
 To maintain social organization, remove social tension, misconception, etc.
 To develop social revival plan.

1.6 Philosophical Worldview

Philosophical ideas remain largely hidden in research (Slife &Williams, 1995), they still
influence the practice of research and need to be identified. The term “worldview” means “a
basic set of beliefs that guide actions” (Guba, 1990). Others have called them ‘paradigms
(Lincoln & Guba, 2000); epistemologies and ontologies (Crotty, 1998), or broadly conceived
research methodologies (Neuman,2000). Worldview are defined as general orientation about
the world and the nature of research that researchers hold. The types of beliefs held by
individual researchers will often lead to embracing a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
methods of approach in their research.
Four different worldviews along with the major elements are discussed below:
a) Post Positivism b) Constructivism
 Determinism  Understanding
 Reductionism  Multiple participant meanings
 Empirical observation and  Social and historical
measurement construction
 Theory verification  Theory generation
c) Advocacy d) Pragmatism
 Political  Consequences of actions
 Empowerment issue-oriented  Problem-centred
 Collaborative  Pluralistic
 Change-oriented  Real-world practice oriented

a) The Post-Positivism Worldview

Assumptions have represented the traditional form of research. These assumptions
hold true for quantitative research than qualitative research. It is sometimes called the
“scientific method” or doing science research. It was later called post-positivism
because it represents challenging the traditional notion of the absolute truth of
knowledge (Phillips & Burbules, 2000), and recognizing that we cannot be “positive”
about claims that we make when we study behaviour and actions of human beings.
The positivist tradition comes from 19th century writers like Comte, Newton, and
Locke. Postpositivist holds philosophy to determine effects or outcomes. The problem
studied, reflects the need to identify and assess the cause that influence outcome. Its
intent is to reduce the ideas into a small, discrete set of ideas to test, like variables that
comprise research questions. The careful observations and measurements of the
objective reality “exists out there”. Thus, developing numeric measures of observation
becomes paramount. Finally, the theories that exist and governs the world, needs to be
tested or verified and refined to gain a better understanding of how the world works.

b) The Social Constructivist Worldview

Social constructivism is typically seen as an approach to qualitative research. The idea
came from Mannheim and from the Berger and Lukemann’s (1967) “The Social
Construction of Reality”, and Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry.
Social Constructivists holds assumptions that individuals seek understanding o the
world in which they live and work. They develop subjective meaning for their
experiences. These meanings are varied and multiple, leading to researcher to look for
complexity rather than narrowing the meanings into a few categories and ideas. The
goal of the research is to rely on participant’s view as much as possible. The more
open-ended questions, the better.it provides researcher with a little more to listen and
observe what people say or do in their life. They focus on the specific contexts in
which people live and work, to understand the historical and cultural setting of the
participants. Researchers recognizes their own backgrounds shape their interpretation,
and how their interpretation flows from their personal, cultural, and historical
experiences.

c) The Advocacy and Participatory Worldview

This position arose during the 1980s and 1990s from the individuals, who felt that the
structural laws and theories of post-positivism assumptions does not fit marginalized
individuals in our society or issues of social justice that needs to be addressed. This
worldview is typically seen with qualitative research, but it can be a foundation for
quantitative research as well. Advocacy/Participatory Worldview holds that research
inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and its agenda. Thus, there is an action
agenda for reform that may change the lives of participants, institution, and the
researcher. Specific issues need to be addressed that speak to important social issues
of the day such as empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination, suppression,
and alienation. This research also assumes that the inquirer will proceed
collaboratively. The participants may help design questions, collect data, analyse, and
 reap the rewards of the research. Advocacy research provides voice for these
participants, raising their consciousness or advancing an agenda for change.
This philosophical worldview focuses on the needs of groups and individuals in our
society that may be marginalize. Therefore, theoretical perspective may be integrated
with the philosophical assumptions that constructs a picture of the issue being
examined.
d) The Pragmatic Worldview
Pragmatism as a worldview arise out of actions, situations, and consequences rather
than antecedent conditions. Instead of focusing on methods, researchers emphasize
the research problem and use all approaches available to understand the problem. As a
philosophical underpinning for mixed research, Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998).
Morgan (2007), and Patton (1990) convey its importance for focusing attention on the
research problem in social science research and then using pluralistic approaches to
derive knowledge about the problem.

1.7 Research Designs

What is a research design?

These are plans and the procedures for research that span the decisions from broad
assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and analysis. It involves several decisions;
they need not be taken in the other in which they make sense to me. The overall decision
involves which decision should be the worldview assumptions the researcher brings to the
study; procedure of inquiry (strategies); and specific methods of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation. A research design is the specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyse,
and interpret data. Psychologists use three major types of research designs in their research,
and each provides an essential avenue for scientific investigation.

Types of Designs

There are basically three types of designs, namely: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods.
Qualitative and quantitative approaches are viewed as opposites or dichotomies; instead, they
represent different ends on a continuum (Newman & Benz, 1998). A study can either be more
qualitative than quantitative or vice versa. Mixed method resides in the middle of this
continuum as it posses’ elements from both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Often the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is framed in terms of using
words rather than numbers or using close-ended questions rather than open-ended questions.
The basic philosophical assumptions researchers bring to the study, the types of research
strategies used in overall research, and the specific methods employed in conducting these
strategies.

The Three Key Terms/ Strategies of inquiry

a) Qualitative research
It is a means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups
ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves emerging
 questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data
analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher
making interpretations of the meaning of the data. The final report has a flexible
structure. In simple words, qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-
numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or
experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new
ideas for research. It is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in
subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

Approaches to Qualitative research

Approach What does it involve?

Grounded theory Researcher collects rich data on a topic of
interest and develop theories inductively.
Ethnography Researchers immerse themselves in groups
and organizations to understand their
cultures.
Action research Researchers and participants collaboratively
link theory to practice driving a social
change.
Phenomenological change Researchers investigates a phenomenon or an
event by describing and interpreting
participant’s lived experiences.
Narrative research Researchers examine how stories are told to
understand how participants perceive and
make sense of their experiences.
Case Study The researcher explores in depth a program,
event, activity, process, or one or more
individuals. It is bounded by time and
activity.

Qualitative research methods

Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods. These
are some of the most common qualitative methods:

 Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field

notes.
 Interviews: personally, asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
 Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
 Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
 Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or
video recordings, etc.

Example: To research the culture of a large tech company, you decide to take an
ethnographic approach. You work at the company for several months and use various
methods to gather data:

 You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the
company culture.
  You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by
email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
 You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their
experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all

observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

b) Quantitative research
It is a means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among
variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that
numbered data can be analysed using statistical procedures. The final written report
has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods, results,
and discussion. Like qualitative researchers, those who engage in this form of inquiry
have assumptions about testing theories deductively, building in protections against
bias, controlling for alternative explanations, and being able to generalize and
replicate the findings. It is basically, the process of collecting and analyzing numerical
data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal
relationships, and generalize results to wider populations. Quantitative research is
widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology,
economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

Methods in Quantitative research

You can use quantitative research methods for descriptive, correlational, or experimental
research.

 In descriptive research, you simply seek an overall summary of your study variables.
 In correlational research, you investigate relationships between your study variables.
 In experimental research, you systematically examine whether there is a cause-and-
effect relationship between variables.

Correlational and experimental research can both be used to formally test hypotheses, or

predictions, using statistics. The results may be generalized to broader populations based on
the sampling method used. To collect quantitative data, you will often need to
use operational definitions that translate abstract concepts (e.g., mood) into observable and
quantifiable measures (e.g., self-ratings of feelings and energy levels).

Other methods

Research method Usage Example

Experiment Control or manipulate an To test whether an
independent variable to intervention can reduce
measure its effects on a procrastination in college
dependent variable. students, you give equal-
sized groups either a
procrastination intervention
or a comparable task. You
compare self-rating of
 procrastination behaviours
between the groups after the
intervention.
Survey Ask questions of a group of You distribute questionnaires
people in-person, over the with rating scales to first year
phone or online. international college students
to investigate their
experiences of cultural
shocks.
(Systematic) Identify a behaviour or To study college classroom
Observation occurrence of interest and participation, you sit in on
monitor it in its natural classes to observe them,
setting. counting and recording the
prevalence of active and
passive behaviours by the
students from different
backgrounds.
Secondary research Collect data that has been To assess whether attitudes
gathered for other purposes. towards climate change have
E.g., national surveys or changed since the 1980s, you
historical records. collect relevant questionnaire
data from widely available
longitudinal studies.

Advantages of quantitative research

Quantitative research is often used to standardize data collection and generalize findings.

Strengths of this approach include:

 Replication

Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and tangible
definitions of abstract concepts.

 Direct comparisons of results

The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of
participants. Results can be compared statistically.

 Large samples

Data from large samples can be processed and analysed using reliable and consistent
procedures through quantitative data analysis.

 Hypothesis testing

Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to

carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and testing
methods before coming to a conclusion.
Disadvantages of quantitative research

 Its limitations include:

 Superficiality

Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent complex
concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in
quantitative research but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.

 Narrow focus

Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other
relevant observations.

 Structural bias

Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative research.
Missing data, imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are biases that can
lead to the wrong conclusions.

 Lack of context

Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider
historical and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.

c) Mixed method research

It is an approach to inquiry that combines or associates both qualitative and

quantitative forms. It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of qualitative and
quantitative approaches, and the mixing of both approaches in a study. Thus, it is
more than simply collecting and analysing both kinds of data: it also involves the use
of both approaches in tandem so that the overall strength of a study is greater than
either of quantitative pr qualitative research.

 Sequential mixed method:

It is a procedure in which the researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand on the findings of

one method with another method. The researcher may begin with qualitative interview for
exploratory purposes, following up with quantitative, survey method with a large sample to
generalize results to a population. It can work alternatively as well.

 Concurrent mixed method

It is a procedure in which the researcher converges or merges quantitative and

qualitative data to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. The
investigator collects both forms of data at the same time and then integrates the
information in the interpretation of the overall research. The research maybe
embedded with one smaller form of data within another larger data collection to
analyse different types of questions.
  Transformative mixed method

In this method, researcher uses a theoretical lens as an overarching perspective within

a design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data. Within this lens could be
a data collection method that involves a sequential or a concurrent approach.

1.8 Three basic components of a research design:

Selected strategies of inquiry

Philosophical
worldview  Qualitative strategies
(e.g., ethnography)
 Postpositive
 Quantitative strategies
 Social
(e.g., experiments)
construction
 Mixed method strategies
 Advocacy/
Research designs (e.g., sequential)
participatory
 Pragmatic  Qualitative
 Quantitative
 Mixed
method

Research methods
 Questions
 Data collection
 Data analysis
 Interpretation
 Write-up
 Validation

1.9 Variables
A variable is something that can be changed or altered, such as a characteristic or value.
Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing
result in changes to another. Variables play a critical role in the psychological research
process. By systematically changing some variables in an experiment and measuring what
happens as a result, researchers can learn more about cause-and-effect relationships.
Types of variables
 Independent variables
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. For
example, in an experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation on test performance,
sleep deprivation would be the independent variable. The experimenters would have
some of the study participants be sleep-deprived while others would be fully rested.

 Dependent variable
The dependent variable is the variable that is measured by the experimenter. In the
previous example, the scores on the test performance measure would be the dependent
variable.

What the experimenter is manipulating?

The things that change, either naturally or through direct manipulation from the experimenter,
are generally the independent variables.
What is being measured?
The dependent variable is the one that the experimenter is measuring.

 Intervening variable
Sometimes called intermediate or mediator variables, are factors that play a role in the
relationship between two other variables.

 Extraneous variable
 In some cases, extraneous variables may also play a role. This type of variable is one
that may have an impact on the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.
There are two basic types of extraneous variables:

 Participant variables: These extraneous variables are related to the individual

characteristics of each study participant that may impact how they respond. These
factors can include background differences, mood, anxiety, intelligence, awareness,
and other characteristics that are unique to each person.

 Situational variables: These extraneous variables are related to things in the

environment that may impact how each participant responds. For example, if a
participant is taking a test in a chilly room, the temperature would be considered an
extraneous variable. Some participants may not be affected by the cold, but others
might be distracted or annoyed by the temperature of the room.
 Other extraneous variables include the following:

 Demand characteristics: Clues in the environment that suggest how a participant

should behave
 Experimenter effects: When a researcher unintentionally suggests clues for how a
participant should behave.

 Controlled variables
Extraneous variables are controlled for by the experimenter. A controlled variable is
one that is held constant throughout an experiment. In the case of participant
variables, the experiment might select participants that are the same in background
and temperament to ensure that these factors don't interfere with the results. Holding
these variables constant is important for an experiment because it allows researchers
to be sure that all other variables remain the same across all conditions.  
Using controlled variables means that when changes occur, the researchers can be
sure that these changes are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and
not caused by changes in other variables.

1.10 Experimental and Non-Experimental Research

Experimental research

Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It

includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and variables that
can be measured, calculated, and compared. Most importantly, experimental research is
completed in a controlled environment. The researcher collects data and results will either
support or reject the hypothesis. This method of research is referred to a hypothesis testing or
a deductive research method.

The purpose is to determine a relationship between two (2) variables—the dependent

variable and the independent variable. After completing an experimental research study, a
correlation between a specific aspect of an entity and the variable being studied is either
supported or rejected.

Data in experimental research must be able to be quantified or measured. Data collected

could be acidity/alkalinity, area, circumference, density, current/potential/resistance, force,
growth. (Time, weight, volume, length/width), heat, humidity, light intensity, mass, pressure,
sound intensity, temperature, time, velocity, volume, or weight.

Non-Experimental research

Non-experimental research is research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable.

Rather than manipulating an independent variable, researchers conducting non-experimental
research simply measure variables as they naturally occur (in the lab or real world). although
experimental research can provide strong evidence that changes in an independent variable
cause differences in a dependent variable, non-experimental research generally cannot.

Types of Non-Experimental research

It falls into three broad categories: cross-sectional research, correlational research, and
observational research. 

a) cross-sectional research involves comparing two or more pre-existing

groups of people. What makes this approach non-experimental is that
there is no manipulation of an independent variable and no random
assignment of participants to groups. Cross-sectional designs are
commonly used by developmental psychologists who study aging and
by researchers interested in sex differences. Using this design,
developmental psychologists compare groups of people of different
ages. on various dependent variables (e.g., memory, depression, life
satisfaction). 
b) Correlational research
It is the most common type of non-experimental research conducted in
Psychology is correlational research. Correlational research is
considered non-experimental because it focuses on the statistical
relationship between two variables but does not include the
manipulation of an independent variable. in correlational research,
the researcher measures two continuous variables with little or no
attempt to control extraneous variables and then assesses the
relationship between them. 

c) Observational research
It is non-experimental because it focuses on making observations of
behaviour in a natural or laboratory setting without manipulating
anything. Milgram’s original obedience study was non-experimental in
this way. He was primarily interested in the extent to which
participants obeyed the researcher when he told them to shock the
confederate and he observed all participants performing the same task
under the same conditions. 

Quasi-Experimental research
a quasi-experimental design aims to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between
an independent and dependent variable. It does not rely on random assignment. Instead,
subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria. Quasi-experimental design is a
useful tool in situations where true experiments cannot be used for ethical or practical
reasons.

Types of Quasi-Experimental Research

There are three of the most common types: non-equivalent groups design, regression
discontinuity, and natural experiments.
a) Non-Equivalent group
 The researcher chooses existing groups that appear similar, but where only one
of the groups experiences the treatment. In a quasi-experiment where the
groups are not random, they may differ in other ways—they are non-
equivalent groups.
b) Regression discontinuity
Many potential treatments that researchers wish to study are deigned around
an essentially arbitrary cut-off, where those above the threshold receive the
treatment, and those below it does not. Near threshold, the differences between
the two groups are so minimal as to be nearly non-existent. Therefore,
researchers can use individuals just below the threshold as a control group and
jut above as a treatment group.
c) Natural experiment
In both laboratory and field experiments, researchers normally control which
group the subjects are assigned to. In a natural experiment, an external event
or situation (“nature”) result in the random or random-like assignment of
subjects to the treatment group.
Even though some use random assignments, natural experiments are not
considered to be true experiments because they are observational in nature.
Although the researchers have no control over the independent variable, they
can exploit this event after the fact to study the effect of the treatment.

2. Module two

2.1 Research Problem

A Research problem is a question that a researcher wants to answer or a problem that a
researcher wants to solve. A research problem is an issue or a concern that an investigator /
researcher presents and justifies in a research study.
 Identification and formulation of a research problem is the first step of the research process.
It is the most challenging & difficult phase of the research process.
Definition: “A situation for which we have no ready & successful response by instinct or by
previous acquired habit. We must find out what to do”, i.e., the solution can be found out
only after an investigation. R.S. Woodworth. In other words, a research problem is an area of
concern where there is a gap in the knowledge base needed for professional practices.

Components of research problem

A research problem has 6 components:

a) Relevance of the study.

b) Title of the study.
c) Operational definitions of the variables
d)  Objectives of the study
e) Delimitations of the study
f) Scope & limitations of the study

Identification of research problem

Generally, a broad area is selected and then it is delimited or narrowed down to a specific one
sentence statement of the problem.
Sources of research problem
a) Personal experience: Day to day experience of the researcher serves as a good source of
ideas to formulate research problem
b) Practical experience: Clinical experience provides nurses ample opportunities foe problem
identification. This serves as a source for identifying research problems.
c) Critical appraisal of literature: When one looks at books, articles, summaries of clinical issues
regarding our interest, pertinent questions may arise.
d) Previous research: A body of knowledge is developed on sound research finding. Usually at
the end of the research problems are suggested based on the shortcoming of the previous
research, these could be investigated.
e) existing theories: Research is a process of theory development and theory testing. If an
existing theory is used in developing a researchable problem, a specific statement from
theory must be isolated. Generally, a part or parts of a theory are subjected to testing in a
clinical situation. The testing of a theory is needed therefore they serve as a good source of
research problem.
f) Social issues: Sometimes issues of global contemporary or political issues of relevance are
suggested. An idea for research may stem from a familiarity with social concerns or
controversial social issues.
g) Brainstorming:  Brainstorming sessions are good techniques to find new research questions.
Brainstorming refers to intensified discussions among interested people of the profession to
find more ideas to formulate a good research problem.
h) Intuition:  Intuitions are considered good sources of knowledge as well as sources to find
new research problems. It is believed that reflective mind is a good source of ideas, which
may be used to find out new and good research problem.
i) Folklores: Common beliefs could be right or wrong. E.g., Studying just before examination
decrease the score. A researcher can conduct a study to test this.
j) Exposure to field situation:  During field exposure researchers get a variety of experiences
which may provide plenty of ideas to formulate research problems.
k) Consultation with expert: Experts are believed to have sound experience of their respective
field, which may suggest a significant problem to be studied.

2.2 Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a tentative assumption made to test its logical or empirical consequences. If we
go by the origin of the word, it is derived from the Greek word- ‘hyposthenia’ meaning ‘to
put under’ or to ‘to suppose’. Etymologically hypothesis is made up of two words, “hypo”
and “thesis” which means less than or less certain than a thesis. It is a presumptive statement
of a proposition or a reasonable guess, based upon the available evidence, which the
researcher seeks to prove through his study.
“A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative explanation of the research problem, a possible
outcome of the research, or an educated guess about the research outcome”. Goode and Hatt
have defined it as “a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity”.
According to Lundberg, “A hypothesis is a tentative generalisation, the validity of which
remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage, the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess,
imaginative idea, which becomes the basis for action or investigation”.
A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby providing focus
to the study. As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a
study. A hypothesis may enable you to 2 add to the formulation of a theory. It enables you to
specifically conclude what is true or what is false. Lundberg observes, quite often a research
hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates
an independent variable to some dependent variable.

Nature of Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated. It should be
specified before research is conducted and openly stated in reporting the results. This allows
to:

✓ Identify the research objectives.

✓ Identify the key abstract concepts involved in the research.

✓ Identify its relationship to both the problem statement and the literature review.

✓ A problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it is reduced to hypothesis form.

✓ It is a powerful tool of advancement of knowledge, consistent with existing knowledge and

conducive to further enquiry.

✓ It can be tested – verifiable or falsifiable.

✓ Hypotheses are not moral or ethical questions.

✓ It is neither too specific nor to general.

✓ It is a prediction of consequences.

✓ It is considered valuable even if proven false.

Importance of Hypothesis
 Hypothesis facilitates the extension of knowledge in an area. They provide tentative
explanations of facts and phenomena and can be tested and validated.
  Hypotheses provide the researcher with rational statements, consisting of elements
expressed in a logical order of relationships which seeks to describe or to explain
conditions or events, that have yet not been confirmed by facts.
 Hypothesis provides direction to the research. It defines what is relevant and what is
irrelevant. The hypothesis tells the researcher what he needs to do and find out in his
study.
 Hypothesis implies the statistical techniques needed in the analysis of data, and the
relationship between the variables to be tested. It also helps to delimit his study in
scope so that it does not become broad or unwieldy.
 Hypothesis provides the basis for reporting the conclusion of the study. It serves as a
framework for drawing conclusions. In other word, we can say that it provides the
outline for setting conclusions in a meaningful way.
Types of Research Hypothesis
 Directional Hypothesis
These are usually derived from theory. They may imply that the researcher is intellectually
committed to a particular outcome. They specify the expected direction of the relationship
between variables i.e., the researcher predicts not only the existence of a relationship but also
its nature.
 Non-Directional Hypothesis
Used when there is little or no theory, or when findings of previous studies are contradictory.
They may imply impartiality. Do not stipulate the direction of the relationship.
 Associative Hypothesis
Propose relationships between variables - when one variable changes, the other changes. Do
not indicate cause and effect.
 Casual Hypothesis
Propose a cause-and-effect interaction between two or more variables. The independent
variable is manipulated to cause effect on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is
measured to examine the effect created by the independent variable.
Statistical Hypothesis
To test whether the data support or refute the research hypothesis, it needs to be translated
into a statistical hypothesis. It is given in statistical terms. In the context of inferential
statistics, it is statement about one or more parameters that are measures of the population
under study. To use inferential statistics, we need to translate the research hypothesis into a
testable form, which is called the null hypothesis. A testable hypothesis contains variables
that are measurable or able to be manipulated. They need to predict a relationship that can be
'supported' or 'not supported' based on data collection and analysis:
 Null Hypothesis
These are used when the researcher believes there is no relationship between two variables or
when there is inadequate theoretical or empirical information to state a research hypothesis.
The null hypothesis represents a theory that has been put forward, either because it is
believed to be true or because it is to be used as a basis for argument but has not been proved.
Has serious outcome if incorrect decision is made. Designated by: Ho or Hn.
Null hypotheses can be:

✓ simple or complex

✓ associative or causal

 Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis is a statement of what a hypothesis test is set up to establish.
Designated by: H1 or Ha. It is opposite of Null Hypothesis. It is only reached if Ha is
rejected. Frequently “alternative” is actual desired conclusion of the researcher.
Special consideration is given to the null hypothesis. This is since the null hypothesis relates
to the statement being tested, whereas the alternative hypothesis relates to the statement to be
accepted if when the null is rejected. The conclusion, once the test has been carried out, is
always given in terms of the null hypothesis.
2.3 Purposes of research

Three basic purposes of research:

The three of most common and useful purposes are i) exploratory, ii) description, iii)
explanation.
 Exploratory
This approach typically occurs when a researcher examines a new interest or when the
subject of study itself is relatively new. Exploratory studies are also appropriate for
more persistent phenomena. Sometimes it is pursued using focus groups or guided
small group discussions. This technique is frequently used in market research.
Exploratory studies are most typically done for three purposes: 1) to satisfy the
researchers’ curiosity and desire for better understanding, 2) to test the feasibility of
undertaking a more extensive study, and 3) to develop the methods to be employed in
any subsequent study.
This study is quite valuable in social scientific research. They’re essential whenever a
researcher is breaking new ground, and they almost yield new insights into a topic for
research. It is also a source of grounded theory.
Advantages of exploration
 Flexible
 Low cost
 Lays foundation for the research
 Assistance in finding the cause of problems.
 Shortcoming of Exploratory Research
It seldom provides satisfactory answers to research questions, though they can hint at
the answers and can suggest which research methods could provide definitive ones.
The reason why exploratory studies are seldom definitive, is because the people you
study in your exploratory research may not be typical of the larger population that
interests you. Once you understand representativeness, you’ll be able to understand
whether a given exploratory study answered its research problem or only pointed the
way towards an answer.

 Description
A major purpose of many social scientific studies is to describe situations and
events. The researcher observes and then describes what was observed. As
scientific observations are careful and deliberate, scientific descriptions are
typically accurate and precise than casual ones.
The India’s census is an excellent example of descriptive social research.
Many qualitative studies aim primarily at description. An anthropological
ethnography may try to detail the culture of some preliterate society. At the
same time, such studies seldom are limited to a merely descriptive purpose.
Researchers usually go on to examine “why” the observed patterns exist and
what they imply.
Advantages of description

 Helps analyse non-quantified topics and issues

 Naturalistic observation
 Integrated qualitative and quantitative method
 Time efficient

Disadvantages of description

 Cannot be tested statistically or verified

 Possibility of biasness
 Cannot establish cause

 Explanation
The third general purpose is to explain things. Descriptive studies answer questions of
“what, where, when, and how”; explanatory questions, of “why”.
Advantages of explanation
 Instrumental in identifying cause
 Can be replicated
 High internal validity
 Disadvantages of explanation

 Coincident can be mistaken as a cause

 No high-level certainty for causes
 Identifying variable of cause and effect in a difficult to accomplish task

3. Module Three

3.1 Sampling
A sample is defined as a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a larger
population by using a pre-defined selection method. These elements are known as sample
points, sampling units, or observations. Sample: It is part of the population that represents the
characteristics of the population.

Any field of inquiry constitutes of a population. The result of a research needs to apply on
this very population.
The key issue is that the population is uncountable thus it is impossible to conduct research
on it.
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which predetermined no. of observations
are taken from a big population.
Sample frame error
It occurs when certain elements of the population are accidently not included in the list.
A sample is a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a large population
by using predefined selection method.
Elements includes sample points, sampling units, or observation.

3.2 Creating a good sample

 The sample must truly represent the population to help attain insight and observations
about the population. Such sample is tough to obtain.
 It should result in small sampling error. Sample should represent entire population
because if it doesn’t, it will result in sampling error. Sampling error can be reduced by
randomizing sample selection and/or increasing observation size.
 It should be viable in terms of funds available, and time needed to conduct the
research.
 Sample results must be able to be applied to a population with reasonable reliability
and validity.
 3.3 Sample Design
It is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the techniques
used in collecting items for sampling. Sample design refers to the plans and methods to be
followed in selecting sample from the target population and the estimation technique formula
for computing the sample statistics. These statistics are the estimates used to infer the
population parameters.

3.4 Steps in sample design

The sampling process comprises several stages-
 Define the population
Population must be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent, and time. Because
there is very rarely enough time or money to gather information from everyone or everything
in a population, the goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of that
population.

 Specifying the sampling frame

As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which has the property that we can identify
every single element and include any in our sample. The most straightforward type of frame
is a list of elements of the population (preferably the entire population) with appropriate
contact information. A sampling frame may be a telephone book, a city directory, an
employee roster, listing of all students attending a university, or a list of all possible phone
numbers.
 Specifying the sampling unit
A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements of
the population to be sampled. The sampling unit selected is often dependent upon the
sampling frame. If a relatively complete and accurate listing of elements is available, one
may well want to sample them directly. If no such register is available, one may need to
sample companies as the basic sampling unit.
 Selection of the sampling method
The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected. The
choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the research, availability of
financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be investigated. All
sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct heads, that is, probability and non-
probability sampling.

 Determination of sample size.

The sample size calculation depends primarily on the type of sampling designs used.
However, for all sampling designs, the estimates for the expected sample characteristics
desired level of certainty, and the level of precision must be clearly specified in advanced.
The statement of the precision desired might be made by giving the amount of error that we
are willing to tolerate in the resulting estimates. Common levels of precisions are 5% and
10%.
 Specifying the sampling plan
In this step, the specifications, and decisions regarding the implementation of the research

process are outlined. As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of most
of the time, a proper specification of the sampling plans would make their work easy, and

they would not have to reverting operational problems.

 Selecting the sample

The final step in the sampling process is the actual selection of the sample elements. This
requires a substantial amount of office and fieldwork, particularly if personal interviews are
involved.

3.5 Types / Approaches of sampling

There are two basic approaches to sampling: Probability Sampling and Non-probability
Sampling.
a) Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is also known as random sampling or chance sampling. In this, sample
is taken in such a manner that each unit of the population has an equal and positive chance of
being selected. it is ensured that the sample would truly represent the overall population.
Probability sampling can be achieved by random selection of the sample among all the units
of the population.
Major random sampling procedures are -

 Simple Random Sample
Each member of the population is numbered. Then, a given size of the sample is drawn with
the help of a random number chart. The other way is to do a lottery. Write all the numbers on
small, uniform pieces of paper, fold the papers, put them in a container and take out the
required lot in a random manner from the container as is done in the kitty parties. It is
relatively simple to implement but the final sample may miss out small subgroups.
Advantages
The sample will be free from Bias (i.e., it’s random!).
Disadvantages

Difficult to obtain.
Due to its very randomness, “freak” results can sometimes be obtained that are
not representative of the population. In addition, these freak results may be difficult to spot.
Increasing the sample size is the best way to eradicate this problem.


 Systematic Random Sample
It also requires the entire population. Then every nth number (say every 5th or 10th number,
as the case may be) is selected to constitute the sample. It is easier and more likely to
represent different subgroups.
Advantages
Can eliminate other sources of bias.
Disadvantages
Can introduce bias where the pattern used for the samples coincides with a pattern in the
population.


 Stratified Random Sample
At first, the population is first divided into groups or strata each of which is homogeneous
with respect to the given characteristic feature. From each stratum, then, samples are drawn at
random. This is called stratified random sampling. For example, with respect to the level of
socio-economic status, the population may first be grouped in such strata as high, middle,
low and very low socio-economic levels as per pre-determined criteria, and random sample

drawn from each group.

The sample size for each sub-group can be fixed to get representative sample. This way, it is
possible that different categories in the population are fairly represented in the sample, which
could have been left out otherwise in simple random sample.

Advantages
Yields more accurate results than simple random sampling.
Can show different tendencies within each category (e.g., men and women).


 Cluster/ Multistage Sample

In some cases, the selection of units may pass through various stages, you finally reach your
sample of study. For this, a State, for example, may be divided into districts, districts into
blocks, blocks into villages, and villages into identifiable groups of people, and then taking
the random or quota sample from each group. For example, taking a random selection of 3
out of 15 districts of a State, 6 blocks from each selected district, 10 villages from each
selected block and 20 households from each selected village, totalling 3600 respondents. This
design is used for large-scale surveys spread over large areas.

Advantages

The advantage is that it needs detailed sampling frame for selected clusters only rather than
for the entire target area. There are savings in travel costs and time as well. However, there is
a risk of missing on important sub-groups and not having complete representation of the
target population.
Disadvantages

Not a genuine random sample.

Likely to yield a biased result (especially if only a few clusters are sampled).

b) Non-Probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the population
have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage'/'under
covered'), or where the probability of selection can't be accurately determined.
It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of
interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is
non-random, non-probability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors.
Non-probability sampling is a non-random and subjective method of sampling where the
selection of the population elements comprising the sample depends on the personal
judgment or the discretion of the sampler.

Non-probability sampling includes –


 Accidental/ Convenience/ Opportunity/ Availability/ Haphazard/ Grab Sampling
Accidental sampling (sometimes known as grab, convenience, or opportunity sampling) is a
type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the
population which is close to hand. That is, a sample population selected because it is readily
available and convenient. The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically generalize
the total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough.
The primary problem with availability sampling is that you can never be certain what
population the participants in the study represent. The population is unknown, the method for
selecting cases is haphazard, and the cases studied probably don't represent any population
you could come up with.
However, there are few advantages too:
Survey designers often want to have some people respond to their survey before it is given
out in the ‘real’ research setting as a way of making certain that questions make sense to
respondents. For this purpose, availability sampling is not a bad way to get a group to take a
survey, though in this case researchers care less about the specific responses given than
whether the instrument is confusing or makes people feel bad.

 Quota Sampling
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified
sampling. Then judgement is used to select the subjects or units from each segment based on
a specified proportion. In quota sampling the selection of the sample is not random. For
instance, interviewers might be tempted to interview people first who look most helpful.
He problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of
selection. Random element is its greatest weakness.
  Judgment/ Subjective/ Purposive Sampling
The sample is selected with definitive purpose in view and the choice of the sampling units
depends entirely on the discretion and judgement of the investigator.
This sampling suffers from drawbacks of favouritism and nepotism depending upon the
beliefs and prejudices of the investigator and thus does not give a representative sample of
the population.
It is seldom used and cannot be recommended for general use since it is often biased due to
element of subjectivity on the part of the investigator. However, this can be eliminated if the
investigator is experienced and skilled in carefully applying the sample.


 Snowball Sampling.
It is a method in which a researcher identifies one member of some population of interest,
speaks to him/her, and then asks that person to identify others in the population the
researchers might speak to. The person is then asked to refer the researcher to yet another
person, and so on. This sampling technique is used against low incidence or rare populations.
Sampling becomes a huge issue in this case, as the defined population from which the sample
can be drawn is not available. Therefore, the process sampling depends on the chain system
of referrals. Although sample sizes and low costs are the clear advantages of snowball
sampling, bias is one of its disadvantages. The referral name obtained from those sampled in
the initial stages may be like those initially sampled.

Therefore, the sample may not represent a cross-section of the total population. It may also
happen that the visitors to the site or the interviewers may refuse to disclose the names of
those whom they know.

4. Module four

4.1 Tools in Data Collection

a) Survey research
It helps in assessing thoughts, opinions, and feelings. It can be specific or can be more global,
widespread goals. Repeated surveys help measure changes. Commonly included methods:
telephone, face-to-face, interview, self-completion questionnaires, or a combination of these.
Advantages:
1) High representativeness
2) Cost effective
3) Convenient data collection
4) Good statistical significance
5) Little or no subjectivity
6) Precise results
Disadvantages
1) Inflexible designs
2) Not ideal for controversial issues
3) Questions can be inappropriate
 b) Rating Scales
Close-ended survey question are used to represent respondent feedback in a comparative
format. Established question types for online & offline surveys. It includes MCQs. It can be
ordinal scale or interval scale.
Advantages
1) Provide good judgement
2) Multiple uses
3) Cost effective
4) Can test validity of objective instruments
5) Good for appraisals
Disadvantages
1) People differ in reliability
2) Emotions affects ratings
3) High on desirability
4) Subjects unable to justify ratings
5) Generosity bias

c) Case Studies
Case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or an event. Nearly every aspect of
subjects’ life and history is analysed to seek patterns and causes of behaviour. Case
studies can be used in various fields: psychology, medicine, education, anthropology,
political science, and social work.
It involves simply observing what happens to, reconstructing ‘the case history’ of a single
participant or a group of individuals. Data can be found from archival records, direct
observations, documents, interviews, participant observations, physical artifacts.
Characteristics
1) Not sampling research
2) Unit of analysis in a critical factor in a case study
3) Multi-perspective analysis
Advantages
1) Provides great deal of information
2) Chance to collect info on rare or unusual cases
3) Researchers develop hypothesis to test via experiments
Disadvantage
1) Can’t be generated and doesn’t demonstrate cause and effect.
 2) Not scientifically rigorous and prone to biasness

d) Observations
Fundamental way of finding out about the world. In research, observation is systematic and
selective.
Systematic observations involve careful planning of what one wants to observe.
To make observations public it has to be recorded to analyse and interpret.
Observation involves:
1) Prolonged engagement in a social situation
2) Self-conscious notations on how to observe
3) Involves methodological + tactical improvisations
4) Imparting standardized tests
5) Recording to analyse
Advantages
1) Easy
2) High accuracy
3) Less cooperation required from participant
Disadvantages
1) Not everything can be observed
2) Time-consuming
3) Expensive
4) Prone to biasness

e) Interview
It involves asking questions and getting answers. It is individual, or group.
Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, and unstructured.
Characteristics of structured interview:
1) Same question series
2) Created prior to interview and limited response set
3) Standardized
4) Interviewer to play a neutral role
Characteristics of a semi-structured interview
1) Formal interview
2) Interview guide based
3) Follows a guide but can diverge
Characteristics of unstructured interview
1) Formal interview
2) Clear plan to guide discussion
3) Rapport building
4) Open-ended & In-depth
Characteristics of informal interview
1) Informal conversation
2) Uses brief notes
3) Hand in hand with the participant
4) Casual talk
Advantages
1) Relationship building
2) Primary sufficient information
3) Time saving and cost effective
4) Establishes cause and increases knowledge
5) In-depth analysis
6) Flexible
Disadvantages
1) No record
2) Not suitable for personal matters
3) Prone to biasness
4) Depends highly on rapport building
5) Socially desirable answers

f) Psychometric tools (standardized)

Systematic approach to look at individual differences.
1) Predicts behaviour
2) Reliability and validity are measurable
3) All data results from measurement
Consists of:
1) Standardization
2) Objectivity
3) Test norms
4) Reliability
5) Validity
 5. Module Five
5.1 Validity
It refers to the accuracy with which the tool or the research measures what it sorts out to
measure.
A test is valid when the performance which it measures corresponds to the same performance
as otherwise independently measured or objectively defined.
Validity is found by comparing data obtained from use of standard and arbitrary measures.
 Content validity
Refers to how much a measure covers the range of meanings ncluded within a concept.
It is applied in item selection for tests.
Validation of content through competent judgement is the most satisfying under 2 conditions:
1) Sampling of items is wide and judicious.
2) Adequate standardization groups are utilized

 Face validity
A test is supposed to have face validity when it appears whatever the author has in mind. It is
useful in helping an author decide whether his test items are relevant to some specific
situations or to specialised occupational experiences.
It is the first step in testing an item and isn’t the final word.

 Criterion validity
Deals with the ability of test scores to predict human behaviour either with the help of other
test scores, observable behaviours, or other accomplishments such as grade point averages.
Experimentally, the validity of the test determined by finding the correlation between the test
and some independent criteria maybe an objective measure of performance, or a quantitative
measure such as judgement of character.
 Concurrent validity
Prediction of an alternative method of measuring the same characteristics of interest.
Concurrent form of validity is demonstrated via data gathered from using one tool highly
correlating to the data gathered from another tool.
 Predictive validity
It is only achieved if data acquired at first round of research correlates highly with future data
acquired.
 Construct validity
More complex and based on accumulation of data over a long period of time. It requires to
study test scores in relation not only to variables to assess but also those with no relationship.
5.2 Reliability
It tests the quality relating to psychological measurements.
Increased reliability = decreased measurement errors
It maintains the internal consistency of the test.
 Test-Retest reliability
Most frequently used by repeating same test on another occasion. Practice and time-interval
difficulty.
Formula used- Pearson Product- Moment Formula.
 Parallel Form reliability
To overcome difficulty of practise + time interval in test-retest, alternate form or parallel
reliability is used.
Specifications given by Freeman:
1) No. of items should be same
2) Kind of items needs to be uniform- contents, traits, difficulty.
3) Some items homogeneity ops and traits being measured.
4) Means of standard deviation should correspond closely.
5) Administration + scoring should be similar

 Slit Half reliability

Better than parallel & test-retest.
Test scored for single testing to get two halves and variation brought about by difference in
two testing situations is eliminated.
Counting odd numbered items.
Reliability is influenced by:
1) Variability of age
2) Variability of scores
3) Time interval between testing.
4) Effectiveness of test + scoring
5) Consistency in scores
6) Effect of test length.

5.3 Tool Construction

tools can be used as set of self- report questions or scales.
Essential features-
 1) Series of questions to collect individual responses.
2) Composite scores that arise from scoring the responses to these questions.
3) test construction and standardization are related.
4) item analysis is equal to a step-in standardization.
Steps in tool construction-
1) Set theoretical foundation.
2) set purpose.
3) Select construct attribute.
4) Define testing population.
5) Set content of items
6) Write items
7) Develop administration procedures
8) Pilot test
9) revise test
10) Develop norms and manual

5.4 Construction of questions

 Deciding questionnaire to use-

Close ended-open ended questions
 Wordings and structure of questions
Short and simple questions, no prestige biased questions and avoid directly questioning
about sensitive areas of a person’s life.
 Obtaining high response
Make your questionnaire stand-out.
 Items
significance of the differences between proportions.
Correlational techniques
 Item difficulty
Validity and reliability measured simultaneously.
Method: -
1) Correct responses of 27% upper + 27% lower group.
2) Harper’s facility index.
3) Item’s responded percentage
4) Normal curve
5) Mean of formula.
 6. Module six
Qualitative research
6.1 Qualitative + Quantitative Research
Qualitative research relies on verbal narrative like spoken or written data. Whereas
quantitative research uses logical or statistical observations to draw conclusions.
Qualitative research is an examination of variables or phenomenon across a smaller
population in a deep comprehensive manner.
Qualitative analysis on the other hand, functions on a larger population oriented in
statistical analysis of gathered data.
Qualitative research is exploratory, in-depth. It is holistic, subjective, inductive and
discovery based.
Quantitative research is particularistic, objective, conclusive, deductive, and
examine cause- effect relationship.

Difference between qualitative and quantitative research

Areas Qualitative research Quantitative research
Focus Quality (features) Quantity
Philosophy Phenomenology Positivism
Method Ethnography/ Observation Experiment/Correlation
Goal Understand, Meaning Predict, Test hypothesis
Design Flexible, Emerging Structured, Predetermined
Data collection Interviews, Observation, Questionnaires, scales
artifacts
Analysis and findings Inductive, Comprehensive, Deductive, precise,
detailed, holistic numerical

6.2 In-depth interview

 Paired with other research methods like surveys, focus groups etc.
 These are goal oriented.
 Based on interviewer’s skills.
 Structured, Unstructured, and Semi-Structured

6.3 Case Study

 In-depth investigation of single person, group, event, or community.
 Biographical and significant event related

Characteristics
1) Descriptive study
2) Narrow focus
3) Combines subjective and objective data
4) Process oriented

6.4 Ethnography
 Systematic study of people and cultures.
 Designed to explore the cultural phenomenon.
 Used to search for meaning of test norms, examine social trends, examine social
interactions, identifying patterns, understand sanitization practices, observe
punishments, and study behaviours.

6.5 Grounded Theory

 Barney Geaser + Anselm Strauss
 Theory derived from data, systematically gathered, and analysed through research
process.
 Grounded- generated on basis of data
 Inductive data analysis

6.6 Focus Groups

 Groups comprised of individuals with certain characteristics focussing discussion on
given topics.
 Naturalistic, critical role of a moderator
 Open-minded and sequential flow of answers

6.7 Conversation Analysis

 Inductive, micro- analytic and predominantly qualitative method for studying
language and resonates with.
 Those interested in human’s social conduct + committed to naturalistic observations.
 Investigates conversational interaction.

6.8 Content Analysis

 Studying documents and communication artifacts.
 Analyses pattern in communication in a replicable and systematic manner.
 Systematic labelling through simple computational techniques.
 Data analysed? How is data defined? What population is data gathered from?
Relevant content? Boundaries of analysis? And, what to measure?

6.9 Thematic Analysis

 Most common analysis from emphasising on identifying, analysing and interpretation
patterns of meaning within qualitative data.
 It is an umbrella for variety of approaches.
 It can be used in inductive, deductive, semantic, latent, realistic, or constructionist
way.