Bahir Dar University

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

By Nebiyu Y.
Email:[email protected]
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 Sinusoidal Terminologies(Instantaneous, Average and Effective(rms) values

 Phasor Representation of sinusoids and Arithmetic

 Series and parallel RLC circuit

 Impedance and Admittance

 Frequency response and resonance

 Active (Average),Reactive and Apparent powers

 Power Factor and power factor correction

 Maximum power transfer in ac circuits

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3.1 Sinusoidal Terminologies
 Previously you learned that dc source have fixed polarities and constant magnitude and thus
produce currents with constant value and unchanging direction shown as in fig.(c).

 AC voltage is the voltage that alternate in polarity & changes in magnitude; and Ac Current is
the Current which alternate in direction & changes in magnitude.

 Both AC voltage and AC current have the sine or cosine wave form or sinusoidal AC waveform
shape which is shown as below(a), which the waveform alternates between two prescribed
levels in a time sequence.
 Generating Ac Voltages
 AC voltage is generated by the principle of electromagnetic induction, Which states: “if a coil of copper
wire is rotated in a magnetic field in such a way as to cut across the lines of magnetic force, an electric
charge is created or induced in the wires”.(generator action)
 The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux lines are cut , which
given by Faraday’s Law:
𝑑∅
𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒅 = N
𝑑𝑡
 Since the rate of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary with time. Generally,
the generated AC voltages will have sinusoidal wave form shape as shown below.

Fig. (b) Coil voltage versus angular position

 The term alternating indicates only that the waveform alternates between two prescribed levels in
a set time sequence.

 A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.

 A general expression for the sinusoid, v(t )  Vm sin(t   )

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Basic terms of Sinusoidal waveform

 Waveform: The path traced by a quantity, such as the voltage in Fig. plotted as a function of some
variable such as time (as above), position, degrees, radians, temperature, and so on.

 Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time; denoted by lowercase
letters (e1, e2 in Fig.).

 Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value of a function as measured from the zero volt level. For
the waveform in Fig. the peak amplitude and peak value are the same, since the average value of the
function is zero volts.
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 Sinusoidal waveform
 Peak-to-peak value: Denoted by Ep-p or Vp-p the full voltage between positive and negative peaks of
the waveform, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the positive and negative peaks.

 Periodic waveform: A waveform that continually repeats itself after the same time interval. The
waveform in Fig. is a periodic waveform.

 Period (T): The time required for a sin wave to complete one full cycle.

 Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time. The cycles within T1, T2, and T3 in
Fig. below may appear different in Fig. but they are all bounded by one period of time and therefore
satisfy the definition of a cycle.

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Sinusoidal waveform

 Frequency ( f ): The number of cycles that occur in 1 s. The frequency of the waveform in

Fig.(a) is 1 cycle per second

Fig. (b), 2.5 cycles per second. If a waveform of similar shape had a period of 0.5 s

Fig. (c), the frequency would be 2 cycles per second

 The unit of measure for frequency is the hertz (Hz), where

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 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓 = 𝑇 Hz

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 Angular frequency (ω), also known as radial or circular frequency, measures angular displacement
per unit time. Its units are therefore degrees (or radians) per second.
Angular frequency (ω)= (angular distance) / (time)
𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓 While w---is in radians per seconds(rad/sec), f is frequency in hertz (Hz).
2𝜋
𝑤= ………………… angular frequency in terms of period T.
𝑇

It can be expressed by
Degree per second (deg/sec)
Revolution per second (rev/sec)
Radians per second (rad/sec)
Example 3.1
For the sinusoidal waveform in Fig.
a. What is the peak value? (Vp = 8 v)
b. What is the instantaneous value at 0.3 s and 0.6 s?( V(0.3s)=-8v and V(0.6 s)=0v )
c. What is the peak-to-peak value of the waveform? (16 V)
d. What is the period of the waveform? (T=0.4 sec)
e. How many cycles are shown? (No of cycles = 3.5 Cycles)
f. What is the frequency of the waveform? (f=2.5 Hz)

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Expression for phase shifted sin wave
 Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be compared by their amplitude and phase difference.

 If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase difference is not zero, they are out of phase.

 If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t = 0 s with an increasing slope as in Figure below, it has a phase shift.

 Waveforms may be shifted to the left or the right, with their expression being;(the reference is Y-axis)

Shifted left (leading) by angle 𝞠 𝞠—is called phase angle of sine wave at t=0 sec
shifted right (lagging) by angle 𝞠

2
T 


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Sine and Cosine Wave Relationships

𝜋
 If the waveform crosses the horizontal axis with a positive-going slope 90° ( ) sooner, as shown in Fig. below, it is
2

called a cosine wave; that is,

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Example 3.2 Given a sinusoid, 5 sin( 4t  60 ), calculate its amplitude, phase, angular frequency,
o

period, and frequency. Sketch the above sinusoidal voltage source?

Amplitude = 5, phase = –60 degree, angular frequency = 4π rad/s, Period = 0.5 s, frequency = 2 Hz.

Example 3.3 What is the phase relationship between the sinusoidal waveforms of A ,B and C?
Wave A leads sine wave B by 45 degree or Sin B lags Sin A by 45 degree
Wave A leads sine wave C by 105 degree or Sin C lags Sin A by 105 degree
Wave B leads sine wave C by 60 degree or Sin C lags Sin B by 60 degree

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 Example 3.4 Find the phase angle between, does i1 lead or lag i2?

i2  5 cos(377t  40 o ) i1  4 sin( 377t  25 o )

i2  5 sin(377t  40o  90o )  5 sin(377t  50o )

i1  4 sin( 377t  25o )  4 sin( 377t  180o  25o )  4 sin( 377t  205o )
therefore, i1 leads i2 155 degree.

Example 3.5 Calculate the phase angle

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Sinusoidal Voltage And Current Values

Five ways to express the value of a sine wave in terms of its voltage or its current magnitude are
instantaneous, peak, peak-to-peak, rms, and average values.

A) Instantaneous Value
 It is the value of sine wave at any instant of time, which can be positive during +ve alternation of sine
wave and –ve during –ve alternation. It is symbolized by lowercase letters(v & i).

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B) Peak Value(𝑽𝒑 or 𝑰𝒑 )
 The peak value of a sine wave is the value of voltage(or current) at the positive or the negative
maximum (peak) with respect to zero. Since the positive and negative peak values are equal in
magnitude, a sine wave is characterized by a single peak value.

Vp = Vp
Ip = Ip

C) Peak-to-peak Value
 The peak-to-peak value of a sine wave, as shown below, is the voltage or current from the positive
peak to the negative peak. It is always twice the peak value.
Vpp = 2*Vp
Ipp = 2*Ip

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D) Average value
 Average value is average value for all instantaneous value in half or one complete waveform cycle.
It can be calculate in two ways:
1. Calculate the area under the graph:

Average value = (area under the function in a period)/(period )

2. Use integral method

For a symmetry waveform, area upper section equal to area under the section, so just take half of
the period only.
T
1
average _ value   v(t )dt
T 0
Example 3.6 : Calculate the average value of the waveform below.
Vm

Vm

 rad
 2

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 For a sinus waveform , average value can be calculate by
T
1
average _ value 
T  v(t )dt
0
Vm
Vaverage   0.637Vm 1

 
 v
0
m sin d


vm

  sin d
0
Example 3.7 For a sine waveform ,Calculate the average
value over the period of one full cycle? 
vm
 cos o

Solution: 2vm
  0.637 vm volt
The average value of a pure sinusoidal wave form over 
one full cycle is zero.

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Example 3.8 Find the average values of the following waveforms over one full cycle:
 E) Effective or RMS Value(Root mean square value)
 In DC Circuits, the values of Current and Voltage are constant and therefore, they are directly utilized in
the calculation of Power of the DC Electrical circuits.

 Whereas, while dealing with the AC Circuits, the value of AC voltage continuously changes from Zero up to
the positive peak, through Zero to the negative peak and back to zero again, as depicted in figure – 1
below.

 The power delivered by the ac supply at any instant of time is

 The average power delivered by the ac source is just the first term, since the average value of a cosine wave
is zero even though the wave may have twice the frequency of the original input current waveform.
 Equating the average power delivered by the ac generator to that delivered by the dc source,

Which, In other words states that

 The equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal current or voltage

is 1/√2 or 0.707 of its maximum value.

 The equivalent dc value is called the effective value of the sinusoidal quantity.
 The effective value of any quantity plotted as a function of time can be found by using the following
equation derived from the experiment just described

Example 3.9 Find the rms values of the sinusoidal waveform in each part of Fig. 13.53.
Example 3.10 Determine the average and rms values of the square wave of Fig. below

Example 3.11 The 120-V dc source of Fig. a below delivers 3.6 W to the load. Determine the peak value
of the applied voltage (Em) and the current (Im)if the ac source Fig.(b)] is to deliver the same power
to the load.
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