Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures

Reported by ACI-ASCE Committee 343

5.4-Deformation effects

5.4.1 Settlement of supports--Stresses and forces resulting from possible differential

settlement of the supports should be considered in the design. Relaxation of such forces may
be accounted for by using an effective modulus of elasticity adjusted for time-dependent
effects.5-3

Preliminary design analyses may be made assuming differential settlements equal to a fraction
of the average of adjacent span lengths as follows:

Pile foundations 1/500

Spread footings

On soil l/1000

On rock l/2000

Values used on the final design should be determined from the project soils report or by
consultation with the geotechnical engineer.

d= Depth of girder
h= Asphalt wearing surface thickness.
Yo=Depth of temperature variation of webs- 48 inches (1200mm)
Ys=Height of temperature variation in soffit -8 inches (200mm)
Yd= Mean thicknees of deck between webs.
T=Maximum temperature of upper surface of concrete T=58-9h F (32-0.2h C)
Te= Minimum temperature of top job over closed interior cells Te=58-9h-2.25Yd (32-0.2h-
0.05Yd C)
y=The distance above the depth of temperature variation
Ty=Temparature at distance y
Ty=T(y/Y0)5
Fig, 5.4-Tempratrue distribution for design

5.4.2 Shrinkage and creep-Shrinkage and creep are concrete deformations, which occur over a
length of time (up to 20 years). In general, creep and shrinkage are influenced by:

a. Mix design

b. Water/cement ratio

c. Aggregate properties

d. Cement content

e. Maturity (age) of concrete

f. Ambient relative humidity

g. Reinforcing steel percentage

h. Size of member

i. Shape of member

j. Age at first application of load

k. Duration of load

Depth of the investigation of the effects of creep and shrinkage depends upon the sensitivity of
the structural system to these effects. Structural systems for which creep and shrinkage
produce critical conditions should be investigated for a range of deformations likely to occur.
In choosing the range of deformations, it should be kept in mind that the designer does not
have adequate control, or even adequate knowledge, of all the conditions influencing creep
and shrinkage. The guidance which follows is of a general nature and the designer is referred
to ACI 209R and References 5 4, 5-5, and 5-6.

5.4.2.1 Shrinkage-Shrinkage is the reduction in volume which occurs in concrete during the
hydration process due to loss of water not bound by hydration. Shrinkage occurring before the
concrete has taken its initial set is not included in the shrinkage considered herein. The
practice of staggered placement of concrete can reduce effects attributable to early plastic
shrinkage, but is not effective in compensating for shrinkage which occurs over long periods of
time. Increased volume changes resulting from the use of expansive admixtures also should be
considered in the design. For preliminary design, ultimate shrinkage deformation in
conventional reinforced concrete bridges in moderate climates, having a mean annual relative
humidity between 50 and 90 percent, may be taken as a strain of 0.0002. The shrinkage
coefficient for lightweight concrete should be determined by test for the type of aggregate to
be used. Rate of development of shrinkage may be approximated by the following expression:
 shrinkage of time t

ultimate shrinkage

time in days from end of curing (7 days for normal curing,

1 to 3 days for steam curing)

This expression is based on a 6 in.- (150-mm) thick slab of typical field-cast concrete, moist
cured for 7 days, and drying at 70 F (20 C). Corrections are applied for other conditions.
Correction for the thickness may be estimated5‘6 by adjusting the time by the square of the
rates of thickness as follows.

Where

t* = equivalent time

t = actual time in days

h = actual thickness

ho = reference thickness, 6 in. (150 mm)

For more detailed information, the designer is referred to ACI 209.

5.4.2.2 Creep-Creep (time-dependent deformation under constant load) and relaxation (time-
dependent force under constant strain) are influenced by the factors noted previously, but are
most strongly influenced by the age of the concrete (maturity) at the time of loading. Creep
deformation is approximately proportional to stress for normal service loads. Creep may be
characterized by the creep coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of creep deformation to
instantaneous elastic strain. The ultimate creep coefficient C, for conventional reinforced
concrete bridge members,5-3 in a moderate climate and loaded at an age of 28 days, may be
taken for preliminary design as

Cu = 3.0 - 0.030 RH

where

RH = mean annual relative humidity

The development of creep deformation with time may be approximated by the following
expression

where

f = age in days from loading

Creep strain at time t after loading is given by

where

instantaneous strain at application of load

The designer should remember that total strain includes instantaneous strain, creep strain,
and shrinkage strain. For more detailed information, the designer is referred to ACI 209.

5.4.3 Axial load deformations-The effect of differential displacements at top of piers due to
internal axial forces in the main longitudinal members should be considered in the analysis.

5.4.4 Thermal effects-Stresses or movements due to temperature changes and to temperature

differential in the member should be considered in the design. The thermal coefficient for
normal weight concrete members may be taken as 0.000006 F (0.000011 C). The temperature
range should be determined for the locality in which the structure is to be constructed. In the
absence of site-specific data, the long-term change in temperature from the mean annual
temperature may be taken as given in AASHTO:

Temperature Rise Temperature Fall

Moderate climate 30 F (17 C) 40 F (22 C)
Cold climate 35 F (19 C) 45 F (25 C)

Short-term (24- to 48-hr) temperature changes and solar radiation produce differential
temperatures through the depth of a concrete bridge. Stresses produced by this nonuniform
temperature distribution can be significant at the service load level. Such differential
temperatures do not reduce the ultimate load capacity. A temperature distribution
appropriate for calculation of the effects of differential temperature is shown in Fig. 5.4. The
temperature distribution for a given site and structure may be derived by heat flow
calculations on a section of the structure for prescribed values of air temperature, solar
radiation, and thermal properties. Stresses developed due to restraint of thermal expansion
may be conceptually divided into three parts:

1. Section restraint stresses-Stresses arising from assumption that plane sections remain plane
2. Flexural restraint stresses-Stresses arising from the support restraints of member end
rotation (i.e., continuous spans or fixed ends)

3. Axial restraint stresses-Stresses arising from support restraint of the overall longitudinal
expansion and contraction

These stresses can be calculated using the procedures described in References 5-7 and 5-8.

5.5.10 Ship impact-The possibility of ship impact should be considered in the design of bridges
crossing navigable waters.‘-15 If the risk of impact warrants protective measures, then piers
should be protected from impact or designed to resist the maximum likely impact. Factors to
be considered in assessing the risk of impact and the maximum likely impact include: Vessel
types and traffic volumes Bridge clearance, horizontal and vertical Navigational aids, including
radar reflectors Interactions between vessels, current, and wind Protective devices include:
Dolphins and fenders Protective embankments Signal lights may be provided on the bridge to
stop motor vehicle traffic in the event of a collision endangering the span.