Behavioural

Learning
Theories and
Approaches to
Learning
 What is
learning?
 Learning
-Learning is a relatively lasting change in behavior that is
the result of experience. It is the acquisition of information,
knowledge, and skills.
-Learning became a major focus of study in psychology
during the early part of the twentieth century as behaviorism
rose to become a major school of thought. Today learning
remains an important concept in numerous areas of
psychology, including cognitive, educational, social, and
developmental psychology.
Approaches
to Learning
Approaches to Learning

Behavioural

Cognitive
Social
Constructivist Cognitive

Social Information
Constructivist Processing
 Behavioural
Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory is
a popular concept that focuses on how students
learn. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all
behaviors are learned through interaction with
the environment. This learning theory states that
behaviors are learned from the environment, and
says that innate or inherited factors have very
little influence on behavior.
 Behavioral learning theory
Understanding how to motivate and help
students. Information is transferred from
teachers to learners from a response to the
right stimulus. Students are a passive
participant in behavioral learning—teachers are
giving them the information as an element of
stimulus-response.
 Positive reinforcement
behavioral learning theory. Without positive
reinforcement, students will quickly abandon
their responses because they don’t appear to be
working. For example, if students are supposed
to get a sticker every time they get an A on a
test, and then teachers stop giving that positive
reinforcement, less students may get A’s on
their tests, because the behavior isn’t
connected to a reward for them.
 Social Cognitive
Cognition refers to mental activity including
thinking, remembering, learning and using language. When
we apply a cognitive approach to learning and teaching,
we focus on the understanding of information and
concepts. The social-cognitive theory is a theoretical
perspective in which learning by observing others is the
focus of study. Social-cognitive theory is grounded by
several basic assumptions. One is that people can learn by
observing others. Learners can acquire new behaviors and
knowledge by simply observing a model.
 "Social learning theory: Bandura's 5 key
steps of the learning process"
1.Learning through observation- The key to the social learning theory is
that we observe certain behaviors and then, after a few mental
processes that we will see down below, we imitate them.

2. Paying attention- The learner needs to pay attention. If he or she is

distracted, it will probably affect the quality of learning. Being focused
on the task at hand becomes the first step for retaining the information
and getting to acquire the knowledge.

3. Retention- How much do you remember from what you have observed in
order to reproduce it? This is what retention is based on, on how well
that behavior is remembered.
 "Social learning theory: Bandura's 5 key
steps of the learning process"

4. Reproduction- All of the steps above bring us to this

final one, the reproduction of the behavior/task that we
have observed. After having observed, paid attention to
and remembered the behavior/task, we should be able to
perform it ourselves.

5. The importance of motivation- Of course, reproduction

of the behavior/task would not be possible without the will
to do it.
 Information Processing
Information processing theory is an approach to
cognitive development studies that aims to explain how
information is encoded into memory. It is based on the
idea that humans do not merely respond to stimuli from
the environment. Instead, humans process the
information they receive.
 "Stages of Information Processing"

1. Attending- Attending is the first stage of information

processing, and it refers to when a person is gathering
information from their environment.

2. Encoding- Encoding is the second stage of information

processing, and it refers to a person focusing and trying to truly
understand something.

3. Storing- Storing is the third stage of information processing,

and it refers to keeping or maintaining information in the brain
for an extended period.
 Cognitive Constructivist
Based on the work of Jean Piaget. His theory has two
major parts: an ages and stages component that
predicts what children can and cannot understand at
different ages, and a theory of development that
describes how learners develop cognitive abilities.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that
humans cannot be given information, in which they
immediately understand and use. Instead, learners must
construct their own knowledge. They build their
knowledge through experience. Experiences enable them
to create schemas — mental models of the world.
 Social Constructivist
Focuses on the collaborative nature of learning.
Knowledge develops from how people interact with each
other, their culture, and society at large. Students rely
on others to help create their building blocks, and
learning from others helps them construct their own
knowledge and reality. Social constructivism comes
from Lev Vygotsky, and is closely connected to
cognitive constructivism with the added element of
societal and peer influence.
It’s important to understand how teachers can apply
constructivism inside their classroom to create a
unique learning environment for students. In
constructivist classrooms, the teacher has a role to
create a collaborative environment where students are
actively involved in their own learning. Teachers are
more facilitators of learning than actual instructors.
-Shared knowledge between teachers and
students.

-Shared authority between teachers and

students.

-Teachers act as a guide or facilitator.

 What is
Connectionism?
 Connectionism
According to Edward Lee Thorndike, connectionism is the original S-R
framework of a behavioural psychology. It states that learning is a
result of associations forming between the Stimulus or stimuli and
response.
Connectionism is a learning process of an individual by doing a trial
and error method. The key feature of connectionism is that it can
explain learning by observations rather than suggested explanations
of unobservable internal states.
The application of connectionism is widespread in the areas of
education, measurement of intelligence and adult learning.
 Conditioning
Conditioning in behavioral psychology, it is a theory
that the reaction ("response") to an object or event
("stimulus") by a person or animal can be modified by
'learning', or conditioning. A process of behavior
modification by which a subject comes to associate a
desired behavior with a previously unrelated stimulus.
3 major types of
Conditioning
- Classical
- Contiguous
- Operant
 Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a learning process that
occurs through associations between environmental
stimulus and a neutrally occurring stimulus.

It had a major influence on the assumption that

learning occurs through interactions with the
environment.
Ivan Pavlov conducted a number of
experiments in a dog to study how
the stimulus and responses are
associated by simple surgical
operations, a flow of saliva from a
dog’s mouth, was transferred to a
glass tue at the sight of food, the
dog salivated then immediately
before giving food to the dog, a bell
was rung. This experiment was
repeated fo several days.
 Stages of Information Processing
1. Unconditioned Stimulus- An unconditioned stimulus is an element in the
experiment that elicits an automatic response.

2. Unconditioned Response- An unconditioned response is a response that

naturally occurs.

3.Neutral Stimulus- A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that does not cause a

reaction at first. However, when it is continually repeated, it will cause a
reaction and eventually become a conditioned stimulus.

4. Conditioned Stimulus- The conditioned stimulus is the stimulus that is

repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus until it eventually causes
the same response.

5. Conditioned Response- A conditioned response is a response that is taught

through the experiment. In Pavlov's experiment, it would be the dogs learning
to salivate at the sound of the bell just as they do in the presence of food.
 02
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 Contiguous Conditioning
Contiguous conditioning is based on the work of
Edward Ray Guthrie. In general, most learning
theories can be thought of as attempts to determine
the rules by which stimuli and response become
associated.
“A combination of stimuli which has accompanied a
movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed
by the movement.”
Another way of stating the Law of
contiguity is to say that if you did
something in a given situation, the
next time that you are in that
situation you will tend to do the
same thing.
 Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that
occurs through rewards and punishments for
behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behaviour and a
consequence for that behaviour.
Operant conditioning was coined by
behaviourist Burrhus Frederic Skinner,
who believed that the organism, while
doing about its everyday activities, is in
the process of “operating” on the
environment.
The Rat was placed in metal cage
with a number of lever. At first the
rat would nose around the cage and
accidentally press the lever, an
action that would cause food or
water to drop into a dish. After
repeating the action, the rat saw
that he will receive food and water
by pressing the lever. (learned this
behaviour) when the rat were
rewarded the rat would conditioned
to repeat this positive action.
Components of Operant Conditioning
1. Reinforcement- Anything an organism wants or
needs that when acquired, produces a satisfying
feeling or helps the organism survive.

Positive reinforcement- are favorable events

that are presented after that behavior.
Negative reinforcement- a response or behavior
is strengthened by stopping, removing, or
avoiding a negative outcomes or aversive stimuli.
Components of Operant Conditioning

2. Punishment- Introducing an
aversive stimuli when the
organism do a behavior we do
not like.
 What is
Behavioral
Analysis in
Education?
 Behavioral Analysis in
Education
It provides a scientific approach to
designing, implementing, and evaluating
instruction based on analyzing interactions
between what the teacher does and student
learning.
2 types of Behavioral
Analysis
- Behaviorism
- Applied Behavior
Analysis
 Behaviorism
Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory is a popular concept
that focuses on how students learn. Behaviorism focuses on the idea
that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned
from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have
very little influence on behavior.

A common example of behaviorism is positive reinforcement. A student

gets a small treat if they get 100% on their spelling test. In the future,
students work hard and study for their test in order to get the
reward.
 Applied Behavior
Analysis
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a scientific approach to
understanding behavior. ABA refers to a set of principles that
focus on how behaviors change, or are affected by the
environment, as well as how learning takes place. The term
behavior refers to skills and actions needed to talk, play, and
live.
 ABC Model
Antecedent – The prompt, or initial situation,
leading to a behavior.

Behavior – The action or behavior in response to

the antecedent.

Consequence – The reinforcement mechanism

associated with the behavior.
 Meaning of Gestalt Theory
The Gestalt theorists were the first group of psychologists to
systematically study perceptual organization around the 1920’s, in
Germany. They were Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ernst Mach, and
particularly of Christian von Ehrenfels and the research work of Max
Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka, and Kurt Lewin. According to
the Gestalt psychologists certain features in visual perception are
universal. In semiotic terms, these universal features can be thought
of as a perceptual code.
Gestalt is a sensual theory, what we see is a
result of light and dark objects, edges and
contours that we form into a whole image.
Sensual theories are of a lower order of
thinking than perceptual theories, such as
semiotics, that are concerned with the
meaning we attach to what we see.
Gestalt theorists followed the basic principle that the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In other
words, the whole (a picture, a car) carried a different
and altogether greater meaning than its individual
components (paint, canvas, brush, or tire, paint, metal,
respectively). In viewing the “whole,” a cognitive
process takes place –the mind makes a leap from
understanding the parts to realizing the whole.
Gestalt theory was introduced as a contrast to at the
time dominant structuralism, which claimed that
complex perceptions could be understood through
breaking them into smaller elementary parts of
experience, like splitting graphical forms into sets of
dots or melody into sequence of sounds.
Gestalt theory attacked this theory and holds that same
melody can be recognized if transposed into another
key and perception of a rectangle can be achieved
through other forms than four lines. The idea of
Wertheimer was that the ability to perceive objects was
an ability of the nervous system, which tends to group
together objects that are nearby, similar, form smooth
lines, form most of the shape we can recognize.
According to Gestalt psychology, the whole is
different than the sum of its parts. Based
upon this belief, Gestalt psychologists
developed a set of principles to explain
perceptual organization, or how smaller
objects are grouped to form larger ones. These
principles are often referred to as the ‘laws
of perceptual organization.’
 Gestalt (t German word means form or whole)
is a psychology term which means “unified
whole”. It refers to theories of visual
perception developed by German psychologists
in the 1920s. These theories attempt to
describe how people tend to organize visual
elements into groups or unified wholes when
certain principles are applied.
Gestalt is a theory that the brain operates holistically, with
self-organizing tendencies. The statement, whole is different
from the sum of its parts sums up the way we recognize
figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple
lines, curves and shapes.
e.g. describing a tree – it’s parts are trunk, branches, leaves,
perhaps blossoms or fruit. But when you look at an entire tree,
you are not conscious of the parts, you are aware of the
overall object – the tree. Parts are of secondary importance
even though they can be clearly seen.
 What is
experiential
learning?
 Experiental Learning
Experiential learning focuses on the idea that the best ways to learn
things is by actually having experiences. Those experiences then stick
out in your mind and help you retain information and remember facts.

Kolb’s experiential learning theory

-David Kolb is best known for his work on the experiential learning
theory. Kolb published this model in 1984, getting his influence from
other great theorists including John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean
Piaget.
The experiential learning theory works
in four stages—concrete learning,
reflective observation, abstract
conceptualization, and active
experimentation.
Concrete learning- is when a learner gets a new experience, or
interprets a past experience in a new way.

Reflective observation- comes next, where the learner reflects on their

experience personally. They use the lens of their experience and
understanding to reflect on what this experience means.

Abstract conceptualization- happens as the learner forms new ideas or

adjusts their thinking based on the experience and their reflection about
it.

Active experimentation- is where the learner applies the new ideas to

the world around them, to see if there are any modifications to be made.
This process can happen over a short period of time, or over a long span
of time.
Kolb's experiential learning cycle model
-The experiential learning cycle rests
on the idea that each person has a
specific type of learning tendencies,
and they are thus dominant in certain
stages of experiential learning.
 The Four Learning Styles are:
Diverging- The diverging learning style is full of learners who look at
things with a unique perspective. They usually focus on concrete learning
and reflective observation, wanting to observe and see the situation
before diving in.

Assimilating- this learning style involves learners getting clear

information. These learners prefer concepts and abstracts to people, and
explore using analytic models.

Converging- converging learners solve problems. They apply what they’ve

learned to practical issues, and prefer technical tasks.

Accommodating- these learners prefer practicality. They enjoy new

challenges and use intuition to help solve problems.
Current Research
and Pedagogical
Application
 A. Social emotional development
-Positive social and emotional development in the
early years provides a critical foundation for
lifelong development and learning. Social
development refers to a child’s ability to create
and sustain meaningful relationships with adults
and other children. Emotional development is a
child’s ability to express, recognize, and manage
his or her emotions, as well as respond
appropriately to others’ emotions.
The Social and Emotional development domains for infants,
toddlers and preschoolers include the following sub
domains;
Relationships with Adults
-child develops expectations of consistent, positive
interactions through secure relationships with familiar
adults.

-child uses expectations learned through repeated

experiences in primary relationships to develop
relationships with other adults.

-Childs learns to use adults as a resource to meet needs.

Relationships with other Children
-child shows interest in, interacts with, and develops
personal relationship with other children.
-child imitates and engages in play with other children.

Emotional Functioning
-child learns to express a range of emotions.
-child recognizes and interprets emotions of others with
the support of familiar adults.
-child expresses care and concern towards others.
-child manages emotions with the support of familiar
adults.
Sense of Identity and Belonging
-child shows awareness about self and how to
connect with others.
-child understands some characteristics of self
and others.
-child shows confidence in own abilities through
relationships with others.
-child develops a sense of belonging through
relationships with others.
5 Components of Social
emotional development:
-Self awareness
-Self management
-Social Awareness
-Relationship skills
-Responsible decision
making.
 B. Development of Self and Social
Understandings
child's knowledge, beliefs, judgments, and feelings
about themselves are know as their sense of self.
Particular elements of self-perceptions go by a
variety of names including self-concept, self-
esteem, and self-worth, and they all are closely
related.
 Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud
-hypothesized that an individual must
successfully complete each stage to become a
psychologically healthy adult with a fully formed
ego and superego. Otherwise, individuals may
become stuck
or “fixated” in a particular stage, causing
emotional and behavioral problems in adulthood.
 Psychosocial Theory
Erikson
-maintained that personality develops in a
predetermined order through eight
stages of psychosocial development, from infancy
to adulthood. During each stage, the person
experiences a psychosocial crisis which could
have a positive or negative outcome for
personality development.
 Erickson’s stages of Psychosocial
Development
Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age
1 Trust vs. Mistrust hope 0-1%

2 Autonomy vs. shame Will 1%- 3

3 Initiative vs. guilt Purpose 3-5
4 Industry vs. inferiority Competency 5-12
5 Identity vs. role confusion Fidelity 12-18

6 Intimacy vs. isolation Love 18-40

7 Generativity vs. stagnation Care 40-65

8 Ego integrity vs. despair Wisdom 65+

 3.Social Learning Theory
Bandura
until recently, most personality theories depicted behavior
as impelled by inner forces in the form of needs, and
impulses, often operating below the level of consciousness.
Since the principal causes of behavior resided in forces
within the individual that is where once looked for
explanations of mans actions.

Albert Bandura's Learning Theory suggests that observation

and modeling play a primary role in how and why people
learn.
4 Concepts of Bandura's
social learning theory
-Attention
-Retention
-Reproduction
-Motivation
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