Plant Anatomy

• The study of internal structure of plants is called plant anatomy. Tissue is a group of
similar cells which performs one or more particular functions. Depending upon the
dividing capacity, the tissues are classified into two types:
• Meristematic and Permanent

Fig: meristematic tissue

• It can be defined as a group of
immature cells which has the
capacity of division.
• They are living cells, small and
thin walled with dense
cytoplasm.
• The cells are compactly
arranged and lack intercellular
spaces.
• They are usually isodiametric,
spherical, oval or polygonal in
shape.
Classification of Meristems:
1.Classification based on origin and development:
a. Primary meristem: They are found at the tips of root, stem and appendages. These
meristems retain power of division throughout the life of the plant.
b. Secondary meristem: Some primary permanent tissues become meristematic and the
resulting meristems are called secondary meristems. They develop to heal up the
wounded portion or to effect secondary growth such as vascular cambium of the root,etc
2.Classification based on position:
Apical Meristem
•These are present at the tips of the roots and shoots and helps in the increase of the
height of the plants.
•Various cell divisions facilitate the growth of the cells in the roots and shoots and help
in cellular enlargement.
•Apical meristem is divided into-promeristem zone, which contains actively dividing
cells, and the meristematic zone, which contains protoderm, procambium and ground
meristem.
Intercalary Meristem
•It is located in the leaves and internodes at the intercalary position.
•These help to increase the length of the internode.
•It is found in grass, monocots and pines.
•It is a part of apical meristem and adds to the height of the plant.
Lateral Meristem
•It is located in the stems and roots on the lateral side.
•It increases the thickness of the plant.
•Vascular cambium and cork cambium are the two lateral meristems.
•These divide preclinically or radially and give rise to secondary permanent tissues.
3.Classification based on function: On the basis of function they are classified into three
categories;
a. Protoderm: This is the outermost layer of meristem which divides periclinally and
forms the outer epidermal layer.
b. Procambium: It is located inside the protoderm. It consists of narrow , elongated
meristematic cells, etc.
c. Ground meristematic: It consists of large thin walled cells that differentiate into ground
tissue system.
The shoot apex: The shoot apex is a dome-shaped mass of cells and is covered by young
leaves and can be seen only after their removal.
Theories of structural organization of root and shoot:
a.The apical cell theory: This theory was put forwarded by Nageli(1858). This theory is
applicable to algae as well as to most of the bryophytes and pteridophytes.
b.Histogen theory: This theory was proposed by Hanstein(1870). According to this theory,
the apical meristem of the root and stem soon differentiates into three regions;
1.Dermatogen: This is the outermost uniseriate single layer of the cells. Cells divides
anticlinal. The dermatogen gives rise to a single layered epidermis. These are called
calyptrogens.
2.Periblem: It is the middle region composed of isodiametric cells. It forms the cortex and
endodermis.
3.Plerome: It is the central or inner meristematic region which divides in all planes.
c. Tunica-Corpus theory: It is proposed by Schmidt(1924) and according to this, the
apical meristem consists of two distinct regions;
Tunica: It is outer zone of the cell which may be one or several layers and are
comparatively smaller in size. It give rise to epidermis or protoderm, If tunica is single
layers it produce epidermis and if it is more than one layer innermost layer produces
cortical tissues and leaf primordia. These cells divides anticlinal and helps to increase
the surface of shoot apex.
Corpus: It is inner mass of the cells which is several layers and the cells are
comparatively larger in size. It gives rise to cortex, vascular bundle and pith. Cells
divides in all planes
Root apex is found at the tip of main root and its branches. It is covered by protective root cap. It is
further differentiated in to five region.
1. Protoderm :
It forms epidermis or epiblema in monocots
only and root cap in dicots.
2.Calyptrogen:
It is found in monocot and is responsible for the
formation of root cap.
3.Procambium:
It gives rise to vascular tissues.
4.Ground meristem:
It takes parts in the formation of pith, cortex, indodermis and pericycle.
5.Quiescent center:
In this region cells divides at a very slow rate.
Intrafascicular
Cambium
Functions of Meristematic Tissue:
1. Meristems are actively dividing tissues of the plant.
2. They are responsible for primary (elongation) and secondary (thickness) growth of the
plant.
3. All new organs and their growth occur by the division of meristematic tissue.
4. Secondary tissues such as, wood, cork are also formed due to activity of meristematic
tissue.
Permanent tissues:
A permanent tissues is a group of cells derived from meristematic cells and that have
lost the power of cell division and the growth. Permanent tissues may be primary
permanent (develop from pro meristem or primary meristem) and secondary (develop
from secondary meristem, cork cambium, etc) The permanent tissues can be classified
into two types:
• Simple permanent tissue: These tissues are the group of cells which are similar in
origin, form and function.
• Complex or Compound permanent tissues
• Secretary tissues
Simple permanent tissue: These tissues are the group of cells which are similar in origin,
form and function (Homogenous cells). These are also mainly three types; Parenchyma,
collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
Parenchyma:
Most common permanent tissue
Present in soft parts like cortex,
pith, palisade, mesophyll and
some parts of flower.
Characteristics:
• It is most common permanent tissues.
• They are thin walled living cells which are oval, spherical or polygonal in shape.
• They contain large central vacuole and peripheral cytoplasm containing nucleus.
• The cells have intercellular spaces in between them which may small or big.
• This tissue is generally present in almost all the organs.
• There are following types based on function, modification;
• Prosenchyma: In some cases the parenchymatous cell become long and taper at
either end and slightly rigid such tissues is called prosenchyma. It helps in mechanical
support.
• Aerenchyma: Some cells have wide air spaces between them called aerenchyma. It is
also known as stellate parenchyma.
❑ Chlorenchyma: Parenchyma with chloroplast called chlorenchyma (Leaf mesophyll). In the
leaves, mesophyll cells may be palisade cells (long or elongated cells) and spongy cells
(oval or irregular) and contain chloroplast in them. They help in photosynthesis
❑ The outermost parenchyma cutinized protective covering is called Epidermis. It is
uniseriate and externally covered by cuticle which prevents water loss during transpiration.
The parenchyma epidermis without cuticle is called epiblema. The epiblema may produce
unicellular root hairs from piliferous cells for absorption of water and minerals.
❑ Xylem parenchyma has slightly thicker cell wall which helps in storage and lateral
conduction of water.
❑ phloem parenchyma has slightly thinner wall which helps in storage and lateral conduction
of food.
Functions of parenchyma:
• Parenchymatous cells help in photosynthesis. e.g palisade cells of leaf.
• It servers mainly for the storage of food materials in the form starches, proteins, oils and fats.
Food storing parenchyma contains thick walls.
• In the fleshy stems of leaves like Aloe, bryophyllum, agave, etc it helps in store water.
• Storage of air for floating in hydrophytes through air spaces and air cavities.
• Formation of secondary meristems to form secondary tissues, heel the wound, etc
• Specialized parenchymatous like idioblast contains cell inclusions like resins, tannin,etc
Collenchyma:
Collenchyma are the living cells which are somewhat elongated. Cells of this tissues
possess localized thickening on the cell wall, particularly at the corner. Based on
thickening materials they can be classified as angular, lamellate and lacunate
thickening. It occurs in the herbaceous dicotyledons e.g. sunflower, gourd, etc.
Functions:
1.It gives mechanical strength and elasticity to the organs
2.It also manufacture sugar and starch.
3.In some plants, collenchyma regain the power to divide.
4. It prevents tearing of leaves.
5. In some special cases, collenchyma contains chloroplast and help in photosynthesis.
The thickening material present in cell walls of collenchyma is
a) Pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose
b) Lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose
c) Hemicellulose, suberin, cellulose
d) Suberin, pectin, cellulose
The correct option is A Pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose
In higher plants, the cell wall is made up of mainly cellulose and hemicellulose. Pectins are
usually found in parenchyma, but additional materials are deposited on the cell wall according to
the function, e.g., pectin in collenchyma, lignin in sclerenchyma, and suberin in cork cells.
Sclerenchyma:
It consists of long, narrow, thick walled and lignified
cells which are dead cells and do not perform any
metabolic activities. They are found abundantly in
plants and occurs in patches or in definite layers.
The secondary cell wall of these tissues is very
thick and secretes lignin, which provides
mechanical support to the plants. There is a
complete absence of intramolecular space
between the cells. Due to thick and rigid outer
cell walls consisting of lignin, it is
impermeable to water.
Sclerenchyma either develops from procambium or secondary deposition on the secondary
parenchyma.
Functions:
1.They give strength and rigidity to plant body.
2.They also enable it to withstand mechanical strength.
Sclerenchyma are of two types;
1.Fibres: Fibres are long and tapering at ends which are thick walled cells. Length are many
times longer than breadth. The fully developed fibres are always dead. They are present in
the xylem of stems and roots, testa of various seeds. They contains both simple and
bordered pits. Its main function is to give mechanical strength. Fibres are three types: xylary
fibres or wood fibres (arise from same meristem from which xylem arise), Surface fibres and
extraxylary fibres or bast fibres (arise from other meristem from which xylem arise).
2. Sclereids or stone cells : They are extremely thick walled and may be spherical, oval,
cylindrical, etc with narrow lumen having simple pits. They are generally found in hard
parts of plant body sometimes in the pulp of fruits, hard seed coats. Its main function is
to provide local mechanical strength
They are be classified into five main types on the basis of their shapes.
Brachysclereids(Isodiametric or oval shape) eg pulp of pear.
Macrosclereids (columnar or elongated) eg seed coat of pulses
Osteosclereids (Bone shaped like enlarged at the end) seed coat of dicots
Asterosclereids (More or less star shaped) eg leaves and stem of dicots
Trichesclereids (more or less hair like structure)
Pits
Pits are thin areas on the secondary cell walls of plants. They look like depressions on
the walls. Usually, a pit has a complementary depression in its neighboring cell. Through
pits, the communication and exchange of fluid takes place between cells. There is no
deposition of lignin in this area. They are found in the walls of dead tissues with lignified
cell walls like sclerenchyma, tracheids and vessels of xylem.
These are termed ‘pit pairs’. The structure of a pit includes –
•Pit cavity, Pit membrane and Pit aperture
Types of Pits
The two major types of pits are – Simple pits and bordered pits. Bordered pits have a
secondary wall thickening over the pit cavity, whereas simple pits do not have borders.
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
Cells are living Cells are living Cells are deads
Commonly uniformly thin walled Usually unevenly thick walled Thick walled and evenly thicken
cells cells
Cell wall do not have secondary Cell wall contains pectin Cell wall contains lignin also
thickening
Pits are absent Pits are absent Pits are common
Several modification like Several modification like Modification like sclereids,
prosenchyma, chlorenchyma, angular, lamellar, lacunare, etc fibres, etc
aerenchyma, etc
Primary function is to store foods. It provides mechanical Primary function is mechanical
It also mechanical supports when support, storage,etc supports
cells are turgid.
Generally it has power of divisions It lost the power of division It lost the power of division.

Intercellular spaces are present Intercellular spaces are absent Intercellular spaces are absent
Complex or Compound permanent tissues
There are two types of complex tissues. They are xylem and phloem.
Xylem: It is a complex tissues that is mainly responsible for the conduction of water and
saps inside the plant from the root upto the top of the plant. It also provides mechanical
strength. Xylem is commonly known as wood which is composed of 4 kinds of cells
respectively, tracheids, vessels, wood parenchyma and wood fibres. Xylem is also
called wood(secondary xylem). Primary xylem is originated from procambium or
apical meristem while secondary xylem develops from vascular cambium or lateral
meristem.
The conducting cells of xylem are called tracheary elements. They
are dead cells with lignified walls. They are also none as hydrome.
These tracheary elements show different pattern of thickening of
lignin materials like annular, reticulate, spiral, scalariform and
pitted.
Tracheids: Cells are dead, long with transverse ends, containing
large vacuole. Cell walls are hard, strong. and lignified. Their main
functions are to give mechanical strength and to supply water and
dissolved minerals from root to the leaves. Present in all
pteridophytes, most of the Gymnosperms. Thicker deposition of
lignin.
Vessels or Trachaea: Cells are broad and
short, placed end to end to form a
continuous hollow tube. Water and water
dissolved minerals are conducted from
root to leaf by these cells. Present in
Angiosperm(except primitive angiosperms
like ranales, etc. Usually it is absent in
pteridophytes and gymnosperms. Thicker
deposition of lignin larger lumen.
Xylem fibre or wood fibre: These are Lignified cells, thicker than tracheids, tapering ends, long
narrow sclerenchyma cells. Xylem fibres consists of two types tracheids fibres(mechanical
support) and libriform fibres(more thicker than tracheids fibres and conducts food) Their main
function is to give mechanical strength to the plant.
Xylem parenchyma: These are parenchymatous cells. Functions of these cells are storage and
lateral conduction.
• Tracheary elements, which facilitate water and solute transport between organs, and fibres,
which provide structural support for the plant, both possess thick secondary cell walls.
• Xylem parenchyma cells lack well-defined secondary cell walls and are implicated in a variety
of biological processes, including aiding the lignification of secondary cell walls in
neighboring vessel elements and fibers
Xylem are of two types they are protoxylem and metaxylem.
Protoxylem: It is early formed xylem which bears narrow vessels. It is retained only for a
short period where fibres are absent or rare.
Metaxylem: It is late formed xylem which bears large vessels. It is retain for long period
where fibres often occurs
Protoxylem occurs towards the center in the
endarch arrangement while protoxylem occurs
towards the periphery in the exarch
arrangement. Also, Protoxylem is surrounded by
metaxylem in mesarch arrangement.
Phloem tissue: Phloem tissue consists of four types of cells, namely: sieve tubes, companion
cells, phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma. It is also known as bast or leptome
Sieve tube(Sieve cells): These are elongate hollow cells placed end-to-end forming.
Sieve tube in angiosperm and sieve cells in gymnosperm. Sieve tube are longer and perforated
regularly whereas sieve cells are shorter and perforated in patches.
Division of Labour in Multicellular Plants a long tube. The partition walls between two adjacent
sieve cells are perforated and known as sieve plate. In mature sieve tube there is no nucleus in the
cell. Conduction of food, prepared in the leaves is its main function.
Companion cells(Albuminous cells): These are parenchymatous, narrow, elongated cells, and
are closely associated with the sieve tube. They have dense cytoplasm and a large nucleus.
Conduction with the sieve tube is done through the pores present on the walls of these cells. They
help the sieve tubes in conduction of food materials.
Phloem fibre (Bast fibre): These are Sclerenchyma cells. They are also known as bast fibre. Its
function is to give mechanical strength.
Phloem parenchyma: These are parenchymatous cells. They help in storageand conduction of
food materials.
Phloem are of two types primary and secondary phloem.
Primary phloem: It is develop from procambium which is differentiated into protophloem
and metaphloem.
Secondary phloem: It is developed from cambium during secondary growth which shows
radial differentiation.
Function of Phloem tissue:
There main function is to conduct food materials, prepared in the leaves, to different parts of
the plant.

They give mechanical strength to plant organ.

In case of necessity they store food materials.

Importance of Complex tissues:

In respect of physiological and economic aspects, complex tissues are of great importance.
Physiological importance:
• Complex tissues perform the duty of conduction of raw food materials to leaves and prepared
food materials to all the living cells.
• Beside preparation of food, water is necessary for various reactions. This water is conducted
from root to stem through the complex tissue named xylem.
• Through xylem tissue dissolved minerals along with water also passes upwardly.
• Water used in transpiration also moves to leaf through xylem tissue.
Economic importance
• The most important economic crop in Bangladesh is jute fiber. Jute fiber is the secondary
phloem or bast fiber.
• The wood we use, in the construction of houses, in making furniture, boat or musical instruments
or as fuel, is the secondary xylem.