EGT2043 GEOPHYSICS

21 April 2021

LECTURE 6
GRAVITATION, ISOSTASY

Semester February 2020/2021

Noorzamzarina Sulaiman, PhD
GRAVITY METHOD
Basic Concepts
 Gravity survey is a study of the geological information on
subsurface based on changes in the Earth's gravitational
field.
 This difference in the gravitational field caused by density
differences of causative objects (Body of a rock units with
different density than the surrounding rock).
 This difference will result in the disruption of the local
gravitational field of the earth.
 This interruption in turn causes gravity anomalies which will
then be used to obtain information about the structure
below the earth's surface.
 Objects of different density will result in local gravity
anomalies.
 Interpretation of gravity anomalies will allow the
evaluation form and depth of the object causes.
 Newton's first laws declare that the attractiveness (F)
between the body m1 and m2 at a distance r is
expressed as a formula:

𝒎𝟏 . 𝒎𝟐
F=G 𝒓𝟐

 G is the gravitational constant, which has a value of 6.67

x 10-11 m3/ kgS2 in SI units. While in cgs units, G is the force
unit dyne acting between two masses which weight 1g
with a distance of 1 cm.
 This force is called the Newton in Newton SI units where 1
equals 105 dyne.
 According to Newton's second law describes mass at
a height above the earth's surface will fall when
released as a result of the gravitational pull of the
earth. This theory can be summarized as follows:

F = ma
F = mg
g = F/m1
so, g = m2/r2

Where,
m2 = Earth mass
r = Earth radius
 Average g value at the earth's surface is 980 gal and
changed 5 gal from pole to equator.
 The unit commonly used in the exploration geophysics
is miliGal (mGal) because gravity anomaly changes
apply to a very small value.
Units
 1 Gal (after Galileo) = 1 cm/s2
 Thus g (at Earth’s surface) ~ 103 Gals
 1 mGal = 10-3 Gals = 10-5 m/s2

 Gravimeters sensitive to ~ 0.01 mGal,

i.e., 10-8 of Earth’s field
 Usually relative gravimeters used
 Density is the physical parameters that govern and affect
the gravity of the earth.
 Changes horizontal gravity showed differences in
horizontal rock below the earth's surface and can then
be used to get information about the internal structure of
the earth.
 Bulk density is controlled by several factors such as
mineral content, porosity (porosity) and the fluid cavity.
 In the processing of gravity data, other factors that affect
the value of gravity will be eliminated through the
correction of gravity data.
 Variation and density differences that affect the gravity
anomaly will be corrected.
 In a study involving basins or petroleum exploration, rock
samples obtained from drilling and coring which will then
determine its density.
 Table 2.1 shows the density of different types of materials.
Gravity measuring
instruments
On land: Can be done using:
a) relative gravimeters
• stable gravimeters
• unstable gravimeters

b) absolute gravimeters
• pendulums
• falling masses
Gravity measuring instruments
Relative measurements: stable
gravimeters

Work on the principle of a force

balancing the force of gravity.
Example: the Gulf gravimeter
 Gravity measuring instruments
Relative measurements: unstable
gravimeters
e.g. Worden gravimeter

Advantages Disadvantages

need not may not be

lock the overturned -
mass contains
open saucer of
desiccant - can
spill
no power is
needed for
temperature
compensatio
n
 Gravity measuring instruments
Relative measurements: unstable
gravimeters

• Cunning mechanical
devices
• increases in g cause
extension of spring
• extension magnified
by mechanical
geometry
• Examples: the
Worden and the
LaCoste-Romberg
gravimeters
 Gravity measuring instruments
Relative measurements: borehole gravimeter

• Can be used to obtain density of

formations
• Main problems:
-temperature control
-deviation from vertical
 Gravity measuring instruments
Absolute measurements: Pendulums
First done by Pierre Bouguer in 1749

L = pendulum length
 Gravity measuring instruments
Absolute measurements: falling bodies
Advantages Disadvantages

accurate needs a lot of power

no drift corrections takes long time to make

reading

different surveys, e.g. inter instrument different surveys,

continental, can be tied together. e.g. not portable
Formerly done flying long loops
with Worden gravimeter & tying to
pendulum-measured absolute
gravity reference stations

sensitive to height changes of ~ 3

cm. Thus can be used for tectonic
studies, e.g. earthquake prediction
 GRAVITY DATA PROCESSING

 Gravity data acquired will be processed before qualitative and

quantitative interpretation can be done.
 This process is an important process in which the data obtained in the
field will be made standard corrections.
 Data will be through a standard correction process involving:
-Drift correction
-Latitude correction
-Free air correction
Elevation correction
-Bouguer correction
-Terrain correction
-Eotvos correction
 Bouguer Anomaly

BA = gobs ± ∆glat± ∆gdrf ± ∆gfac ± ∆gb + ∆gt

BA = Bouguer anomaly
gobs = Field gravity value
∆glat = Latitude correction
∆gdrf = Drift correction
∆gfac = Free air correction
∆gb = Bouguer correction
∆gt = Terrain correction
Drift correction
 Drift correction is made due to gravity meter reading
changes over with the reading in base station.
 This occurs when gravity meter readings changed
gradually over time.
 Two factors control this change is a factor spring
temperatures and changes in elasticity at different times.
Mechanical changes in the components of the gravity
meter is due to changes that failed in compensation such
as heat, pressure and elastic creep.
 Done by repeating the reading at the base station in the
morning and evening. Changes in assuming linear gravity
readings on time, then the gravity versus time graph will
be plotted to determine creep rate. There creep
correction will be made to all the readings obtained at
field stations.
 If the gradient is positive, the reading should be
substracted, and vice versa.
 The changes are due to tidal effects, instrument drift, and in
some cases real changes (e.g. motions on faults, swelling
magma chambers).
Latitude correction

 Latitude correction is made to eliminate the effect of

increasing gravity of the equator up to the pole.
 The value of gravity at the poles is higher than at the
equator because the radius of the earth at the poles is
smaller as a result of the shape of the earth.
 The station is located in the north is positive and vice
versa. Latitude correction is performed based on the
following formula:

∆glat= ± 0.8122 sin 2𝜽 mgal/km

Where 𝜽 is latitude of station

Free Air Correction

 FAC corrects for the decrease in gravity with height in

free air resulting increase distance from centre of earth.
 This correction is done based on the observation stations.
The station located higher than the datum line has a
positive correction value while the station under datum
has negative value.
 Free-air correction was performed using the following
formula:

∆gfac = ± 0.3086 x h mgal

h is the height in meter

Which means, every 1 meter change in
elevation, 0.3086 mgal will be changed.
Free-Air
correction

= height
Bouguer Correction
 Bouguer correction is performed to eliminate the
influence of the body pieces attractions infinity (slab)
between the horizontal plane at each measurement
station with datum.
 Attraction effect is calculated by assuming the
material has a similar thickness to the high difference
between the reference level in the measuring station.
This attraction is called Bouguer effect.
 On land (above mean sea level), observation is positive
due to slab asumption, Bouguer correction must be
subtracted as the gravitational attraction of the rock
between observation point and datum must be
removed.
 On sea (below mean sea level), observation is negative
due to lack of rock between surface and sea bed,
Bouguer correction then need to be added.
 The formula used is:
∆gb = ± 2πG𝝆 x 10-3 mgal

∆gb = ± 0.04192hρ x 10-3 mgal

Where,
h is the height in meter
𝝆 is density of material kg/m3
Terrain Correction

 Terrain Correction is done to cancel out the influence

of terrain of hills and valleys.
 As the distance increased from the centre of the earth
station, the smaller the effect of gravity and vice versa
if the closer to the centre of the earth station.
 Terrain such as hills and valleys will lead to a reduction
in the gravity readings at each observation stations.
 So, terrain correction value need to be added and
having + symbol.
Terrain corrections

– both hills and valleys

reduce gravity
 The area around the station will be divided into
several segments that are bounded by some of the
turns in the appropriate angular intervals (Abd Rahim
1990).
 Hammer charts used during the correction is done.
Chart Hammer transparent placed on each station's
observation in the plot in the topographic map.
 The next correction is done by determining the
difference in average height contour segment
elevation gravity station.
 This difference value is then referred to the standard
schedule terrain correction by Hammer (1939).
 Hence the correction is coordinated by rock density of
the study area.
 Other correction:Eotvos
correction

Eötvös correction V = speed in knots

– necessary on moving α = vehicle heading
platform
φ = latitude
 Bouguer anomaly values will be used in the
interpretation of gravity data. This value allows the
Bouguer anomaly map produced using Oasis Montaj
software.
GRAVITY DATA INTERPRETATION
Regional anomaly and
Residual anomaly
 Regional anomaly is the gravity changes caused by the
layers of bedrock.
 The remaining anomalies were caused by changes in the
gravity of the superficial layer of the subsurface to the
boundary of the bedrock.
 Residual anomaly can be calculated by removing the
effects of gravity wavelength of the longest due to the
variation of isostatic compensation bounded crust. Can
be calculated by subtracting the Bouguer gravity
anomaly with regional gravity anomaly. Basically the
formula as follows:

 BA = Regional Anomaly + Residual Anomaly

 Regional vs Residual
• Regional  Residual
– Anomaly from large
scale structure  Anomaly from small
scale structure
– Great depth
– Long wavelength  Low depth
– Covers large area  Short wavelength
– Large magnitude
 Covers local area
– Vary slowly vs distance
– Ex: basement,  Small magnitude
petroleum trap, deep
fault  Vary greatly vs distance
– Anomaly maps will  Ex: Ground water-table
have smooth, parallel,
equal spaced contour,  Maps have complex
large magnitude 500 contour, irregular, not
mgal. equal, small anomaly 5
mgal.
Interpretation of gravity
anomaly
 1) Qualitative (Direct)
 2) Quantitative (Indirect)
Interpretation of gravity
anomaly: Qualitative
Qualitative
 Description of the anomaly based on the visual
inspection.
 Ex: Profiles, Maps
 Can explain about
 +ve/-ve
 Magnitude
 Anomaly location
 Density
 Bedrock topography
 Interpret regional trend of the structure
 Correlation between surface geology and anomaly
 EX: rounded contour-granite intrusion, elongated-dyke,
parallel-basement, closed space-fault
Quantitative
 Related with modelling (2D,3D)
 Can obtain subsurface structure of rock such as depth,
size, volume etc2.
 Can be divided into several method:
 Forward modelling
 A model represent geol is constructed
 Anomaly of the model is calculated
 Observed vs computed anomaly are compared
 The model are adjusted to minimize diff
 The solution is non-unique/ambigous
 Inverse modelling
 Using the supplied anomaly, computer will construct model.
 Half-width
 Inflection point
Half width Inflection Point
Quantitative: Interpretation
of gravity anomaly
Ambiguity problem
 Diff shape/diff depth give similar curve
 Requires borehole data to reduce ambiguity
 Study Case: Penyu Basin

A
I1290
I1836

X2005

X2414

B
Model
TQ