Chapter 5

REDUCTION OF MULTIPLE SUBSYSTEMS

Chapter Learning Outcomes
• After completing this chapter the student will be able to:
• Reduce a block diagram of multiple subsystems to a single block
representing the transfer function from input to output (Sections
5.1–5.2)
• Analyze and design transient response for a system consisting of
multiple subsystems (Section 5.3)
• Convert block diagrams to signal-flow diagrams (Section 5.4)
• Find the transfer function of multiple subsystems using Mason’s
rule (Section 5.5)

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Chapter Learning Outcomes
• Represent state equations as signal-flow graphs (Section 5.6)
• Represent multiple subsystems in state space in cascade, parallel,
controller canonical, and observer canonical forms (Section 5.7)
• Perform transformations between similar systems using
transformation matrices; and diagonalize a system matrix
(Section 5.8)

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Chapter 5 4 Copyright © 滄海圖書
 FIGURE 5.2 Components of a block diagram for a linear, time-invariant system

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Cascade Form

FIGURE 5.3 a. Cascaded subsystems; b. equivalent transfer function

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 FIGURE 5.4 Loading in cascaded systems

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Parallel Form

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Feedback Form

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 FIGURE 5.6 a. Feedback control system;

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 FIGURE 5.6 b. simplified model; c. equivalent transfer function

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 FIGURE 5.7 Block diagram algebra for summing junctions—equivalent forms for
moving a block a. to the left past a summing junction;

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 FIGURE 5.7 Block diagram algebra for summing junctions—equivalent forms for
moving a block b. to the right past a summing junction

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FIGURE 5.8 Block diagram
algebra for pickoff points—
equivalent forms for moving
a block a. to the left past a
pickoff point; b. to the right
past a pickoff point

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Example 5.1
• Block Diagram Reduction via Familiar Forms
• PROBLEM: Reduce the block diagram shown in Figure 5.9 to a
single transfer function.

FIGURE 5.9 Block diagram for Example 5.1

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Example 5.1

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Example 5.1

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Example 5.1

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Example 5.2
• Block Diagram Reduction by Moving Blocks
• PROBLEM: Reduce the system shown in Figure 5.11 to a
single transfer function.

FIGURE 5.11 Block diagram for Example 5.2

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Example 5.2

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Example 5.2

FIGURE 5.12 Steps in the block diagram

reduction for Example 5.2

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Example 5.2

FIGURE 5.12 Steps in the block diagram

reduction for Example 5.2

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Analysis and Design of Feedback Systems

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Example 5.3
• Finding Transient Response
• PROBLEM: For the system shown in Figure 5.15, find the
peak time, percent overshoot, and settling time.

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Example 5.3

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Example 5.3

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Example 5.4
• Gain Design for Transient Response
• PROBLEM: Design the value of gain. K, for the feedback
control system of Figure 5.16 so that the system will
respond with a 10% overshoot.

FIGURE 5.16 Feedback system for Example 5.4

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Example 5.4

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Example 5.4

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Signal-Flow Graphs

FIGURE 5.17 Signal-flow G(s) graph components: a. system; b. signal; c. interconnection of

systems and signals

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Example 5.5
• Converting Common Block Diagrams to Signal-Flow
Graphs
• PROBLEM: Convert the cascaded, parallel, and feedback
forms of the block diagrams shown in Figures 5.3(a), 5.5(a),
and 5.6(b), respectively, into signal-flow graphs.

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Example 5.5

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Example 5.5

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Example 5.6
• Converting a Block Diagram to a Signal-Flow Graph
• PROBLEM: Convert the block diagram of Figure 5.11 to a
signal-flow graph.

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Example 5.6

FIGURE 5.19 Signal-flow graph development: a. signal nodes; b. signal-flow graph;

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Example 5.6

FIGURE 5.19 Signal-flow graph development: c. simplified signal-flow graph

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Mason’s Rule
• Loop gain. The product of branch gains found by
traversing a path that starts at a node and ends at the
same node, following the direction of the signal flow，
without passing through any other node more than once.
For examples of loop gains, see Figure 5.20. There are four
loop gains:

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Chapter 5 39 Copyright © 滄海圖書
Mason’s Rule
• Forward-path gain. The product of gains found by
traversing a path from the input node to the output
node of the signal-flow graph in the direction of signal
flow. Examples of forward-path gains are also shown in
Figure 5.20. There are two forward-path gains:

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Mason’s Rule
• Nontouching loops. Loops that do not have any nodes in
common. In Figure 5.20, loop G2(s)H1(s) does not touch
loops G4(s)H2(s), G4(s)G5(s)H3(s),and G4(s)G6(s)H3(s).

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Mason’s Rule
• Nontouching-loop gain. The product of loop gains from
nontouching loops taken two, three, four, or more at a
time. In Figure 5.20 the product of loop gain G2(s)H1(s)
and loop gain G4(s)H2(s) is a nontouching-loop gain taken
two at a time. In summary, all three of the nontouching-
loop gains taken two at a time are

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Mason’s Rule

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Example 5.7
• Transfer Function via Mason’s Rule
• PROBLEM: Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow
graph in Figure 5.21.

FIGURE 5.21 Signal-flow graph for Example 5.7

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Example 5.7

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Example 5.7

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Example 5.7

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Signal-Flow Graphs of State Equations

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Altenative Representations in State Space

• Cascade Form

FIGURE 5.23 Representation of Figure 3.10 system as cascaded first-order systems

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 FIGURE 5.24 a. First-order subsystem; b. Signal-flow graph for Figure 5.23 system

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Parallel Form

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Controller Canonical Form
• The controller canonical form uses in the design of controller.

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Observer Canonical Form
• The observer canonical form uses in the design of observers.

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FIGURE 5.28 Signal-flow graph for observer canonical form variables: a. planning; b. implementation

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Example 5.8
• State-Space Representation of Feedback Systems
• PROBLEM: Represent the feedback control system shown
in Figure 5.29 in state space. Model the forward transfer
function in cascade form.

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Example 5.8

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Example 5.8

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 FIGURE 5.30 Creating a signal-flow graph for the Figure 5.29 system: a.
forward transfer function; b. complete system

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Similarity Transformations
• Systems can be represented with different state variables even
though the transfer function relating the output to the input
remains the same. The various forms of the state equations
were found by manipulating the transfer function, drawing a
signal-flow graph, and then writing the state equations from
the signal-flow graph. These systems are called similar systems.
their statespace representations are different, similar systems
have the same transfer function and hence the same poles and
eigenvalues.

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• The result of the derivation states: A system represented
in state space as

can be transformed to a similar system,

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• where, for 2-space,

and

Thus, P is a transformation matrix whose columns are the

coordinates of the basis vectors of the z1z2 space expressed
as linear combinations of the x1x2 space.

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Example 5.9
• Similarity Transformations on State Equations
• PROBLEM: Given the system represented in state space by Eqs.
(5.73),

transform the system to a new set of state variables, z, where the

new state variables are related to the original state variables, x, as
follows:

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Example 5.9

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Example 5.9

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Diagonalizing a System Matrix
• A diagonal system matrix has the advantage that each
state equation is a function of only one state variable.
Hence, each differential equation can be solved
independently of the other equations. We say that the
equations are decoupled.
• We give a special name to any vectors that are collinear
with the basis vectors of the new system that yields a
diagonal system matrix: they are called eigenvectors.

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Eigenvector
• Eigenvector. The eigenvectors of the matrix A are all
vectors, xi ≠ 0, which under the transformation A become
multiples of themselves; that is,

where λi’s are constants.

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 FIGURE 5.32 To be an eigenvector, the transformation Ax must be collinear with x; thus, in (a), x is
not an eigenvector; in (b), it is.

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Eigenvalue
• Eigenvalue. The eigenvalues of the matrix A are the values
of λi that satisfy Eq. (5.80) for xi ≠ 0

from which λi, the eigenvalues, can be found.

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Example 5.10
• Finding Eigenvectors
• PROBLEM: Find the eigenvectors of the matrix

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Example 5.10

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Example 5.10

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• In summary, under the transformation P, consisting of the
eigenvectors of the system matrix, the transformed system
is diagonal, with the eigenvalues of the system along the
diagonal. The transformed system is identical to that
obtained using partial-fraction expansion of the transfer
function with distinct real roots.

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Example 5.11
• Diagonalizing a System in State Space
• PROBLEM: Given the system of Eqs. (5.94), find the
diagonal system that is similar.

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Example 5.11

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Example 5.11

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