MECHANICS OF MACHINES

BMCM 2723
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

HERDY RUSNANDY

SITI NORBAYA SAHADAN

SHAMSUL ANUAR SHAMSUDI

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

CHAP. 1 BELT AND GEAR POWER TRANSMISSION 1

1.0 Chapter Outcomes 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Belt Power 2
1.2.1 Belt Arrangement 3
1.2.2 Belt Types 4
1.2.3 Velocity Ratio 5
1.2.4 Angle of Contact 8
1.2.5 Length of Belts 10
1.2.6 Belt Tension 11
1.2.7 Power Transmission with Belt 13
1.2.8 Belt Creep 15
1.3 Gear- An Introduction 17
1.3.1 Gear Types 17
1.3.2 Basic Gears Kinematics 19
1.3.3 Gear Trains 20
1.3.4 Gear Power Transmission 31
1.4 References 36
1.5 Problems (Tutorial) 37

CHAP. 2 ENGINE BALANCING 40

2.0 Chapter Outcomes 40
2.1 Basic of Balancing 40
2.2 Solving by Analytical Method 54
2.3 In-Line and Radial Engines Balancing 56
2.4 References 69
2.5 Problems (Tutorial) 70

CHAP. 3 FLYWHEELS 72
3.0 Chapter Outcomes 72
3.1 Introduction 72
3.2 References 80
3.3 Problems (Tutorial) 80

CHAP. 4 GOVERNORS 82
4.0 Chapter Outcomes 82

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 4.1 Introduction 82
4.2 Watt Governors 83
4.3 Porter Governors 83
4.4 Proell Governors 84
4.5 Hartnell Governors 85
4.6 Characteristic of Governor 86
4.7 Sensitivity of Governor 86
4.8 Controlling Force 87
4.9 References 96
4.10 Problems (Tutorial) 96

CHAP. 5 GYROSCOPES 97
5.0 Chapter Outcomes 97
5.1 Basic of Gyroscopes 97
5.2 References 103
5.3 Problems (Tutorial) 104

CHAP. 6 FREE VIBRATION 106

6.0 Chapter Outcomes 106
6.1 Fundamentals of Vibration 106
6.2 Simple Pendulum 106
6.2.1 Newton’s Method Law 107
6.2.2 Energy Method 109
6.3 Spring Mass System 109
6.3.1 Newton’s Method Law for Spring Mass 110
6.3.2 Energy Method for Spring Mass 112
6.4 Shaft-Inertia System 112
6.4.1 Newton’s Method Law for Torsional Vibration 113
6.4.2 Energy Method for Torsional Vibration 114
6.5 Equivalent Method 116
6.6 Free Damped Vibration 123
6.6.1 Spring Mass Damped System 124
6.6.2 Shaft Inertia 124
6.6.3 Damping Ratio 125
6.7 Equivalent Damping Coefficient 127
6.8 References 132
6.9 Problems (Tutorial) 132

CHAP.7 LINKAGE KINEMATICS 134

7.0 Chapter Outcomes 134
7.1 Introduction 134
7.2 Joints 137
7.3 Gruebbler’s Equation 139

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7.4 Kinematics Models/ Diagrams 140
7.5 Grashof’s Criterion 144
7.6 Four-Bar Position by Analytical Method 146
7.7 Slider-Crank Position by Analytical Method 149
7.8 Graphical Method for Position Analysis 150
7.9 Four-Bar Example 151
7.10 Slider-Crank Example 160
7.11 Brief Example on Mechanism Synthesis 164
7.12 References 171
7.13 Problems (Tutorial) 171

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 CHAPTER 1: POWER TRANSMISSION

1.0 CHAPTER OUTCOMES

 Identify and solve problems related to types of power transmission system.

 Apply kinematic principles to solve flat and V-belt problems.

 Apply relevant formulae to gear power transmission problems.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Newton’s Third Law states that a force has a reaction of equal magnitude but in the
opposite direction. A rotating body as illustrated in Figure 1.1 feels a centripetal force
towards the center of rotation, but its reaction acts in the opposite direction. This reaction is
known as the centrifugal force.

Figure 1.1: Forces acting on a rotating body

A centripetal force is one that pulls the rotating mass towards the axis of rotation.
Take a mass m circling about a radius r at an angular speed . Its normal acceleration
pointing towards the center of the rotation can be described as

an   2 r (1.1)

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Consequently, the centripetal force acting on the mass is:

Fn  man  m 2 r (1.2)

Fundamentally, the power can be transmitted most commonly by two ways as shown in
Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Method of power transmission

1.2 BELT POWER TRANSMISSION

Belts fall under the flexible mechanical components that have been used for a long time. The
principles are quite similar to the use of ropes and chains. However, only flat and V belts are
covered in this course. There are many advantages in using belts such as:-

• Up to 95% efficient

• Designed to slip when an overload occurs

• Resist abrasion

• Require no lubrication (no metal to metal contact)

• Smooth running

• Quiet

• Can transmit motion and power over long distances

• Operate effectively at high speeds

• Flexible shaft center distances

2
 • Inexpensive (when compared to other drive systems such as chain or gear drives)

• Easy to assemble and install

• Have flexible tolerances

• Absorb shock well

• Easy and inexpensive to maintain

1.2.1 BELT ARRANGEMENTS

Belts can be arranged in many styles. Machines operated by belt drives must have an idler, an
adjustable base, or both. The idler is used to help maintain constant tension on the belt. This
will keep the efficiency high. Figure 1.3 shows some of these arrangements.

Figure 1.3: Type of belt arrangements

3
1.2.2 BELT TYPES

There are many types available for belts and this also depends on many applications. Among
the notable ones are the flat belts, V-belts, and timing belts. Their examples are shown in
Figure 1.4 below.

Figure 1.4: Belt types

In particular, there are advantages of or situations for using flat belt in machines and these
include:-

• High-speed applications (up to 140,000 rpm) are more important than power
transmission

• Long center distances are necessary

• Drives with non-parallel shafts are required (belt can be twisted)

• Machines that requires a small pulley diameters (as small as 3/8")

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In contrast, there are also disadvantages of flat belts such as:-

• They tend to slip under load

• They have lower efficiency at moderate speeds

• They must be kept under tension to function (require tensioning devices); causes high
bearing loads

• They require friction for proper functioning

• They stretch more over time

V-Belts have their own advantages that include:-

• Wide use in automotive, household, industrial, and agricultural applications

• Easy to install and replace

• They have low maintenance

• They provide shock absorption between driver and driven shafts

• They can operate in a temperature range of 1oC to 82oC

• They are 90-98% efficient

• They have a high maximum satisfactory speed ratio of approximately 6:1

On the other hand, they also have weaknesses that include:-

• Improper belt tension can reduce service life

• The belt life at increased temperatures (above 82oC) is significantly shorter

• They require friction for proper functioning

1.2.3 VELOCITY RATIO

By assuming that there is no slipping and that the belt is inelastic, we can combine v1 = v2 as
seen in Figure 1.5 with equation 1.3 and yield equation 1.4.

5
 Figure 1.5: General setup of a chain and two pulleys

driven velocity (1.3)

n
driver velocity

N 2 d1 (1.4)
n  ; N [rpm]
N1 d 2

For the most part of this note, N is used for angular speed instead of 𝜔. If the thickness of the
belt, t, is included in the calculation, we add this value to the diameter and yield

N 2 d1  t
n  (1.5)
N1 d 2  t

Although belt-drive depends on friction for power transmission, there are factors that
contribute to the inefficiency of the drive. This inefficiency is known as belt slip where
frictional force is not strong enough to hold the belt in its place, causing the sheaves or
pulleys to rotate without affecting the belt.

When there is insufficient friction between a belt and the pulley, the belt cannot take up more
loads; it results in the belt slipping over the pulley, the phenomenon is called belt slip. Belt
slip results in loss of motion and power.

Normally, belt slip is expressed as a percentage and denoted by G where

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 G1 = Percentage of slip between belt and driver sheave,

G2 = Percentage of slip between belt and driven sheave,

G = Total percentage slip = G1 + G2.

Hence, this leads to

N 2 d1  G  (1.6)
n  1 - 
N1 d 2  100 

If belt thickness is included, the relationship becomes

N 2 d1  t  G  (1.7)
n  1 - 
N1 d 2  t  100 

EXAMPLE 1.1

A horizontal shaft running at 300 rpm is to drive a parallel shaft at 400 rpm. The diameter of
the pulley on the driving shaft is 60 cm. If the belt is 8 mm thick, find the diameter of the
driven pulley if

(a) Neglecting belt thickness.

(b) Taking belt thickness into account.
(c) Assuming in the latter case a slip of 5 % (belt thickness is neglected).
(d) Assuming in the latter case a slip of 5 % (belt thickness is considered).

HINT FOR SOLUTION:

(a) Use eq. (1.4)

(b) Use eq. (1.5)
(c) Use eq. (1.6)
(d) Use eq. (1.7)

EXAMPLE 1.2

An induction motor shaft, running at 1200 rpm drives a workshop main shaft by a flat belt
drive. The diameter of the pulley on the motor shaft is 40 cm and that on the main shaft is 70
cm. If there is 3% slip on each pulley, determine the speeds of the main shaft. [Answer: N2 =
644.57 rpm]

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SOLUTION:

𝑁2 𝑑1 𝐺
𝑛= = (1 − )
𝑁1 𝑑2 100

𝑑1 𝐺
𝑁2 = 𝑁1 (1 − )
𝑑2 100
40 3+3
= 1200 ( ) (1 − )
70 100
= 644.57 𝑟𝑝𝑚

1.2.4 ANGLE OF CONTACT

Two configurations are considered here that are the open belt drive and the crossed belt drive.
Figures 1.6(a) and 1.6(b) show these.

(a) Open belt drive

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 (b) Crossed belt drive

Figure 1.6: Belt configurations

The corresponding equations (1.8) and (1.9) relate to the open belt drive as

open    2 open; [radian]

(1.8)

where

r1  r2
 open  ; [radian] (1.9)
X

On the other hand, the corresponding equations (1.10) and (1.11) relate to the crossed belt
drive as

(1.10)
crossed    2 crossed ; [radian]

where

r1  r2 (1.11)
 crossed  ; [radian]
X
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EXAMPLE 1.3

For a belt-drive system, the diameter of the bigger sheave is 7cm and the diameter of the
smaller sheave is 3cm. Given the center distance between sheaves is 8cm. Find the angle of
contact if the system is

a) An open belt drive;

b) A crossed belt drive.

1.2.5 LENGTH OF BELTS

As before, the two configurations considered here are the open belt drive and the crossed belt
drive. Figures 1.7(a) and 1.7(b) show these geometries that is useful in deriving the formulae
for the belt length.

(a) Open belt drive

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 (b) Crossed belt drive

Figure 1.7: Geometries for belt length derivation

The corresponding equation (1.12) relates to the open belt drive as

Lopen   r1  r2   2 X 
r1  r2 2
(1.12)
X

On the other hand, the corresponding equation (1.13) relates to the crossed belt drive as

Lcrossed   r1  r2   2 X 
r1  r2 
2

(1.13)
X

1.2.6 BELT TENSION

Tension in a belt means the internal force within the belt as the pulley pulls the belt from the
driver side. Figures 1.8 (a) and (b) illustrate the details of the geometry that facilitate the
analysis of the tensions.

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 (a) (b)

Figure 1.8: Basic force analysis to find the tension

Here 𝑇1 is the tension in the tight side of the belt, 𝑇2 is the tension in the slack side of the belt,
𝜃 is the angle of contact in radians, and 𝜇 is the coefficient of friction between the pulley and
the belt.

Hence, equation (1.14) shows the relationship among these variables for a flat belt as

T1
 e   ; T [ N ],  [radian]
T2 (1.14)

Additionally, a V-belt has more area in contact with its sheave (pulley for a V-belt), in the
shape of a wedge as shown in Figure 1.9. Here, 2𝛽 is the groove angle.

Hence, equation (1.15) shows the relationship among these variables.

  
 
T1
 e sin    e   cosec  ; T [ N ],  [radian],  [degree] (1.15)
T2

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 Figure 1.9: V-belt cross-section

1.2.7 POWER TRANSMISSION WITH BELTS

When discussing power transmissions, many variables are of concern but most notable
among them are power and torque. Equation (1.16) gives the torques on the driver and driven
sides. Radii 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are the pulley or sheave sizes.

Driver torque,  1  T1  T2 r1 ;  [ Nm]

Driven torque,  2  T1  T2 r2 ;  [ Nm] (1.16)

The power then can be described in equation (1.17) as

Power, P  T1  T2 v; P[Watt] (1.17)

However, incorporating equations (1.14) and (1.15) yield equation (1.18) as

 1 
PFlat belt drive  T1 1    v
 e 
  (1.18)
 1 
PV -belt drive  T1 1    v
 
 e sin  

Since the belt has mass and as the belt rotates around the pulley or sheave, there is a tendency
for the belt to be ‘thrown out’ of the belt causing the tension in the belt to increase and the
centrifugal force, Fc to take effect as shown in Figure 1.10.

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 FC

Figure 1.10: Geometry showing Fc and Tc

In general, for flat belts the new relationship of equation (1.19) can be shown as

T1  Tc
 e  (1.19)
T2  Tc

whereas, for V-belts the new relationship of equation (1.20) can be shown as

  
T1  Tc  
 e sin   (1.20)
T2  Tc
The Tc is given in equation (1.21) as

Tc  mv2 ; Tc [ N ]; m[kg / m] (1.21)

The power can be calculated in equation (1.22)

 1 
PFlat belt drive  T1  Tc 1    v
 e 
  (1.22)
 
PV-belt drive  T1  Tc 1   
1
v
 
 e sin  

1
Studies suggest that the maximum power occurs when 𝑇𝑐 = 3 𝑇1 .

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1.2.8 BELT CREEP

Belt creep happens due to the elasticity of belt. It can be defined as a situation in which a
portion of the belt elongated while the other does not. This phenomenon is due to the elastic
condition, causing v1 ≠ v2.

v2 T T 
 1  1 2  (1.23)
v1  A E 

where
A  cross section area of belt drive [m 2 ]
E  modulus of elasticity of belt drive[ Nm - 2 ]
v  velocity of pulley [ms 1 ]

EXAMPLE 1.5

Figure 1.11: Open flat belt for Example 1.5.

An open flat belt drive connects two pulleys with the diameter of the driver is 0.5 m and the
driven is 1.2 m are on parallel shafts 3.6 m apart as shown in Figure 1.11. The belt has a
mass, m = 0.9 kg/m, cross section area, A = 320 mm2 and modulus of elasticity, E = 300
MN/m2. The maximum tension is not to exceed 2 kN. The driver pulley runs at 200 rpm. If
given the coefficient of friction,  = 0.3, determine

a) The angle of contact.

b) The velocity of drive pulley.

c) The power transmitted if the belt is inelastic and the mass of the belt is neglected.

d) The power transmitted if the belt is inelastic and the effect of centrifugal force is
considered.

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 e) The power transmitted if the belt is elastic and the effect of centrifugal force is
considered.

f) The torque required on each pulley and the effect of centrifugal force is considered.

EXAMPLE 1.6

An open V belt drive connects two pulleys with the diameter of the driver is 0.5 m and the
driven is 1.2 m are on parallel shafts 3.6 m apart as shown in Figure 1.12. The belt has a
mass, m = 0.9 kg/m, cross section area, A = 320 mm2 and modulus of elasticity, E = 300
MN/m2. The angle of the groove is 60o. The maximum tension is not to exceed 2 kN. The
driver pulley runs at 200 rpm.

Figure 1.12: Open V-belt for Example 1.6

If given the coefficient of friction,  = 0.3, determine

a) The angle of contact.

b) The velocity of drive pulley.

c) The power transmitted if the belt is inelastic and the mass of the belt is neglected.

d) The power transmitted if the belt is inelastic and the effect of centrifugal force is
considered.

e) The power transmitted if the belt is elastic and the effect of centrifugal force is
considered.

f) The torque required on each pulley and the effect of centrifugal force is considered.

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1.3 GEARS – AN INTRODUCTION

Gears have been an important mechanical component for ages. They were used by the
Romans, the Chinese, and many other ancient civilizations to move machines for irrigation,
crop processing, and constructions. The Industrial Revolution had increased the use of gears
in machines for mass production and for transportation. Figure 1.13 shows the use of spur
gears in moving a piece of paper.

Figure 1.13: Gears that rotate the rollers

There are many types of gears available. This course will only focus on the spur gears. Other
types will be studied in another course like machine design or machine component design.

1.3.1 GEAR TYPES

Gears can be of many types such as spur, helical, straight bevel, hypoid, worm, and
herringbone, as well as the rack and pinion. Figure 1.14 shows several of these common gear
types.

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 (a) (b)
(c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 1.14: Gear images from the internet where (a) are internal or ring gears, (b) straight
bevel gears, (c) spur gears, (d) rack and pinion, (e) worm and worm gear, and (f) parallel
helical gears

There are many gear manufacturers in China, Japan, Europe, and the USA. Some companies
named here are Boston Gears, Atlas Gears, and KHK Stock Gears. It is also good to learn
how to select gears to suit engineering requirements at hand. However, that is covered in
another course. There is also AGMA – American Gear Manufacturers Association – that is
actually open to international gear makers. They set the standards for gears to ensure quality
and safety. AGMA also produces guidelines for the analysis of gears.

Some of the important formulae are listed below.

Circular pitch, p   d G tG   d P t P

Diametral pitch(in inches), Pd  tG d G  t P d P

M odule(in SI unit), m  d G tG  d P t P  25.4 Pd

pPd   ; p[inch], Pd [ teeth per inch]

p m   ; p[mm], m[mm per teeth]

where t  number of teeth; d  pitch diameters

G  gear; P  pinion

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The nomenclature listed above can relate to the parts shown in Figure 1.15

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.15: General nomenclatures for gear

1.3.2 BASIC GEAR KINEMATICS

For a gear pair, the driver is also called input or pinion. Meanwhile, the driven is also called
output or just gear. At contact point A in Figure 1.15, the velocities, v1 = v2 = v for both gears
are equal. Since 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔, we can derive the relationships in equation (1.24) as

driven velocity 2 N 2 d1 t1
n     (1.24)
driver velocity 1 N1 d 2 t 2

where

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 𝜔 = angular speed [rad/s]
𝑁 = angular speed [rev/min] or rpm
𝑑 = diameter of the gear. Radius 𝑟 can also be used instead
𝑡 = number of teeth on the gear

This is the definition adopted in this book. However, many applications and references would
define the ratio as 𝑛 = 𝑁1 /𝑁2 instead.

Also needs to be realized is that for a pair of mating gears, the must have the same diametral
pitch 𝑃𝑑 or module 𝑚. This means, if gear 1 has a 𝑃𝑑 = 12 𝑇/𝑖𝑛 (teeth per inch), then gear 2
must have the 𝑃𝑑 = 12 too. If a ‘simple gear train’ has four gears, all four must follow the
same 𝑃𝑑 . However, if gears 3 and 4 are on a different layer, they can have a different 𝑃𝑑 from
gears 1 and 2.

Usually, we label the gears with numbers. Some start with ‘1’ at the driver gear while
kinematicians (people who study kinematics) would start the number from ‘2’ since number
‘1’ is reserved for the frame or ground. Both practices are fine as long as you understand.

Gear ratio can be symbolized with ‘+’ (positive) for the same direction and ‘’ (negative) for
opposite direction. For a pair of internal and external gears as in Figure 1.14 (a), the sign is
positive, whereas for a pair of external gears as in Figure 1.15, the sign is negative. Hence,
one of the relationships from equation (1.24) would become

N 2  t1 
  
N1  t 2 
(1.25)

It not necessary for you to follow this convention since the direction can also be manually or
visually traced from the source. However, when dealing with planetary gears, this convention
proves to be very helpful.

1.3.3 GEAR TRAINS

Gears can be arranged in series, connecting one next to another. This is called a simple gear
train. They can also be in different layers that can produce a more compact transmission
design. Figures 1.16 through 1.19 show these different types of gear trains.

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 Figure 1.16: A simple gear train

Figure 1.17: A compound gear train

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 Figure 1.18: A reverted gear train

(a) (b)

Figure 1.19: A planetary or epicyclic gear train

Figure 1.19 shows a planetary or epicyclic gearing and its representation. The term ‘arm’ is
also commonly used instead of ‘carrier’ that holds planet gears. Multiple copies of the planet
gears are possible to spread the loading and for stability. However, only one set of arm and

22
planet gears is analyzed to understand the kinematics. Some examples on the analysis of this
type are given later. However, in the next Section 1.3.4, emphasis is given more on simple,
compound and reverted compound gear trains.

Hence, if 𝑁𝑖 = 𝜔𝑖 , the system in Figure 1.16 will have

𝜔4
𝑛1/4 =
𝜔1
𝜔4 𝜔3 𝜔2
=
𝜔3 𝜔2 𝜔1
𝑡3 𝑡2 𝑡1
= (− ) (− ) (− )
𝑡4 𝑡3 𝑡2
𝑡1
=−
𝑡4

whereas the system in Figure 1.17 has

𝜔6
𝑛1/6 =
𝜔1
𝜔6 𝜔5 𝜔4 𝜔3 𝜔2
=
𝜔5 𝜔4 𝜔3 𝜔2 𝜔1

However, if two gears are attached on the same shaft, their angular speed and direction are
the same. Hence
𝜔5 𝜔 3
= =1
𝜔4 𝜔2

These yield
𝜔6 𝜔4 𝜔2
𝑛1/6 = 1 1
𝜔5 𝜔3 𝜔1
𝑡5 𝑡3 𝑡1
= (− ) (− ) (− )
𝑡6 𝑡4 𝑡2
𝑡5 𝑡3 𝑡1
=−
𝑡6 𝑡4 𝑡2

EXAMPLE 1.7

A gear train is shown in Figure 1.20 below. The gears have the following properties:

t 2 = 12 teeth and Pd = 12, d3 = 2.5 in, t4 = 15 and, Pd = 10, d5 = 3.0 in, d6 = 1.5 in,

t7 = 32 teeth and Pd = 8.

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Determine:

a) The rotational velocity of gear 7 as gear 2 drives at 1800rpm clockwise.

b) The center distance, C between the shafts that carry gears 2 and 7.

Figure 1.20: Gear Train for Example 1.7

SOLUTION:

t 2 12
d2    1 in
Pd 12
t 4 15
d4    1.5 in
Pd 10
t7 32
d7    4 in
Pd 8

By assuming that gear 2 rotates clockwise at −1800 rpm and the velocity ratio is

N 7  N 3  N 5  N 7   d 2  d 4  d 6   1  1.5  1.5 
n                      0.075
N 2  N 2  N 4  N 6   d 3  d 5  d 7   2.5  3  4 

Hence, the output angular speed is

 N 7  n  N 2  0.075  1800  135 rpm (counter clockwise)

24
  1   2.5   1.5   3   1.5   4 
C  r2  r3  r4  r5  r6  r7          
2  2   2  2  2  2
 6.75 in

The sign (+ or −) for 𝑁 or 𝜔 can be defined by you, although many conventions would use
counter clockwise as positive. In the end, people want to know whether the gear rotates
clockwise, counter clockwise, or some other direction.

EXAMPLE 1.8

Two shafts, A and B in the same straight line are geared together through an intermediate
parallel shaft, C as shown in Figure 1.21. The wheels connecting A and C have a module of
2, those connecting C and B a module of 3. If the two pinions have each 24 teeth and gear X
has 120 teeth, find

a) The number of teeth for the wheel F.

a) The corresponding distance of shaft C from A.

2
3

A B

1 4

Figure 1.21: Intermediate parallel shaft for Example 1.8

SOLUTION:

(a) This type of gear train is reverted gear train, so:

r1  r2  r3  r4
m1t1 m2t 2 m3t3 m4t 4
   ; where 𝑡1 = 𝑡3 = 24𝑇; 𝑡2 = 120 𝑇
2 2 2 2
2t1 2t 2 3t3 3t 4
  
2 2 2 2

25
  1  224  2120  324
 t 4  2t1  2t 2  3t3     72 T
 3 3

m1t1 m2t 2 224 2120

(b) Center distance  r1  r2      144 mm
2 2 2 2

EXAMPLE 1.9

DRIVEN

DRIVER
1
Figure 1.22: Gear for Example 1.9

Based on Figure 1.22 above:

(a) What is the gear ratio based on the gear diameters, if the driving gear has a
diameter of 20 cm and the driven gear has a diameter of 60 cm?
(b) What is the gear ratio based on the number of gear teeth, if the driven gear has 60
teeth and the driving gear has 20 teeth?
(c) For an input torque of 80 Nm, what is the output torque?
(d) If the input gear is turning at 300 rpm, how fast is the output gear turning?
(e) What is the power transmitted from the input gear?
(f) If the gears has only 85% efficiency, what is the power transmitted from the
output gear?

SOLUTION:

2 d 20 1
(a) n  1     Opposite direction
1 d2 60 3

2 t 20 1
(b) n  1     Opposite direction
1 t2 60 3

(c) P1  P2

26
  11   2 2
  80
 2   1 1  1   240 N.m
2 n 1 3

N2
(d) n
N1

1
 N 2  n  N1   300  100 rpm
3

 2 
(e) P1  11  80  300   2513 W
 60 

P2
(f) G 
P1

 P2  P1  G  2513  0.85  2136 W

EXAMPLE 1.10

A 3

Figure 1.22: Simple planetary gear for Example 1.10

Simple planetary gear train with arm A as an input and sun 1 as an output as shown in figure
above. The tooth numbers are: t2 = 15; t4 = 60. If annulus or ring gear A is locked i.e. 𝜔4 =
0 rpm, find the gear ratio of sun to arm.

27
SOLUTION:

Number of rotation
Step
A 4 2

(a) Give all gears +1 rotation +1 +1 +1

(b) Hold arm A; rotate all gears 0 −𝟏 X

(c) Resulting motion [=step (a) + step (b)] +1 0 Y

In step (b):

Since in the end 𝑁4 = 0 rpm, ‘−1’ is given here so that the summation in row (c) will give ‘0’.
Since we know that
𝑁𝑔 𝑡𝑝
=
𝑁𝑝 𝑡𝑔

or hence
𝑡𝑝
𝑁𝑔 = 𝑁𝑝
𝑡𝑔

Therefore, if we consider gear 4 as input with −1 rotation, trace from gear 4 to the gear of
interest. In this case, for gear 2
60 𝑡3
𝑋 = (−1) (+ ) (− ) = +4
𝑡3 15

The relationship between an external gear and internal (ring) gear is that they rotate in the
same direction. Hence, we give a ‘+’ sign for their ratio. However, for external-external
gears, their rotation directions are opposite, hence the ‘−’ sign.

In step (c):

𝑌 = +1 + 𝑋 = +1 + 4 = +5

Gear ratio:

𝑁2 +5
= =5
𝑁𝐴 +1

The positive sign means the sun gear and the arm rotate in the same direction.

Alternatively, we can solve via equation as

𝑁𝐿 − 𝑁𝐴 ∏ 𝑡𝑝
=±
𝑁𝐹 − 𝑁𝐴 ∏ 𝑡𝑔

28
where 𝑁𝐹 is the angular speed of the first gear, 𝜔𝐿 is angular speed of the last gear, is ∏ 𝑡𝑝 is
the product of all teeth of pinion gears or gears that act as driver gears, and ∏ 𝑡𝑔 is the
product of driven gears.

0 − 𝑁𝐴 𝑡2 𝑡3
= (− ) (+ )
𝑁2 − 𝑁𝐴 𝑡3 𝑡4
0 − 𝑁𝐴 15 𝑡3
= (− ) (+ )
𝑁2 − 𝑁𝐴 𝑡3 60
1
−𝑁𝐴 = (− ) (𝑁2 − 𝑁𝐴 )
4
𝑁2
= +5
𝑁𝐴

Here, the right hand side starts from gear 2 to 4 since gear 2 is the input. The answers by both
methods should be the same.

EXAMPLE 1.11

Figure 1.23: Epicyclic gear for Example 1.11

An epicyclic gearing is shown in Figure 1.23. The arm (link 2) serves as the input to the train.
The sun (gear 1) is the fixed gear and has 30 teeth. The planet gear (gear 3) has 35 teeth. The
ring gear serves as the output from the train and has 100 teeth. Determine the rotational
velocity of all members of this gear train when the input shaft rotates at 1200 rpm clockwise.

SOLUTION

Number of rotation
Step
1 2 (A) 3 4

(a) Give all gears +1 rotation +1 +1 +1 +1

29
(b) Hold arm A; rotate all gears −1 0 X Y

(c) Resulting motion [=step (a) + step (b)] 0 +1 P Q

For gear 3:
𝑡𝑝
𝑁𝑔 = 𝑁𝑝
𝑡𝑔

𝑡1 30
𝑋 = (−1) (− ) = −1 (− ) = 0.8571
𝑡3 35

𝑃 = 1 + 0.8571 = 1.8571

Now, in the bigger picture, we know the real input 𝑁2 = −1200 rpm (since it is clockwise!)
and hence
𝑁3 𝑃
=
𝑁2 +1
𝑃
𝑁3 = 𝑁2
+1
+1.8571
= −1200 ( )
+1
= −2228.52 rpm

Rotation here is also clockwise if we define ‘+’ is counter clockwise.

For gear 4:
𝑡𝑝
𝑁𝑔 = 𝑁𝑝
𝑡𝑔

𝑡1 𝑡3 30 35
𝑋 = (−1) (− ) (+ ) = −1 (− ) (+ ) = 0.3
𝑡3 𝑡4 35 100

𝑃 = 1 + 0.3 = 1.3

Now, as before, we know that 𝑁2 = −1200 rpm and therefore

𝑁4 𝑄
=
𝑁2 +1
𝑄
𝑁4 = 𝑁2
+1
+1.3
= −1200 ( )
+1
= −1560 rpm

The direction is also clockwise since the sign is negative.

30
1.3.4 GEAR POWER TRANSMISSION

Gear trains can be divided into two major applications:

1. Lifting Machine
A simple construction of lifting machine consists of a motor, gear train and drum
where load is lifted. This can be like an elevator or lift traveling vertically or the
pulling of a box on an inclined surface.

2. Vehicle Dynamics
A simple construction of a vehicle consists of an engine, gear train and wheels. Due to
tractive force, FT, which acts between the wheel and road, the vehicle experiences
linear velocity and acceleration as depicted in Figure 1.24. The rotating of a robotic
arm or linkage member is analyzed in similar fashion.

Wheel Resistance Forces

Road surface

Figure 1.24: Forces acting on a vehicle wheel

Here, we know that using equation (1.25)

d
v   (1.25)
2

where

v = velocity of vehicle

 = angular velocity of wheel

d = diameter of wheel

The strategies to solve these problems are shown in the following examples.

31
EXAMPLE 1.12

A motor accelerates a 250 kg mass with acceleration of 1.2 ms-2 through a gear system shown
in Figure 1.25. The mass is tied to a rope which is wind to a drum having diameter of 1.2 m.
The gear for the drum shaft has 200 teeth and the gear for the motor shaft has 20 teeth. The
contact gear efficiency is 90%. The mass and radius of gyration are respectively as shown.

Mass (kg) Radius or gyration (mm)

Motor shaft 250 100

Drum shaft 1100 500

Find the torque of the motor needed to lift the mass under these conditions. Neglect all
friction.

(a) The mass hangs freely under the drum;

(b) The mass is placed on a plane 10° from horizontal. Friction under the mass is 1000 N
while the torque friction is equivalent to τfM = 10 Nm at the motor shaft and τfD = 200
Nm at the drum shaft.

DRUM

dD = 1.2 m ID

IM
MOTOR

-1
a = 1.2 ms 250 kg

Figure 1.25: Example of gear system for Example 1.12

SOLUTION:

Given: M = 250 kg

dD =1.2 m

t1 = 20

t2 = 200

mM = 250 kg

32
 mD = 1100 kg

kM = 100 mm

kD = 500 mm

a = 1.2 ms-2

G1/2 = 0.9

Z = 10 Nm

Y = 200 Nm

Find: M

SOLUTION:

(a)

 M   M 1   M 2 ; where  M  total torque of motor needed to accelerate the load.

 M 1  torque of motor needed to accelerate inertia without load.
 M 2  torque of motor needed to accelerate load at drum through gear.

M1

 M 1  I EQ   M ; where I EQ  equivalent moment of inertia (refer to motor)

 M  angular accelerati on of motor.

 I n2 
I EQ  I M   D 1 / 2 ; where I M  moment of inertia of motor shaft.
  G1 / 2 
I D  moment of inertia of drum shaft.

I M  m M k 2M ; where m M  mass of motor shaft.

k M  radius of gyration of motor shaft.
 I M  2500.1  2.5 kgm 2
2

I D  m D k 2D ; where m D  mass of drum shaft.

k D  radius of gyration of drum shaft.
 I D  11000.5  275 kgm 2
2

33
  D  D t1 20
n1 / 2      0.1
 M  M t 2 200

 I D n12/ 2   275  0.12 

 I EQ  I M     2.5  
   5.56 kgm 2
  G1 / 2   0.9 

a   D rD ; where  D  angular accelarati on of drum.

rD  radius of drum.
a 1.2
D    2 rad/s 2
rD 0.6
D
n1/ 2 
M
D 2
M    20 rad / s 2
n 1 / 2 0.1
  M1  I EQ   M  5.56  20  111.2 N/m 2

M2

rD

250kg
a

250g

34
According to Newton’s second law:

 F  ma
F  250 g  250a
 F  250a  250 g  2501.2  2509.81  2752.5 N

 D 2  F  rD
 D 2  2752.5  0.6  161651.5 N.m

PD  D 2 D  D 2
 G1 / 2    n1 / 2
PM  M 2 M  M 2
 D2
 0.1  183.5 N.m
1651.5
 M 2  n1 / 2 
 G1 / 2 0.9

  M   M1   M 2  111.2  183.5  294.7 N.m

(b)

 M   M 1   M 2   M 3 ; where  M  total torque of motor needed to accelerate the load.

 M 1  torque of motor needed to accelerate inertia without load.
 M 2  torque of motor needed to accelerate load at drum through gear.
 M 3  torque of motor needed to obstruct friction.

The same as in (a), the no-load torque can be calculated as

 M 1  I EQ   M  5.56  20  111.2 N.m

rD

F
a F

o
f o 10
10
250g

35
Referring to the FBD, the use of the Newton’s Second Law leads to

 F  ma
F  f  250 g sin 10  250a
 F  250a  f  250 g sin 10  2501.2  1000  2509.81sin 10  1725.87 N

 D 2  F  rD
 D 2  1725.87  0.6  1035.52 Nm

PD  D 2 D  D 2
 G1 / 2    n1 / 2
PM  M 2 M  M 2
 D2 1035.52
 M 2  n1 / 2   0.1  115.06 Nm
 G1 / 2 0.9

Finally, we can get the friction torque as

  fD   200 
 M 3   fM   n1 / 2   10    0.1  32.22 Nm
 G1/ 2   0.9 

 M   M 1   M 2   M 3  111.2  115.06  32.22  258.48 Nm

1.4 REFERENCES

1. Budynas, R. G. and Nisbett, J. K. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th

ed., SI Units. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2008.

2. Khurmi, R. S. and J. K. Gupta, J. K. Theory of Machines. Eurasia Publishing,

2008.

Myszka, D. H. Machines & Mechanisms: Applied Kinematic Analysis, 4th ed.

3.
Pearson, New Jersey, 2012.

4. Roslan Abd. Rahman, Che Abas Che Ismail, and Mohd. Yunus Abdullah.
Mekanik Mesin: Teori, Contoh Penyelesaian dan Masalah, 3rd ed. Penerbit
UTM, 2001.

36
1.5 PROBLEMS (TUTORIALS)

1.1 A single link of a robot arm can be actuated as shown in Figure P1.1. The center of
mass of the arm is located a distance 𝐿 from the joint and the power is transmitted
through two pairs of gears. The gear ratios are 𝑛1/2 = 1: 2 and 𝑛3/4 = 1: 1.5, while the
inertias of the component are 𝐼𝑚 = 0.05 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚2 , 𝐼𝐺1 = 0.025 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚2 , 𝐼𝐺2 = 0.1 𝑘𝑔 ∙
𝑚2 , 𝐼𝐺3 = 0.025 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚2 , and 𝐼𝐺4 = 0.008 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚2 . The properties for the robot arm
are 𝑚 = 10 𝑘𝑔 and 𝐿 = 0.3 𝑚. The inertias of the shafts can be neglected. Each gear
pair is 90% efficient. Obtain the equation for the input motor torque 𝜏𝑚 in terms of
angle 𝜃 and the angular acceleration of the robot arm 𝛼𝐴 .

m = 10 kg

L = 0.3 m

Gears
3 Arm
2

x
𝜏𝑚 1

Motor
Figure P1.1: A single link of a robot arm

1.2 Figure P1.2 shows a lift is driven by an electric motor. The motor produces the
maximum torque of 1000 Nm. The efficiency of each gear contact is 90%. Determine
the load M2 to accelerate the lift at 0.5 m/s2 with bring total of load 2000 kg (including
mass of lift). Movement of lift and load M2 resisted by 500 N fix force. The data for
gear system are shown below.

Number of gear teeth, t Moment of inertia, I

t1 = 80 Drum shaft, ID = 50 kgm2
t2 = 100 Middle shaft, IT = 20 kgm2
t3 = 20 Motor shaft, IM = 2 kgm2
t4 = 40

37
 diameter =1m
DRUM 1 IM
ID 4 MOTOR

3 2
IT
M2
a a

2000kg

Figure P1.2: Lift driven by electric motor

1.3 A compressor, requiring 100 kW is to run at about 250 rpm. The drive is by open V-
belts from an electric motor running at 1250 rpm. The diameter of the pulley on the
compressor shaft must not be greater than 1 meter while the center distance between the
pulleys is limited to 1.75 m. The belt speed should not exceed 1800 m/min.
(a) Determine the number of V-belts required to transmit the power if each belt has a
crosses sectional area of 400 mm2, density 1000 kg/m3 and an allowable tensile
stress of 3.25 MPa. The groove angle of the pulley is 60°. The coefficient of
friction between the belt and the pulley is 0.30.
(b) By adding an idler sheave to the original system, the angle of contact increases by
10%. Determine if the power transmitted will increase or decrease. What is the
percentage in power change?

1.4 An electric motor drives the main shaft of a workshop by means of a flat belt. The
diameter of the pulley on the motor shaft and main shaft are 500 mm and 800 mm
respectively. Another pulley of diameter 450 mm drives a counter shaft having pulley
of 650 mm keyed to it. If there is slip 2% on each drive, determine the speed of the
countershaft if the motor runs at 1440 rpm. Thickness of belt is 20 mm. Figure P1.3
shows the idea of main and counter shafts.

38
 Figure P1.3: Main and counter shaft

1.5 A vehicle of 1600 kg is driven uphill at 50 km/h using second gear. Given the moment-
inertia of engine rotating part is 0.3 kgm2 and for wheels (total) is 0.6 kgm2, while gear
efficiency is 95%. The wheel radius is 0.38 m. The wind and rolling resistance is 800
N, engine torque is 1100 Nm at 2000 rpm and the vehicle accelerates at 0.5 m/s2.
Bearing friction at engine is 6 Nm and at wheels is 20 Nm. Determine:
i. The gear ratio for second gear.
ii. The speed of wheel in rpm.
iii. The hill gradient.

1.6 Refer to the Figure P1.4 below. A motor is needed to accelerate the drum (diameter =
0.8 m) through a reducer gear. A rope which is wind to a drum is needed to pull a mass,
M above a tilt plane at slope of 1 in 20. The friction between the mass and tilt surface is
1750 N. The total of torque of drum is 4000 Nm to accelerate the mass at 0.8 ms-2. The
gear efficiency is 90% and the torque friction is equivalent to 𝜏𝑓𝑀 = 10 Nm at the motor
shaft and 𝜏𝑓𝐷 = 20 Nm at the drum shaft. If the motor speed is 1250 rpm, determine
mass, M and power of motor. (Use IM = 9 kgm2; ID = 60 kgm2; t1 = 25 T; t2 = 125 T; T =
teeth).

Figure P1.4: Motor-gear system

39
 CHAPTER 2: DYNAMIC BALANCING

2.0 CHAPTER OUTCOME

 Solve related problems in balancing system of rotating body using Newton’s Second
Law method and Newton’s Third Law.

2.1 BASICS OF BALANCING

Static balance is single plane balance and is obtained when the center of masses are located at
the center of the body as illustrated in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Static balance

The balance can generally be described in equation (2.1) as

(2.1)
 mr  0

Dynamic balance is multiplane balance and obtained when the body is rotating. As in static,
sum of the centrifugal forces must be zero:

(2.2)
 m 2 r  0

40
Since  is constant, the above equation can be simplified to equation (2.1). When the body is
dynamically balanced, it is also statically balanced. But if a body is statically balanced, it may
not be dynamically balanced.

Examples of planar rotating body are fans, discs, flywheels and wheel rims. To determine the
unbalanced resultant force that exists in the planar rotating body, a force polygon is drawn.
For balance, the force polygon should be closed to show that the resultant force is zero i.e.
mr = 0. Figure 2.2 (a) and (b) shows this concept.

m2r2

m1r1
Bb

(a) Two rotating masses in a plane and the (b) Force polygon
imbalance mass B

Figure 2.2: Concept of force balance

From this particular problem we know that

Bb 2  unbalanced force (2.3)

Bb  m1r1 2  m2 r2 2
m1r1
 b  270  tan 1
m2 r 2

However, the reference axis can be different. Some application may decide the 0° angle to
point to positive x-axis instead of the positive y-axis.

41
EXAMPLE 2.1

0°
m1
r1
r2 90°
m2

Figure 2.3: Disc with two unbalanced masses for Example 2.1

Figure 2.3 above shows a disc having two unbalanced masses m1 and m2. The distances of
mass from axis of rotation are given as r1 for m1 and r2 for m2. The values are given below:

m1 = 3 kg r1 = 1 mm

m2 = 2 kg r2 = 2 mm

The angle of masses are as shown. If the disc rotates at constant angular velocity,  rad/s,
balance the body by:

a) adding a mass.

b) excluding a mass.

SOLUTION:

PLANE m (kg) r (mm) mr (kg.mm)  (o)

1 3 1 3 0

2 2 2 4 90

From the force polygon, ∑m2r = 0  ∑mr = 0 ( is constant).

42
 Bb 2  unbalanced force
m2r2 = 4
Bb  m1r1 2  m2 r2 2  3 2  4 2  5kg.mm
1
b 3
m1r1 = 3  1  tan 1    36.87 
4
Bb
 b  270    1  270   36.87  233.13

Assuming B = 5 kg; then b = 1 mm.

(a) Adding a mass

r1

r2 m
b
b

Adding mass

(b) Excluding a mass

B
r1
b

1 r
2
m

Excluding mass

43
EXAMPLE 2.2

(a) Front View (b) Side View

Figure 2.4: Shaft carrying two masses for Example 2.2

The shaft above carries two masses, m1 and m2 of radius r1 and r2 from axis of shaft. The
shaft is supported by two bearings X and Y. Diagram (a) shows the angle of masses and
diagram (b) shows the location of mass and bearing planes. The mass value, m, radius of
rotation, r and plane location, l are as shown.

m1 = 3 kg r1 = 1 mm l1 = 1 m
m2 = 2 kg r2 = 2 mm l2 = 2 m
l3 = 3 m

By taking plane X as the reference plane, balance the body when the shaft rotates at constant
angular velocity.

SOLUTION:

Take plane X as a reference:

PLANE m (kg) r (mm) mr (kg.mm) l (m) mrl (kg.mm.m)  (o)

1 3 1 3 1 3 0

2 2 2 4 2 8 90

Moment polygon; ∑m2rl = 0 ∑mrl = 0 ( is constant)

44
 B1b1 2 x  unbalanced moment
B1b1 x  8.6 kg.mm.m;  is constant
 b1  250  (relative to 1)

The force polygon gives ∑m2r = 0  ∑mr = 0 ( is constant)

If we assume B1=3 kg and b1=1.9 mm; so x=1.5 m

B2 b2 2  unbalanced force

B2 b2  1.7 kg.mm;  is constant
 b 2  126  (relative to 1)

If we assume B2=1.67 kg, hence b2=1 mm

m1

r1 B2 m1 B1 m2
b2 Y
r2 m2 X
b1
b1 b2
B2
B1 x=1.5 m

45
EXAMPLE 2.3

A B C D mA

mC
0.4m 0.5m x

(a) Side View (b) Front View

Figure 2.4: Rotating shaft carrying four masses for Example 2.3

A rotating shaft at constant angular velocity carries four masses, A, B, C and D, rigidly
attached to it as shown in Figure 2.4 above and the centers of mass are at 30 mm, 36 mm, 39
mm and 33 mm respectively from the axis of rotation. The masses of A, C and D are 7.5 kg, 5
kg and 4 kg, respectively. The axial distance between A and B is 400 mm and that between B
and C is 500 mm. The eccentricities of A and C are perpendicular to each other. If the system
is fully balanced, find:
(a) The axial distance, x between the planes of C and D.
(b) The angles of mass B and mass D relative to mass C.
(c) Mass B.

SOLUTION:

Take plane B as a reference:

PLANE m (kg) r (mm) mr (kg.mm) l (m) mrl (kg.mm.m)  (o)

A 7.5 30 255 -0.4 -90 90

B mB 36 36mB 0 0 B

C 5 39 195 0.5 97.5 0

D 4 33 132 0.5+x 66+132x D

From the moment polygon we get ∑m2rl = 0  ∑mrl = 0 ( is constant).

46
 mrlD  66  132 x  133 kg.mm.m
 x  0.51 m
 D  223 (relative to mass C)

Then do the force polygon to get ∑m2r = 0 ∑mr = 0 ( is constant).

36mB  360 kg.mm

 mB  10 kg
 B  106  (relative to mass C)

mA

mD

mC
D
B

mB

Final arrangement viewed

from the front

47
EXAMPLE 2.4

A shaft 1.3 m long carries three masses, A, B and C as shown in Figure 2.5 below. The
masses are 8 kg, 10 kg and 6 kg; and the eccentricities of the centers of mass are 60 mm, 50
mm and 40 mm respectively. The direction of eccentricities of B and C relative to A are 60 o
and 270o respectively. The shaft is supported in bearing X and Y which are 0.2 m and 1 m
from A. Find the magnitude and direction of dynamic forces on the bearings when the shaft
rotates at 90 rpm.

mA
A B C

. .
X Y mB
60o

mC
0.2m 0.5m 0.3m 0.3m

(a) Side View (b) Front View

Figure 2.5: Shaft carrying three masses for Example 2.4

SOLUTION:

Take plane X as a reference:

PLANE m (kg) r (mm) mr (kg.mm) l (m) mrl (kg.mm.m)  (o)

A 8 60 480 -0.2 -96 0

B 10 50 500 0.5 250 60

C 6 40 240 1.1 264 270

X - - RX 0 0 X

Y - - RY 0.8 0.8 RY Y

The moment polygon; ∑m2rl = 0 ∑mrl = 0 ( = 90 rpm is constant)

48
 Y  120  (relative to A)
0.8RY  58 kg.mm.m
 RY  72.5kg.mm  0.0725 kg.m
 2  90 
2

 Dynamic force at Y, FY  RY   0.0725

2

 60 
 6.44 N

Force polygon; ∑m2r = 0  ∑mr = 0 ( = 90 rpm is constant)

49
  X  200 
RX  740 kg.mm  0.74 kg.m
 Dynamic force at X,
FX  RX  2
 2  90 
2

 0.74 
 60 
 65.7 N

Note: The directions of RY and RX

given by the moment and force
polygons are those for balance.
The dynamic forces, FY and FX
at the bearings are therefore
opposite to these directions as
shown in figure on the left.

mA
FX

FY
20o
58.6 o mB

mC BX and BY are masses

3 2 to balance the system.
BY
BX
RY2=BYbY2
RX2=BXbX2

50
EXAMPLE 2.5

Corrections are needed in planes P and Q to balance the rotor shown in Figure 2.6 below. If
the rotor rotates at constant angular velocity, determine:
(a) The mass and its angle in the plane Q at a radius of 20 mm.
(b) The mass and its angle in the plane P at a radius of 30 mm.
Carry out the solution by a graphical method and take plane P as a reference.

1.2 m 1.2 m 1.2 m

m1 = 2 kg ; r1 = 40 mm ; 1 = 90o

m2 = 1 kg ; r2 = 50 mm ; 2 = 0o

Figure 2.6: Shaft carrying three masses for Example 2.5

SOLUTION:

Take plane P as a reference:

PLANE m (kg) r (mm) mr (kg.mm) l (m) mrl (kg.mm.m)  (o)

1 2 40 80 1.2 96 90

2 1 50 50 2.4 120 0

P mP 30 30mP 0 0 P

Q mQ 20 20mQ 3.6 72mQ Q

Moment polygon; ∑m2rl = 0 ∑mrl = 0 ( is constant).

51
 72mQ  154 kg.mm.m
 mQ  2.14kg
 Q  218 

Mass 2.14 kg should be added at angle 218o at Q plane for balance the system OR mass 2.14
kg should be removed at angle 38o at Q plane to balance the system.

z
mQ
Location of mass if it should
rQ
be removed.
218o 38o
y
rQ

mQ Location of mass if it should

be added.

52
Force polygon; ∑m2r = 0  ∑mr = 0 ( is constant)

30m P  56 kg.mm
 m P  1.87 kg
 P  253

Mass 1.87 kg should be added at angle 253o at P plane for balance the system OR mass 1.87
kg should be removed at angle 73o at P plane to balance the system.
mP

z Location of mass if it
should be removed
rP

73o

y
253o

rP

mP
Location of mass if it
should be added

53
2.2 SOLVING BY ANALYTICAL METHOD

Let’s revisit Example 2.2 and try to solve it using vectors.

(a) Front View (b) Side View

Figure 2.7: Example of shaft carrying two masses

The shaft as shown in Figure 2.7 carries two masses, m1 and m2 of radius r1 and r2 from axis
of shaft. The shaft is supported by two bearings X and Y. Diagram (a) shows the angle of
masses and diagram (b) shows the location of mass and bearing planes. The mass value, m,
radius of rotation, r and plane location, l are as shown.

m1 = 3 kg r1 = 1 mm l1 = 1 m
m2 = 2 kg r2 = 2 mm l2 = 2 m
l3 = 3 m

By taking plane X as the reference plane, balance the body when the shaft rotates at constant
angular velocity.

SOLUTION:

Take plane X as a reference:

PLANE m (kg) r (mm) mr (kg.mm) l (m) mrl (kg.mm.m)  (o)

1 3 1 3 1 3 0

2 2 2 4 2 8 90

Before going further, let’s refresh some basics of vectors.

54
 Tip 𝑟𝑥
Tail 𝑅⃑ = {𝑟 }
𝑦
sin 𝜃
𝑅⃑ 𝑜𝑟 𝑹 = |𝑅⃑ | { }
cos 𝜃
𝑟𝑦
𝜃 This is true if we take 0° at
positive y-axis and the angle is
positive in clockwise direction.
𝑟𝑥 A negative angle indicates that
the rotation is counter clockwise.

Like in graphical method, we do the moment polygon first. However, we do not have to be
precise here. Make a sketch just so we know the vector loop involved.

8
𝑅⃑2 = { }
0

 Start from the Origin

and end there too.
? 
0 𝑅⃑𝑖𝑚𝑏 = { } If it does not, then there
𝑅⃑1 = { } ?
3 is an imbalance.

The loop equation is

⃑⃑ 1 + 𝑀
𝑀 ⃑⃑ 2 + 𝑀 ⃑
⃑⃑ 𝑖𝑚𝑏1 = 0

0 8 ⃑
⃑⃑ 𝑖𝑚𝑏 = 0
{ }+{ }+𝑀
3 0

⃑⃑ 𝑖𝑚𝑏1 = − {8}
𝑀
3

⃑⃑ 𝑖𝑚𝑏1 | = √82 + 32 = 8.544 = 𝐵1 𝑏1 𝑥1

|𝑀

−8
𝜃𝑏1 = tan−1 ( ) + 180 = 249.4°
−3

Actually, the term 180o is added, or even subtracted, because the term cos  is negative.
Basically, we have to use common sense to see whether the angle is right. Most of the time, if
it is wrong, adding 180o or subtracting 180o will rectify the problem.

Next is the force polygon.

55
 4
𝐹2 = { }
0

0 sin 249.4 −0.936

𝐹1 = { } 𝐹𝑖𝑚𝑏1 = 𝑓1 { } = 𝑓1 { }
3 cos 249.4 −0.352

𝑓1 = 𝐵1 𝑏1
?
𝐹𝑖𝑚𝑏2 = { } Here, just make reasonable values for 𝐵1 and 𝑏1
?
such as in Example 2.2.
𝑓2 = 𝐵2 𝑏2

𝐹𝑖𝑚𝑏2 can be solved by first recognizing the vector loop here.

𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹𝑖𝑚𝑏1 + 𝐹𝑖𝑚𝑏2 = ⃑0

0 4 −0.936 0
{ } + { } + 𝐵 1 𝑏1 { } + 𝐹𝑖𝑚𝑏2 = { }
3 0 −0.352 0

2.3 IN-LINE AND RADIAL ENGINES BALANCING

EXAMPLE 2.6

Stroke line

Stroke line

Figure 2.8: A 4-stroke, 4-cylinder linear engine for Example 2.6

The Figure 2.8 shows a 4-stroke, 4-cylinder linear engine. Each piston weighs 1 unit, having
crank length of 1 unit and connecting rod 3 units. The angles are as shown and distance

56
between cylinders 1 unit. Determine whether the engine is balanced. If it is not, determine the
force and moment needed to balance it.

SOLUTION:

Take the center of shaft as a reference plane because it is symmetrical

PLANE m r) mr x mrx  (o) 2 (o)

1 1 1 1 -1 ½ -1 ½ 100 200

2 1 1 1 -½ -½ 30 60

3 1 1 1 ½ ½ 300 600

4 1 1 1 1½ 1½ 200 400

1
Stroke line 240o

200o
40o

60o 4
2

Plane orientation at  Plane orientation at 2

57
Primary Inertial Force ( ) ; ∑m2r = 0∑mr = 0 ( is constant).

Force Polygon

The maximum Primary Inertial Force = 0.37 2 must be add at angle 228o to balance the
system.

58
Primary Inertial Moment ( ) ; ∑m2rx = 0∑mrx = 0 ( is constant).

Moment Polygon

The maximum Primary Inertial Moment = 2.982 must be add at angle 64o to balance the
system.

59
Secondary Inertial Force (2 ) ; ∑m2r/n = 0∑mr/n = 0 ( is constant).

Force Polygon

The maximum Secondary Inertial Force  0.34 2 n ; where n  l r  3 1  3

 0.34 2 3  0.113 2

The maximum Secondary Inertial Force = 0.1132 must be add at angle 300o to balance the
system.

60
Secondary Inertial Moment (2 ); ∑m2rx/n = 0  ∑mrx/n = 0 ( is constant).

Moment Polygon

The maximum Secondary Inertial Moment  2.14 2 n ; where n  l r  3 1  3

 2.14 2 3  0.713 2

The maximum Secondary Inertial Moment = 0.713 2 must be add at angle 196o to balance
the system.

EXAMPLE 2.7

Figure 2.9: Example of a 4-stroke 6-cylinders engine for Example 2.7

As shown in Figure 2.9 above, a 4-stroke engine has 6 cylinders where each weighs 1 unit
with crank radius of 1 unit. The diagram shows the planes of cylinders. If its burn sequence is
1, 3, 5, 6, 4, 2, determine the maximum unbalanced force and moment for the engine. Take
the center of shaft as a reference plane.

61
SOLUTION:

Take the center of shaft as a reference plane. Burn sequence: 1-3-5-6-4-2

PLANE m r mr x mrx  (o) 2 (o)

1 1 1 1 -2 ½ -2 ½ 0 0

2 1 1 1 -1 ½ -1 ½ 600 1200

3 1 1 1 -½ -½ 120 240

4 1 1 1 ½ ½ 480 960

5 1 1 1 1½ 1½ 240 480

6 1 1 1 2½ 2½ 360 720

5,2 3,4

120o 120o
120o 1,6 120o 1,6

120o 120o

3,4 5,2

Plane orientation at  Plane orientation at 2

For a 4-stroke engine, the relative angle

between cranks is:

720 720
   120 o
N 6

However, for a 2-stroke engine, the relative

angle between cranks is:

360

N

62
Primary Inertial Force ( ) ; ∑m2r = 0  ∑mr = 0 ( is constant)

63
Primary Inertial Moment ( ) ; ∑m2rx = 0∑mrx = 0 ( is constant).

Free of unbalanced primary force and moment for both polygons

Secondary Inertial Force (2 ) ; ∑m2r/n = 0∑mr/n = 0 ( is constant).

64
Secondary Inertial Moment (2 ) ; ∑m2rx/n = 0∑mrx/n = 0 ( is constant).

Free of unbalanced secondary force and moment for both polygons

EXAMPLE 2.8

Stroke line
Stroke line

Figure 2.10: A radial engine with 3-cylinders for Example 2.8

65
A radial engine is driven by a single common crank that has three cylinders separated at angle
120o as shown in Figure 2.10. The stroke is 120 mm in length, the connecting rod 180 mm
and reciprocating mass 2 kg for each cylinder. Find the primary and secondary inertial force
that acts on the engine body if the engine rotates at 2000 rpm.

SOLUTION

Given: r = 120/2 = 60 mm = 0.06 m

n = l/r = 0.18/0.06=3
l = 180 mm = 0.18 m
m = 2 kg
N = 2000 rpm

Rotation (clockwise, ) of crank of cylinder 1, 2 and 3 are measured from cylinder stroke
line:

1 = 0o; 21 = 0o
2 = 120o; 22 = 240o
3 = 240o; 23 = 480
Primary Direct Crank ( ): (m/2)2rcos
1,2,3  
3 m 2 2 r cos 0 o
M aximum unbalanced force  3m 2 r cos 
2

r   2  2000 
2

 32 2  0.06 cos 0 


  60  
 7895.68 N

Primary Reversed Crank (-):(m/2)2rcos

r 
120o
Free of unbalanced force
120o

120o 2
3

66
Secondary Direct Crank (2):(m/2)(22)(r/4n)cos2 = (m/2)2r/ncos2
1

Free of unbalanced force

r/4n

120o 120o
2

3 120o 2

Secondary Reversed Crank (-2):(m/2)(22)(r/4n)cos2 = (m/2)2r/ncos2


3 m 22  r 4ncos 0 o
2


M aximum unbalanced force  3 m 22 r 4n  cos 2
2

1,2,3  
2  2000   0.06 
2

 32 2 2     cos 0 


  60   43 
r/4n  2631.89 N
2

EXAMPLE 2.9

Figure 2.11: A two-cylinders V-engine for Example 2.9

67
A V-engine has two cylinders separated at angle 60o as shown in Figure 2.11. Both
connecting rods are 210 mm in length and are connected to a common rank. The stroke of
piston is 140 mm, reciprocating mass 1.2 kg and crank shaft speed 2400 rpm. Determine the
maximum imbalance value of primary and secondary inertial force.

SOLUTION:

Given: r = 140/2 =70 mm=0.07 m

n = l/r = 0.2148/0.07=3
l = 210 mm=0.21 m
m = 1.2 kg
N = 2400 rpm

Rotation (clockwise, ) of crank of cylinder 1, 2 and 3 that measured

from cylinder stroke line:

1 = 30o; 21 = 60o

2 = 330o; 22 = 660o

Primary Direct Crank ( ): (m/2)2rcos


3 m 2 2 r cos 0 o  

M aximum unbalanced force  2 m 2 2 r cos  
  2  2400 
2

 21.2 2  0.07  cos 0 


  60  
 5305.9N

Primary Reversed Crank (-):(m/2)2rcos


2 m 2 2 r cos 60 o 
M aximum unbalanced force

Fimb  2 m 2  2 r cos  
60o 60o   2  2400 
2

1 2
 21.2 2  0.07  cos 60 


r   60  

 2652 N

68
Secondary Direct Crank (2):(m/2)(22)(r/4n)cos2 = (m/2)2r/ncos2


2 m 22  r 4ncos 30 o
2
 M aximum unbalanced force

Fimb  2 m 22  r 4n  cos 2
2

2 1
  2  2400   0.07 
2

30o 30o  21.2 2 2     cos 30 


2   60   43 
r/4n
 1531.68 N

Secondary Reversed Crank (-2):(m/2)(22)(r/4n)cos2 = (m/2)2r/ncos2

Free of unbalanced force

r/4n
1 2
2

2.4 REFERENCES

1. Khurmi, R. S. and Gupta, J. K. Theory of Machines. Eurasia Publishing, 2008.

2. Roslan Abd. Rahman, Che Abas Che Ismail, and Mohd. Yunus Abdullah. Mekanik
Mesin: Teori, Contoh Penyelesaian dan Masalah, 3rd ed. Penerbit UTM, 2001.

69
2.5 PROBLEMS (TUTORIAL)

2.1 As shown in Figure P2.1 and Figure P2.2, an inline engine with four cranks A, B,
C, and D, has the two outer cranks A and D set at 120° to each other and their
reciprocating masses are each 5 kg. The distances between the planes of rotation of
adjacent cranks are 0.5 m, 0.75 m, and 0.6 m. The length of each crank is 0.325 m.
Figures below show the angles of the cranks and plane distances.

(a) If the engine is in complete primary balance, determine the reciprocating mass
and the relative angular position for each of the inner cranks.
(b) If the length of the connecting-rods is 1.25 m and the speed of rotation 1250
rpm, what are the direction and the maximum secondary unbalanced force?

Figure P2.1: Front view of the system

Figure P2.2: Side view of the system

2.2 A shaft carries four masses in parallel planes A, B, C and D. The masses at B and C are
18 kg and 12.5 kg respectively and each has eccentricity of 60 mm. The masses at A
and D have eccentricity of 80 mm. The angle between B and C is 100˚ and that between

70
 the masses B and A is 90˚ measured in the same direction. The axial distance between
the planes A and B is 100 mm and that between B and C is 200 mm. If the shaft is in
complete dynamic balance, find

(a) Masses at planes A and D.

(b) Distance between the planes A and D.
(c) Angular position of the mass D.

2.3 Using the method of direct and reverse crank, prove that for a four stroke, five cylinder
radial engine

(a) Primary force can be completely balanced by a rotating mass placed in the
direction opposite to the crank.
(b) The secondary forces are completely balanced.

2.4 A diesel engine has 6 cylinders with distance for each cylinder is 0.2 m. The
reciprocating mass for each cylinder is 1200 g. Crank radius and connecting rod length
for each cylinder is 100 mm and 240 mm respectively. Engine rotates at 2000 rpm.

(a) Study balance of the engine if the engine make as 4 stroke in-line with the firing
order of 1-6-3-2-5-4.
(b) Study the balance of the engine if the engine make as radial engine with equal
stroke angle and cylinders arrangement is 1-2-3-4-5-6 clockwise.

71
 CHAPTER 3: FLYWHEELS

3.0 CHAPTER OUTCOME

 Apply analytical method to solve problems in flywheel and governor.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Flywheel is a speed controller in one cycle. It is a rotating mass used to maintain the speed
of a machine between given range while the machine releases or receives energy at a varying
rate.

Flywheel is an energy storage device. It stores energy as its speed increases, and gives up
energy as the speed decreases. It controls only cyclic fluctuations in speed.

A mechanical system has a driver (motor) and a driven (load) part. The input torque on driver
is either constant or fluctuate. On the other hand, the resisting torque/load torque on the
driven part is either constant or fluctuating. Figure 3.1 shows the plot of the torque as the
crank angle changes.

Figure 3.1: Plot of torque versus crank angle changes

There are three combinations of different torque between driver and driven to control the
fluctuation speed in a cycle:

(a) When the input torque is constant and the resisting torque is constant.

72
 (b) When the input torque is constant and the resisting torque is fluctuating. Example:
motor drives a machine punches.

(c) When the input torque is fluctuating and the resisting torque is fluctuating. Example:
internal combustion engine.

The net area of the diagram, as shown shaded in Figure 3.3, represents the work done during
the cycle and the average height represents the mean torque exerted as shown by the line AE.
If the resisting torque is uniform, this is equal to the mean engine torque if the mean speed is
to remain constant.

If the engine torque exceeds the resisting torque, such as between points A and B, the engine
speed up, and if it is less than the resisting torque, such as between points B and C, the engine
slows down.

Engine torque
curve
Mean torque
line

Working Exhaust Suction Compression

stroke stroke stroke stroke

Figure 3.2: Net area of torque versus engine stroke

At the points of intersection, A, B, C, D, and E, the engine torque and load torque are equal
and hence there is no acceleration or deceleration; thus the speed is a maximum or minimum
at these points. Over a complete cycle, the sum of the areas of the loops above and below the
mean engine torque line is equal.

The energy at point E in Figure 3.3 must be the same as the energy at point A since the cycle
is repeated. Let’s set the energy at point A = U. It follows that the energy at point B = U + a;
energy at point C = U + a – b; energy at point D = U + a – b + c; and energy at point E = U +
a – b + c – d = U.

73
 Figure 3.3: Main location points for torque versus engine stroke

By inspection of the areas of the loops above and below the mean torque line, the points of
maximum and minimum energy may be obtained and these correspond with points of
maximum and minimum speeds respectively.

The excess energy available between the points of minimum and maximum speed speeds is
called fluctuation of energy, βE. The fluctuation of energy, βE represents the difference
between the kinetic energies of the system at these points.

If 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are the maximum and minimum speeds respectively during the cycle, then
fluctuation energy can be calculated as equation (3.1):

1 2 1 2
E  I1  I2
2 2
1

 I 12  22
2

 I 1  2 1  2 
1
2 (3.1)

Where I = Moment of inertia of the rotating

parts/flywheel

Therefore, mean speed can be calculated as equation (3.2)

1  2

2 (3.2)

74
Hence equation (3.1) can be derived into equation (3.3)

E  I 2 1  2   I  1  2 

1
2 (3.3)

There is also the coefficient of fluctuation of speed which is shown in equation (3.4) as

1  2

 (3.4)

which will give the final correlation as shown in equation (3.5) below

E  I 2 (3.5)

EXAMPLE 3.1

The graph of torque against the crank angle for a petrol engine is drawn to the following
scales: torque, 1 mm = 5 Nm; crank angle, 1 mm = 1o as shown in Figure 3.4 below. The
areas above and below the mean torque, P line, taken in order, are 295 mm2, 685 mm2, 40
mm2, 340 mm2, 960 mm2 and 270 mm2. The rotating parts are equivalent to mass of 36 kg at
a radius of gyration of 150 mm. Determine the coefficient of fluctuation of speed,  when
the engine runs at 1800 rpm.

960

295
A B C 40 D E F G P
270
340
685

Figure 3.4: Torque versus crank angle graph for a petrol engine for Example 3.1

75
SOLUTION:

1 mm2 represents 5 × (1o × /180o) = /36 Nm = /36 J

If the energy at A = U:

Energy at B = U + 295

Energy at C = U + 295-685 = U - 390

Energy at D = U – 390 + 40 = U - 350

Energy at E = U – 350 – 340 = U – 690

Energy at F = U – 690 + 960 = U + 270

Energy at G = U + 270 - 270 = U

The maximum energy is occurred at point B, while the minimum energy at point E.

Therefore the fluctuation of energy between points B and E is given by:

E = Maximum energy – minimum energy = [(U + 295) – (U – 690)] = 985 mm2 = 985 ×
/36 = 85.96 J
E
I  mk 2  360.15 2   0.81 kg/m 2
 2

E 85.97
    0.003 or 0.3%
I 0.81  2  1800 60
2 2

EXAMPLE 3.2

Figure 3.5 below shows the variation with time of the torque required on the driving shaft of
a machine during one cycle of operations. The shaft is direct-coupled to an electric motor
which exerts a constant torque and runs at a mean speed of 1500 rpm. The rotating parts are
equivalent to a flywheel of mass 18 kg with a radius of gyration of 250 mm. Determine:

(a) The power of the motor, neglecting friction.

(b) The percentage fluctuation of speed, .

76
 44 Nm
Torque 𝜏 (Nm)

5.5 Nm 5.5 Nm

0 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 2.0 Time, t (sec)

Figure 3.5: Variation with time of the torque required on the driving shaft of a machine for
Example 3.2

SOLUTION:

(a)

2  1500
  157.08 rad/s
60

We know that  = t;  [rad]; [rad/s]; t [sec]

Work done per cycle = Area below of the graph

= 5.52.0  157.8   1 1.1  0.5  0.9  0.7157.844  5.5

2 

= 4146.912J

For one cycle, energy of motor = energy of machine;

 M  M  4146.912 J
4146.912
 M   13.14 Nm
2  157.8

PM   M   13.14157.8  2073W

77
 Torque 𝜏 (Nm)
44 Nm

M = 13.14 Nm

5.5 Nm 5.5 Nm

0 0.5 x 0.7 0.9 y 1.1 2.0

Time, t (sec)

(b)

The Fluctuation energy = E = Area of graph above the M line.

1 
  1.06  0.54  0.9  0.7 157.844  13.14
2 
 1753.09 J

44 44
44  5.5 13.14  5.5

0.7  0.5 x  0.5
 x  0.54
13.14 13.14
44  5.5 13.14  5.5
 5.5 5.5
1.1  0.9 1.1  y
0.5 x 0.7 0.9 y 1.1
 y  1.06
E
 ; I  mk 2  180.25 2   1.125 kgm 2
I 2
1753.09
  0.0626 or 6.26%
1.125157.82
EXAMPLE 3.3

A machine press is worked by an electric motor, delivering 2.25 kW continuously. At the

commencement of an operation, a flywheel of moment of inertia 50 kgm2 on the machine is
rotating at 250 rpm. The pressing operation requires 4.75 kJ of energy and occupies 0.75 s.
Neglecting friction losses, find:

(a) The maximum number of pressings that can be made in one hour.

(b) The reduction in speed of the flywheel after each pressing.

78
SOLUTION:

Given: PM = 2.25 kW

I = 50 kgm2

N = 250 rpm

Pressing energy in 0.75 s = 4.75 kJ

(a)

2  250
  26.18 rad/s
60

In one cycle: Motor energy = Pressing energy

PM
 M  M  4750J; where  M  and  M   M t
M
 PM 
  M t   4750 J
 M 
4750 4750
 Time in one cycle, t    2.111sec
PM 2250

3600
The maximum number of pressings that can be made in one hour =  1705
2.111

(b)

Lets 1 =  = 26.18 rad/s

Energy supplied by a motor in 0.75s = PM  t  2250  0.75  1687.5 J

But each pressing in 0.75s requires 4750 J,

So the energy supplied by a flywheel = 4750 – 1687.5 = 3062.5 J

The fluctuation energy of flywheel, E = 3062.5 J

79
E 
1
2
 
I 12   22

2  E 2  3062.5
  2  12   26.18 2   23.73 rad/s
I 50

1  2  26.18  23.73  2.45 rad/s

3.2 REFERENCES

1. Budynas, R. G. and Nisbett, J. K. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 8th ed.,

SI Units. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2008.

2. Khurmi, R. S. and Gupta, J. K. Theory of Machines. Eurasia Publishing, 2008.

3. Myszka, D. H. Machines & Mechanisms: Applied Kinematic Analysis, 4th ed.

Pearson, New Jersey, 2012.

4. Roslan Abd. Rahman, Che Abas Che Ismail, and Mohd. Yunus Abdullah. Mekanik
Mesin: Teori, Contoh Penyelesaian dan Masalah, 3rd ed. Penerbit UTM, 2001

3.3 PROBLEMS

3.1 The intercepted areas between the output torque curve and the mean resistance line of a
turning moment diagram for a multi cylinder engine, taken in order from one end are as
follows: - 35, + 410, - 285, + 325, - 335, + 260, - 365, + 285, - 260 mm2 as shown in the
Figure P3.1. The diagram has been drawn to a scale of 1 mm = 70 Nm (y-axis) and 1
mm = 4.5˚ (x-axis). The engine speed is 900 rpm and the fluctuation in speed is not to
exceed 2% of the mean speed. Find the mass and cross-section of the flywheel rim
having 650 mm mean diameter. The density of the material of the flywheel may take as
7200 kg/m3. The rim cross section is rectangular with the width 2 times the thickness.
Neglect effect of arms.

Figure P3.1: Example of a torque curve for a multi cylinder engine

80
3.2 The torque exerted on the crank shaft of a two stroke engine is given by the equation:
T ( Nm) = 14 500 + 2300 sin 2θ − 1900 cos 2θ
where θ is the crank angle displacement from the inner dead center. Assuming the
resisting torque to be constant, determine the following. (a) The power of the engine
when the speed is 150 rpm. (b) The moment of inertia of the flywheel if the speed
variation is not to exceed ± 0.5% of the mean speed. (c) The angular acceleration of the
flywheel when the crank has turned through 30° from the inner dead center.

3.3 The flywheel of a steam engine has a radius of gyration of 1 m and mass 2450 kg. The
starting torque of the steam engine is 1250 Nm and may be assumed constant.
Determine: (a) The angular acceleration of the flywheel. (b) The kinetic energy of the
flywheel after 10 seconds from the start.

3.4 A horizontal cross compound steam engine develops 305 kW at 100 rpm The
coefficient of fluctuation of energy as found from the turning moment diagram is to be
0.1 and the fluctuation of speed is to be kept within ± 0.5% of the mean speed. Find the
weight of the flywheel required, if the radius of gyration is 2 metres.

3.5 The equation of the turning moment curve of a three crank engine is (5000 + 1500 sin 3
θ) Nm, where θ is the crank angle in radians. The moment of inertia of the flywheel is
1000 kgm2 and the mean speed is 300 rpm. Find: (a) Power of the engine. (b) The
maximum fluctuation of the speed of the flywheel in percentage when (i) the resisting
torque is constant, and (ii) the resisting torque is (5000 + 600 sin θ) Nm.

81
 CHAPTER 4: GOVERNORS

4.0 CHAPTER OUTCOME

 Apply free body diagram and analytical method to solve problems in governors.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The function of governor is to control the mean speed of engine, as distinct from that of
flywheel, which controls only cyclic fluctuations in speed. If the mean speed varies due to a
variation in the load, the governor adjusts the fuel supply to the engine and restores the speed
to its former value.

Governors can be divided into two types: Centrifugal governors and inertial governors. Our
focus is only on the centrifugal type of governors. Figure 4.1 shows the options available
within this type.

In the centrifugal type, the effect of centrifugal force on the rotating balls causes a sleeve to
rise until equilibrium is obtained. Any change in engine speed produces a change in the
sleeve position, which adjusts the fuel supply accordingly.

Figure 4.1: Overview of centrifugal governor

82
4.2 WATT GOVERNORS

Figure 4.2: A Watt governor.

The Watt governor as shown in Figure 4.2 is basically a conical pendulum with the lower
links attached to a sleeve of negligible mass. If the mass of the ball is m and the centrifugal
force upon it is F, then taking moments about the instantaneous center for the lower link, 1
will formulate equation (4.1)

+ M I : F  XZ   mg IZ   0
 F  XZ   mg IZ  (4.1)

4.3 PORTER GOVERNORS

The Watt governor is only suitable for a speed range of about 60-80 rpm, and for higher
speeds it is necessary to add a mass, M to the sleeve to increase the speed. Taking moments
about I :

: F  XZ   mg IZ   IY   0; where IY  2IZ

Mg
+ M I
2
 F  XZ   mg IZ   2 IZ   m  M g IZ 
Mg
2 (4.2)

83
 Figure 4.3: A Porter governor.

4.4 PROELL GOVERNORS

The Proell governor in Figure 4.4 is similar to the Porter governor, except that the balls are
attached to extensions to the lower arms. This has the effect of reducing the change of speed
necessary for a given sleeve. Taking moments about I :

: F  XZ   mg IZ   IY   0; where IY  2IZ

Mg
+ M I
2
 F  XZ   mg IZ   2 IZ   m  M g IZ 
Mg
(4.3)
2

84
 Figure 4.4: A Proell governor.

4.5 HARTNELL GOVERNORS

A Hartnell governor as shown in Figure 4.5 is assembled with the central spring initially
compressed and this compression can be adjusted to give any required equilibrium speed for
a given ball radius. If F is centrifugal force acting on the ball, P is the force exerted on the
sleeve by the spring and M is the mass of the sleeve.

Figure 4.5: A Hartnell governor

85
Taking moments about the fulcrum, O of the bell-crank lever yield

P  Mg
+ M I : F a   b   0
2
P  Mg
 F a   b 
2 (4.4)

When the ball arm is not vertical, the moment of the ball weight about the fulcrum and the
changes in length of the moment-arms are usually neglected.

4.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOVERNORS

(a) When its sleeve reaches to the lowest position, the engine should develop maximum
power.

(b) Its sleeve should reach the topmost position at once when the load on the engine is
suddenly removed.

(c) Its sleeve should float at some intermediate position under normal operating
conditions.

(d) Its response to change in speed should be fast.

(e) It should have sufficient power so that it can exert the required force at the sleeve to
operate the control mechanism.

4.7 SENSITIVITY OF GOVERNORS

If the maximum and minimum speeds of a governor are ω1 and ω2 respectively and its mean
speed is ω, the sensitivity of the governor is defined as


Sensitivit y,  (4.5)
1  2

The governor is sensitive if the difference in speeds is small for any position of sleeve. If
there is a friction force, f between the sleeve and the spindle, the effective sleeve load
becomes

Mg  f  when sleeve is rising

Mg  f  when sleeve is falling (4.6)

86
4.8 CONTROLLING FORCE

The radially inward, or centripetal force acting on each rotating ball due to the sleeve
weight, spring force, etc., is termed the controlling force. At any equilibrium speed, ω, the
controlling force is equal and opposite of the centrifugal force.

Controlling force, F  m 2 r
F
 2  (4.7)
mr

The variation of this force against radius is called controlling force curve as shown in Figure
4.6.

(a) Curve for Porter type. (b) Curves for Hartnell type.

Figure 4.6: Relationships of the controlling force against radius from axis of rotation.

A governor is stable if for each speed within the working range there is only one radius of
rotation for equilibrium. Thus r must increase as ω increases. The ratio F/r increase as ω
increases. This condition is satisfied in the case of the Porter governor curve.

But, for the Hartnell governor, it is only satisfied if the straight line intercepts the vertical axis
below the origin, such as the line ab.

A governor is isochronous if the equilibrium speed is the same for all radii of rotation. The
ratio F/r is then constant and corresponds to the controlling force line cd, passing through the
origin.

A governor is unstable if the radius of rotation decreases as the speed increases. The ratio F/r
decrease as r increases. This corresponds to a controlling force line which intercepts the
vertical axis above the origin, such as the line ef.

87
EXAMPLE 4.1

A Porter governor has 300 mm arms and the rotating balls each have a mass of 1.8 kg. At the
mean speed of 120 rpm, the arms make 30o to the vertical as shown in Figure 4.7 below.
Determine

(a) The central dead load, M

(b) The sensitivity of the governor if the sleeve movement is ±25 mm from O (mean
speed position).

30 mm

300 mm 30o

mb=1.8 kg

300 mm 30 mm

Figure 4.7: A Porter governor for Example 4.1

SOLUTION:
30
(a) mm
FBD:
m
0m

30
30

o h

X r
F
mb
g h

I Z Y
Mg/
2
88
At mean speed :
2 120
  12.57 rad/s
60
XZ  h  0.3 cos 30   0.26 m
ZY  IZ  0.3 sin 30   0.15 m
r  ZY  0.03  0.15  0.03  0.18 m
 
F  mb 2 r  1.8 12.57 2 0.18  51.19 N

M I : F  XZ   mb g IZ   IY   0; where IY  2IZ 

Mg
2

+  M  F  XZ   mb g IZ  g IZ 
1

 51.190.26  1.89.810.15
1
9.810.15
 7.24 kg

(b)

FBD: 30 mm
m
0m
30

h1
h
X r1
F1
½ ×25=12.5 mm

mbg

h
I Z Y
25 mm
Mg/2
O

89
When sleeve rises 25 mm :
M  7.24kg
XZ  h 1  h  0.0125  0.26  0.0125  0.2475 m
ZY  IZ  0.3 2  h 12  0.3 2  0.2475 2  0.1695 m
r1  ZY  0.03  0.1695  0.03  0.1995 m
 
F1  m b 12 r1  1.8 12 0.1995  0.35921 N

M I : F1 XZ  m b gIZ  IY  0; where IY  2IZ

Mg
2
+
m b gIZ  M gIZ
 F1 
XZ
m b g  M gIZ
 1 
0.3592XZ


1.8  9.81  7.24  9.810.1695
0.35920.2475
 13 rad/s

FBD :
30 mm
m
300m

h h2

X r2 ½ ×25=12.5 mm
F2

h
mbg

O
25 mm
I Z Y
Mg/2

90
When sleeve falls 25 mm :

M  7.24 kg
XZ  h2  h  0.0125  0.26  0.0125  0.2725 m
ZY  IZ  0.32  h22  0.32  0.2725 2  0.1255 m
r2  ZY  0.03  0.1255  0.03  0.1555 m
 
F1  mb 22 r2  1.8  22 0.1555  0.2799 22 N

M I : F2  XZ   mb g IZ   IY   0; where IY  2IZ 

Mg
2
+
mb g IZ   Mg IZ 
 F2 
 XZ 
 2 
mb g  Mg IZ 
0.2799 XZ 


1.8  9.81  7.24  9.810.1255
0.27990.2725
 12.08 rad/s


Sensitivit y,  
1  2
12.57

13  12.08
 13.66

91
EXAMPLE 4.2

A Proell type governor is shown diagrammatically in Figure 4.8, with certain dimensions in
the figure below. The central dead load acting on the sleeve has a mass of 25 kg and the two
rotating masses each have a mass of 3.2 kg. When the governor sleeve is in mid position, the
arm AB of the cranked lever ABC is vertical and the radius of the path of rotation of the
masses is 175 mm. If the governor speed is to be 160 rpm when in mid-position and neglect
friction, find:

(a) The length of the arm AB

(b) The tension in the link BD

25 mm
D
mb=3.2 kg
A m
50m
2

25 M=25 kg
0m
m

25 mm
Figure 4.8: A Proell governor for Example 4.2

SOLUTION:

25 mm
(a)

D
FBD: F A

0mm
25 h
mbg
B r=175 mm

25
0m
m

I Z C

Mg/2
92
When sleeve at mid - position :

2  160
  16.76rad/s
60
IZ  ZC  r  0.025  0.175  0.025  0.15 m
BZ  h  0.25 2  IZ   0.25 2  0.15 2  0.2 m
2

 
F  mb 2 r  3.2 16.76 2 0.175  157.3N

M I : F  AB  BZ   mb g IZ   IC   0; where IC  2IZ 

Mg
+ 2
mb  M g IZ 
AB   BZ
F

3.2  259.810.15  0.2
157.3
 0.064 m

D
A m
(b) 0m T
25 BD θ
200 mm
mbg TD
FBD:

Mg/2

259.81
 3.29.81 
Mg
Vertical reaction at D, TD  mb g   154.017 N
2 2
T 154.017
 Tension in BD , TBD  D   192.52 N
cos   200 
 
 250 

93
EXAMPLE 4.3

Figure 4.9 below shows a governor of the Hartnell type. The mass of each ball of a governor
is 3 kg and mass of sleeve is 10 kg. The stiffness of spring 1, K1 is 5 kN/m. The friction of
sleeve is 10 N. If the sleeve begins to rise at 400rpm with radius of rotation of the balls is 142
mm, find the tension force and stiffness of spring 2, K2 by neglecting the moment of ball
weight when the ball arm is not vertical.

Ball, mb = 3 kg

1
100 mm
115mm

Sleeve, ms = 10 kg
2

100 mm 200 mm
25 mm

Figure 4.9: A Hartnell governor for Example 4.3

SOLUTION:

(msg+P1+P2’+f)/2
r1=142 mm
F1
r
mm

θ1
115
100

mm
x1
θ1
O
25 mm

x1 f=10 N
x2

100 mm 200 mm
msg+P1+P2’+f P2

P1 = compression force in spring 1 ; P2 = tension force in spring 2

P2’ = equivalent tension force of spring 2 ; f = friction of sleeve

x1 = displacement of spring 1 when sleeve rise; x2 = displacement of spring 2 when sleeve rise
94
When sleeve begins to rise at 400 rpm :

r1  142 mm  0.142 m
2  400
1   41.89 rad/s
60
r  115  25  140 mm  0.14 m
r  r  142  140  1.15 
1  sin 1 1  sin 1
100 100
 
x 1  115 sin 1  115 sin 1.15   2.3 mm  0.0023 m
P1  K 1 x 1  50000.0023  11.5 N
 
F1  m b 12 r1  3 41.89 2 0.142  747.53 N
m s g  P1  P2 'f 
MO :  0.115 cos 1   F1 0.1cos 1   0
2
+ 2  F1 0.1 cos 1 
P2 '   m s g  P1  f
0.115 cos 1
2  747.53  0.1
  109.81  11.5  10
0.115
 1180.45 N

x1
x2

100 mm 200 mm
P2’ P2

P2 200   P2 ' 300 

 300   300 
P2  P2 '    1180.45   1770.675 N
 200   200 

x2 x
 1
200 300
 200   200 
x 2  x1    0.0023   0.00153 m
 300   300 

P2 1770.675
K2    1158 kN/m
x2 0.00153

95
4.9 REFERENCES

1. Khurmi, R. S. and Gupta, J. K. Theory of Machines. Eurasia Publishing, 2008.

2. Roslan Abd. Rahman, Che Abas Che Ismail, and Mohd. Yunus Abdullah. Mekanik
Mesin: Teori, Contoh Penyelesaian dan Masalah, 3rd ed. Penerbit UTM, 2001.

4.10 PROBLEMS (TUTORIALS)

4.1 Calculate the vertical height of a Watt governor when it rotates at 50 rpm. Also find the
change in vertical height when its speed increases to 51 rpm.

4.2 A Porter governor has all four arms 250 mm long. The upper arms are attached on the
axis of rotation and the lower arms are attached to the sleeve at a distance of 30 mm
from the axis. The mass of each ball is 5 kg and the sleeve has a mass of 50 kg. The
extreme radii of rotation are 150 mm and 200 mm. Determine the range of speed of the
governor.

4.3 A Proell governor has all four arms of length 300 mm. The upper arms are pivoted on
the axis of rotation and the lower arms are attached to a sleeve at a distance of 40 mm
from the axis. The mass of each ball is 5 kg and are attached to the extension of the
power arms which are 100 mm long. The mass on the sleeve is 40 kg. The minimum
and maximum radii of governor are 170 mm and 215 mm. Assuming that the
extensions of the lower arms are parallel to the governor axis at the minimum radius,
find the corresponding equilibrium speeds.

4.4 All the arms of a Porter governor are 180 mm long and are hinged at a distance of 40
mm from the axis of rotation. The mass of each ball is 1.2 kg and mass of the sleeve is
20 kg. The governor sleeve begins to rise at 275 rpm when the links are at an angle of
25° to the vertical. Assuming the friction force to be constant, determine the minimum
and maximum speed of rotation when the inclination of the arms to the vertical is 45°.

4.5 The arms of a Porter governor are 300 mm long. The upper arms are pivoted on the axis
of rotation. The lower arms are attached to a sleeve at a distance of 40 mm from the
axis of rotation. The mass of the load on the sleeve is 70 kg and the mass of each ball is
10 kg. Determine the equilibrium speed when the radius of rotation of the balls is 200
mm. If the friction is equivalent to a load of 20 N at the sleeve, what will be the range
of speed for this position?

4.6 In a spring controlled governor, the radial force acting on the balls was 4250 N when
the center of balls was 190 mm from the axis and 7500 N when at 300 mm. Assuming
that the force varies directly as the radius, find the radius of the ball path when the
governor runs at 250 rpm. Also find what alteration in spring load is required in order
to make the governor isochronous and the speed at which it would then run. The mass
of each ball is 30 kg.

96
 CHAPTER 5: GYROSCOPES

5.0 CHAPTER OUTCOME

 Analyze and solve problems on the effect of gyroscopic couple to real world
applications.

5.1 BASICS OF GYROSCOPES

Let the disc in Figure 5.1 with moment of inertia I rotate about its axis OX at  rad/s and
rotate (or precession) about axis OZ at  rad/s.

Precession axis

Couple axis

Spin axis

Figure 5.1: Basic of gyroscope

The angular momentum of the disc, I, about the axis of spin may be represented, by the
vector Oa. The direction of vector Oa is represented by using the right-hand rule as
shown in Figure 5.2.

97
 (a) Determination of vector direction (b) Rotation directions around axes.

Figure 5.2 Right-hand rule

When the disc rotates about OZ through an angle d, the angular momentum of the disc I,
is then represented by the vector Ob and the change in angular momentum by the vector ab.

Some equations include, change in angular momentum,

𝑎𝑏 = 𝐼𝜔 𝑑𝜃 (5.1)

If the change occur in time dt, then the rate of change in angular momentum is I d/dt.
Here, the gyroscopic couple is the reactive couple, which is equal but opposite in direction
to the active couple shown in Figure 5.1.

M’ = I  (5.2)

where the angular velocity of precession  = d/dt that can be found by

v (5.3)

R

Here v is the linear velocity as the vehicle is taking the turn while R is the radius of turn.
Also in Figure 5.1, the active couple is represented by M. To get the direction of vector of
M, the right-hand rule is used as suggested in Figure 5.3. The thumb shows the direction of
precession, the pointing finger for direction of spin, while the middle finger illustrates the
direction of the active couple M. Hence, the gyroscopic couple M’ is just the opposite
direction along the same axis.

98
 

Thumb
(a) Right hand rule. (b) There is rotation around each axis.

Figure 5.3: Method to determine vector direction using right-hand rule

The gyroscopes can have an effect on bearings too as shown in Figure 5.4.

WA

A
lA

WB
lB

W
B

Figure 5.4: Effect of gyroscope on bearings

If the weight of the disk is considered:
Force due to weight W:

𝑊.𝑙𝐵
𝑊𝐴 = (5.4)
𝑙
𝑊.𝑙𝐴
𝑊𝐵 = (5.5)
𝑙

99
Total force at A due to gyroscopic effect and weight of the disk,
FA = RA - WA (5.6)

Total force at B due to gyroscopic effect and weight of the disk,

FB = -RA - WB (5.7)

Each total reaction force at A or B is the same magnitude with each total force but in
opposite direction.

In the case of a ship’s turbine rotor, the gyroscopic couple (reactive couple) on the ship
causes it to swing sideways. In a vehicle, the gyroscopic couple (reactive couple) caused by
the precession of the wheels tends to overturn the vehicle in the same way as the centrifugal
force.

EXAMPLE 5.1

Figure 5.5 below shows a rotor system with flywheel on a vehicle when view from the rear
side. The flywheel has moment of inertia of 4 kgm2 and spins at 1500 rpm. Bearings is
supported by two springs (K = 20 kN/m). If the vehicle travels at 60 km/h and turning to the
right at radius 30 m, find

(a) The displacement of each spring.

(b) Analyze the effect of gyroscopic couple on each spring.

30 cm

K K

Figure 5.5: Rear view of a rotor system with flywheel on vehicle for Example 5.1

100
SOLUTION:

(a) Angular velocity of flywheel, ω = 2π(1500)/60 = 157.08 rad/s

v 60  1000 3600

Angular velocity of precession,     0.56 rad/s
R 30

Gyroscopic couple, M '  I  4  157.08  0.56  351.8592 Nm

M ' 351.8592
Force in each spring, F    1172.864 N
l 0.3

F 1172.864
Displacement of each spring, x    0.06m
K 20000

(b) Apply the right-hand rule:

M M’
in
ω ω
M
out M’
Ω
Ω

2D-view vector diagram 3-D view vector diagram

The right spring is subjected to tension force while the left spring experiences
compression force.

101
EXAMPLE 5.2

Figure 5.6 below shows a model of motorcycle traveling around a banked curve. The
motorcycle, rider and passenger together have a mass of 320 kg and its combined center of
gravity is 525 mm above ground level. The wheels of the motorcycle each have a mass of 9
kg, a radius of gyration of 225 mm and effective radius of 300 mm. The rotating parts of the
engine have a mass of 12 kg, a radius of gyration of 75 mm and rotate in the same sense as
the wheels. If the gear ratio, engine to back wheel is 3.5:1, determine the angle of the
banking, α necessary for the motorcycle to ride normal to the track on a bend of 60 m radius
at a speed of 160 km/h.

Motorcycle
160 km/h
model
R = 60 m

Motorcycle
model

(a) Top View (b) Rear View

Figure 5.6: Model of a motorcycle travelling around a blanked corner for Example 5.2

SOLUTION:

Moment inertia of wheels: I w  2mk 2   29  0.225 2   0.912 kgm 2

Moment inertia of engine parts: I e  mk 2  12  0.075 2  0.0675 kgm 2
160 1000
Linear velocity of motorcycle: v   44.44 ms 1
3600
v 44.44
Angular velocity of wheels:  w    148 rad/s
rw 0.3
Angular velocity of engine parts: e  3.5  148  518 rad/s
v 44.44
Velocity of precession:   cos   cos   0.7407 cos 
R 60
Since the engine and wheels rotate in the same sense, the gyroscopic couples are additive:

102
Gyroscopic couple: M '  I ww  I ee   I ww  I ee 
 0.912  148  0.0675  5180.7407 cos 
 125.88 cos 

 v2   44.44 2 
Centrifugal force: Fc  m   320   10532.87 N
R  60 


Fc
ω M
in

M’ out M’
α

mg
For equilibrium: M 'mg0.525 sin    Fc 0.525 cos    0
125.88 cos   320  9.810.525 sin    10532.870.525 cos    0
5655.64 cos   1648.08 sin   0
5655.64 cos   1648.08 sin 
5655.64
 tan  
1648.08
   73.75 

5.2 REFERENCES

1. Khurmi, R. S. and Gupta, J. K. Theory of Machines. Eurasia Publishing, 2008.

2. http://www.tpub.com/neets/book15/63b.html.

3. Roslan Abd. Rahman, Che Abas Che Ismail, and Mohd. Yunus Abdullah.
Mekanik Mesin: Teori, Contoh Penyelesaian dan Masalah, 3rd ed. Penerbit UTM,
2001.

103
5.3 PROBLEMS (TUTORIALS)

1. The engine of a ship weights 100 kg and has radius of gyration 200 mm. The engine is
supported by two bearings A and B as shown in the figure below. The engine rotates at
5000 rpm clockwise seen from behind. The ship makes a turn to the left at radius of 500
m and at constant speed of 30 m/s, determines:
a) The magnitude and direction of reactive gyroscopic couple
b) The magnitude and direction of total reaction forces at bearing A and B
respectively, where the distance between bearing is 1200 mm.

2. An airplane makes a complete half circle of 50 meter radius, towards left, when flying at
200 km per hour. The rotary engine and the propeller of the plane have a mass of 400 kg
and a radius of gyration of 0.3 m. The engine rotates at 2400 rpm clockwise when
viewed from the back. Find the gyroscopic couple on the aircraft and state its effect.

3. A four wheeled car has a mass 2000 kg and a wheel base 2.5 m, track width 1.5 m and
height of center of gravity 500 mm above the ground level and lies at 1 m from the front
axle. Each wheel has an effective diameter of 0.8 and moment of inertia 0.8 kg.m2. The
drive shaft, engine flywheel and transmission are rotating at 4 times the speed of road
wheel, in a clockwise direction when viewed from the front, and is equivalent to a mass
of 75 kg having a radius of gyration of 100 mm. If the car is taking a right turn of 60 m
radius at 60 km/h, find the total reaction force at each wheel and the road surface.

4. The turbine rotor of a ship has a mass of 9000 kg and a radius of gyration 0.75 m. It
turns at 1500 rpm counter clockwise, when looking from the stern. Determine the
gyroscopic couple, given that the ship travels at 100 km/h and steer to the right in a
curve of 90 m radius.

5. A rail car has a total mass of 4000 kg. The car has two axles, each of which together
with its wheels and gearing has a total moment of inertia of 30 kgm2. The center
distance between the two wheels on an axle is 1.75 m and each wheel has a radius of
390 mm. Each axle is driven by a motor, giving a speed ratio between the two of 1:3.
The gear has a moment of inertia of 15 kgm2 and runs in a direction opposite to that of
its axle. The center of gravity of the car is 1 m above the rails. Find the limiting speed
for this car, when it rounding a curve of 250 meters radius such that no wheel leaves the

104
 rail. Consider the centrifugal and gyroscopic effects completely. Assume that no cant is
provided for the outer rail.

6. Each wheel of a motor cycle has a mass moment of inertia I_W of 1.75 kgm2. The
rotating parts have a combined mass moment of inertia I_p of 0.25 kgm2. The speed of
the engine is 4 times the speed of the 0.5 m diameter wheels and is in the same sense.
The mass of the motor cycle with its rider is 275 kg and its center of gravity is 0.5 m
above the ground level. Find the angle of heel if the cycle is travelling at 50 km/h and is
taking a 30 m turn radius.

105
 CHAPTER 6: FREE VIBRATION

6.0 CHAPTER OUTCOMES

• Able to formulate and calculate natural frequency in free vibration system using one
of these methods (Energy Conservation Method, Equivalent Method and Newton’s
Motion Law Method.)
• Solve problems in free damped vibration system using either Equivalent Method or
Newton’s Motion Law Method.

6.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF FREE VIBRATIONS

Free vibration refers to vibration without continuous excitation. After being excited, the
system is left to oscillate freely. As such, the amplitude will decrease until there is no
oscillation. A body that experiences free vibration is also said to experience simple
harmonic motion (zero damping). The characteristics are the same as simple harmonic
motion, that include:-

(a) Acceleration is proportional to distance.

(b) Force to bring it back to original position is also proportional to distance.

It vibrates in natural speed, n and natural frequency, fn. There are three types of 1-degree
vibrating system:

(a) Pendulum system - angular mode

(b) Spring-mass system - linear mode
(c) Shaft-inertia system - rotational mode

There are three methods in determining the natural frequency of a free vibration system:
(a) Newton’s Motion Law Method
(b) Energy Conservation Method
(c) Equivalent Method

6.2 SIMPLE PENDULUM

Assume a mass, m, hanged by a rope of length l from point O. The moment of inertia of the
mass from O is IO.

106
  l

l

(a) Actual pendulum system (b) FBD

Figure 6.:1 Example of simple pendulum system

Refer to the free body diagram or FBD in Figure 6.1(b). For small angles 𝜃 in radians, we
can approximate as sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃. Hence

+ M O  mg sin   l  mgl

(6.1)

6.2.1 NEWTON’S MOTION LAW

The Newton’s Motion Law (NML) uses the principle in dynamics that leads to:-

+ M O  I O

 mgl  I O

I O  mgl  0
(6.2)
 mgl 
     0
 IO  (6.3)

107
In general, the solution to the differential equation in (6.3) can utilize
  A sinnt  (6.4)

where 𝐴 is the amplitude, 𝑡 is time, and 𝜔𝑛 is the natural speed. Then

  An cosnt  (6.5a)

   An2 sinnt  (6.5b)

Insert equations (6.4) and (6.5b) into (6.3) and this yields

 mgl 
     0
 IO 
 mgl 
 
 A n2 sin nt     A sin nt   0
 IO 
  mgl 
 
 n  
2
A sin nt   0; where A sin nt   0
  I O  (6.6)

Simplifying equation (6.6) gives

 mgl 
 
 n2     0 (6.7)
 O 
I

Further manipulation produces

mgl
n2  ; where I O  ml 2
IO
mgl g
n  
ml 2 l (6.8)
n 1 g
fn  
2 2 l
(6.9)

The natural frequency 𝑓𝑛 is an important vibration criterion for the pendulum system.

108
6.2.2 ENERGY METHOD

The derivation in this method still relies on the FBD in Figure 6.1(b).

K.E 
1 2 1
2 2
  1
mx  m l  ml 2 2
2

2 (6.10a)
P.E  mg h   mg l  l cos    mgl1  cos  
(6.10b)

The kinetic and potential energies will then be differentiated as

d
K.E  P.E  d  1 ml 2 2  mgl1  cos    0
dt dt  2 
2  

 ml   mgl sin    0
 ml   mgl sin     0;
2
where   0

ml 2  mgl sin   0; (6.11)

The sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 assumption is used and this leads to

ml 2  mgl  0 (6.12)

g
     0
l (6.13)

Since 𝐼𝑜 = 𝑚𝑙 2 , using equations (6.4) and (6.5) yield equations (6.7) through (6.9) just as in
NML.

6.3 SPRING-MASS SYSTEM

The diagram in Figure 6.2 shows the system under investigation. Figure 6.2(a) shows the
spring that has a constant value K. The mass m is added as in Figure 6.2(b) that extends the
spring by 𝛿 and the forces in static condition is illustrated in Figure 6.2(d). As the mass is
let to travel the distance x in Figure 6.2(c), the forces change to those shown in Figure
6.2(e).

109
 (a) (b) (c)

mg = K

(d) (e)

Figure 6.2: Spring-mass system

6.3.1 NEWTON’S MOTION LAW FOR SPRING MASS SYSTEM

Refer to the free body diagram or FBD in Figure 6.2. The Newton’s Motion Law (NML)
uses the principle in dynamics that leads to

 F  ma (6.14)

mg  K  x     mx
mg  Kx  mg  mx
 Kx  mx
mx  Kx  0 (6.15)
K
x    x  0
m (6.16)

110
In general, the solution to the differential equation in (6.16) can utilize
x  A sinnt  (6.17)

where 𝐴 is the amplitude, 𝑡 is time, and 𝜔𝑛 is the natural speed. Then

 
(6.18a)
x  A n2 cosnt 

 
x   A n2 sin nt  (6.18b)

Insert equations (6.17) and (6.18b) into (6.16) and this yields

K
x    x  0
m

  K
 A n2 sin nt     A sin nt   0
m
  K 
 
 n   m A sin nt   0; where A sin nt   0
2

  
(6.19)

Simplifying equation (6.19) gives

  K
 n2     0 (6.20)
m

Further manipulations produce

K
n2 
m
K
n 
m (6.21)
n 1 K
fn  
2 2 m
(6.22)

The natural frequency 𝑓𝑛 is an important vibration criterion for the mass-spring system.

111
6.3.2 ENERGY METHOD FOR SPRING MASS SYSTEM

Figure 6.2 is used to derive the vibration characteristics using the Energy Method. The
kinetic and potential energies are
1 2
K.E  mx (6.23)
2
x
P.E   mg  K  x   dx
0
x
   Kx dx
0

1
 Kx 2
2
(6.24)

By the same token, we do these manipulations and yield

d
K.E  P.E  d  1 mx 2  1 Kx 2   0
dt dt  2 2 
 mxx  Kxx  0
 mx  Kx x   0; where x  0
(6.25)

mx  Kx  0 (6.26)

Equation (6.26) is similar to equation (6.16) and hence we should arrive to the same
conclusions of equations (6.21) and (6.22).

6.4 SHAFT-INERTIA SYSTEM

A disc having moment of inertia, I is connected to shaft having torsional stiffness, q. This
system is shown in Figure 6.3.

112
 Figure 6.3: Shaft-inertia system

6.4.1 NEWTON’S MOTION LAW FOR TORSIONAL VIBRATION

According to the NML, the system can be represented via differential equation as

 q  I
I  q  0
q
    0 (6.27)
I

These can then be expanded in the same token as before to turn into these forms

  K
 n2     0 (6.28)
m
q
n2 
I
q
n  (6.29)
I
n 1 q
fn  
2 2 I (6.30)

The knowledge of solid mechanics or mechanics of materials enables us to go further. We

know that

113
 GJ
 (6.31)
l

where  = torque [Nm], J = Polar moment of inertia [m4], and G = Modulus of rigidity
[N/m2]. For a torsion shaft with a diameter d

d 4 (6.32)
J
32

The torsional stiffness q can be found as

 GJ Gd 4 (6.33)
q  
 l 32l

This changes equations (6.29) and (6.30) into

Gd 4
n  (6.34)
32lI

n 1 Gd 4
fn  
2 2 32lI (6.35)

6.4.2 ENERGY METHOD FOR TORSIONAL VIBRATION

Like before, the Energy Method derivation refers to the same diagram that is Figure 6.3.
The kinetic and potential energies can be found as

K.Emax  1 I  2 max  1 I  An 2 (6.36)

2 2
P.Emax 1
 q2
2
  max
1
 
 q A2
2 (6.37)

114
This is so since we know

 max  A 
for maximum sin nt   1 and cosωnt   1 (6.38)
max  An 

Next, we realize that ideally the conservation of energy is upheld i.e. (K.E.)𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(P.E.)𝑚𝑎𝑥 . Hence

1
2
I  An   q A2
2 1
2
 
1
2
2 1
2
 
I  An   q A2  0
(6.39)

q
n2  0 (6.40)
I

From equation (6.40) we can use the same manipulations shown in the NML method to
ultimately arrive at equations (6.34) and (6.35).

A summary of the vibration analysis formulae is shown in Figure 6.4 below.

Figure 6.4: Summary of vibration analysis

115
6.5 EQUIVALENT METHOD

This module skips the Energy Method and leaves that for students to discover themselves.
However, briefly we cover the Equivalent Method and go through some examples.

The equivalent method actually refers to the use of previous equations for complex systems.
Although the two methods mentioned previously (Newton’s Motion Law Method and
Energy Conservation Method) can still be used in determining the natural frequency for
complex system, the equivalent method is simpler.

By finding the equivalent mass, m’ and equivalent spring constant (stiffness), K’, the values
(or formulas) can then be inserted into the general equation

m' x  K ' x  0 (6.28)

The mechanical system can be simplified into a system in which an equivalent spring is
used to replace the vibrating mass. Hence the following list in Table 1 shows the equivalent
systems available.

Table 1: Lists of equivalent system

Original System Equivalent System Equations

mg
K'
l

116
 2
a
K' K 
l

K '  K1  K 2
n
  Kn
1

117
 1 1 1
 
K ' K1 K 2
n
1

1 Kn

IO
m' 
OA2

2
 OB 
m'  m 
 OA 

118
EXAMPLE 6.1

Figure 6.5 shows rod ABC (1.5 kg) with constant cross-section. It is fixed at C and carries a
mass 1 kg at A. The connection BD weighs 1 kg and carries a mass 2 kg at D. The stiffness
of spring at A is 400 N/m and spring at B is 1 kN/m. If rod ABC is displaced and released,
find the natural frequency of the system in Hz unit. Neglect all pendulum effect.

Figure 6.5: Spring-mass pulley system for Example 6.1

SOLUTION:

By using the Equivalent Method, take B as a reference axle:

Moment of inertia of rod about C; I ABC  ml 2  1.50.6  0.18 kgm 2

1 1 2

3 3
I 0.18
'
Equivalent mass of rod ABC at reference axle, m ABC  ABC 2   2.88 kg
BC  0.25 2
2 2
 AC   0.6 
m A'  m A    1   5.76 kg
Equivalent mass of mass A at reference axle,  BC   0.25 

119
Equivalent mass of mass D at reference axle, mD'  mD  2 kg

'
Equivalent mass of link BD at reference axle, mBD  mBD  1 kg

Total equivalent mass at reference axle, mT  m ABC

'
 m A'  mD'  mBD
'

 2.88  5.76  2  1  11.64 kg

Equivalent spring stiffness of spring A at reference axle,

2 2
 AC   0.6 
K A'  K A    400   2304 N/m
 BC   0.25 

Equivalent spring stiffness of spring B at reference axle, K B'  K B  1000N/m

Total equivalent spring at reference axle, KT  K A'  K B' (parallel spring)

 2304  1000  3304N/m

KT 3304  fn 
1
n 
1
16.85  2.68Hz
n    16.85rad/s  2 2
mT 11.64

EXAMPLE 6.2

Figure 6.6 below shows a spring-mass-pulley system. The cord is assumed not to elongate
when the mass, m is attached to the one end of the pulley. The mass of pulley is M with
radius r, while the spring stiffness is K. Find the natural frequency of the system in terms of
the given quantities.

Figure 6.6: Spring-mass-pulley system for Example 6.2

120
SOLUTION:

By using Equivalent Method, take center of pulley as a reference axle:

KT

O r mT

1 3
Moment of inertia of pulley about O; I pulley  Mr 2  Mr 2  Mr 2
2 2

Equivalent spring stiffness at reference axle, K '  K

Total equivalent spring at reference axle, K T  K '  K

3
I pulley Mr 2
3
Equivalent mass of pulley at reference axle, m 'pulley   2 2  M
r2 r 2

2
 2r 
Equivalent mass of m at reference axle, m'  m   4m
 r 
3
Total equivalent mass at reference axle, mT  m 'pulley  m'  M  4m
2

KT K 2K 1 1 2K
n    rad/s  f n  n  Hz
mT 3 3M  8m 2 2 3M  8m
M  4m
2

EXAMPLE 6.3

Shaft ABCD measures 1.5 m carries an energy wheel at the end A as shown in Figure 6.7
below. The mass of the energy wheel is 60kg and radius of gyration is 0.6 m. The shaft has
a diameter of 50 mm at AB = 0.4 m, diameter 70 mm at BC = 0.5 m and diameter d mm at
CD = 0.6 m. If the modulus of rigidity of shaft is 80G N/m and natural frequency of system
is 10 Hz, find the diameter d3. Let the equivalent diameter be 50 mm.

121
 Figure 6.7: Shaft carrying an energy wheel for Example 6.3

SOLUTION :

Moment of inertia of flywheel, I  mk 2  600.6  21.6 kgm 2

2

Let the equivalent shaft diameter, d’ = d1 = 50 mm and the equivalent length, l’ is:

l' l1 l2 l3
   ; where d '  d1  50 mm
d ' 4
d1  4
d 2  4
d 3 4
4 4
d  d 
l '  l1  l 2  1   l3  1 
 d2   d3 
4
 50 
4
 50 
 0.4  0.5   0.6 
 70   d3 
3750000
 l '  0.53  (1)
d 3 4

122
 G d '
4
1
fn 
2 32l ' I
 1
 l '     
2

 G d '4  1  80  10 9  0.054
2
 0.576 m
 2  f n  32 I  2  10  32  21.6

3750000 4 3750000
From (1): d 3  4   95.02mm
l '0.53 0.576  0.53

6.6 FREE DAMPED VIBRATION

When a guitar string is plucked, it vibrates until some time, it stops. The amplitude of the
string slowly decreases until it reaches zero. This phenomenon is called damping that is also
related to the loss of energy.

Here, the Newton’s Motion Law Method and the Equivalent Method are used to find the
natural frequency, 𝑓𝑛 and natural damped frequency, 𝑓𝑑 .

Unlike in previous sections, damping is considered here. They are many types of damping
and they are as follows.

(a) Structural Damping: It is caused by the structure of the system where energy is lost
through the friction of components. It is also called hysteretic damping.
(b) Coulomb Damping: This is caused by friction between two dry surfaces where the
frictional force does not relate to speed 𝜔 but rather is constant. It is also called dry
damping.
(c) Liquid Damping: There are two type of this damping. (i) Viscous Damping is based
on viscous characteristic where friction is proportional to speed 𝜔. (ii) Turbulent
Damping based on turbulent characteristic where friction is proportional to squared
speed, 𝜔2 . This can be described by the following equation.

dx (6.41)
F C  Cx
dt

where C is the damping coefficient [Ns/m].

123
6.6.1 SPRING-MASS DAMPED SYSTEM

The general setup of this system is shown in Figure 6.4 below.

Figure 6.4: Spring-mass damped system

The system equation is given by

x  C mx  K mx  0 (6.42)

where C m  2 n and K m  ωn2 . Further definitions are given below.

 = Damping ratio or damping factor = C/CC

CC = Peak damping coefficient/constant = 2nm

n = Natural frequency without damping [rad/s]

6.6.2 SHAFT-INERTIA DAMPED SYSTEM

The general setup of this system is shown in Figure 6.5 below.

Figure 6.5: Shaft-inertia damped system

124
The system equation is given by

  C I   q I   0 (6.43)

where C I  2 n and q I  ωn2 .

6.6.3 DAMPING RATIO 

This is a dimensionless measure that explains how the oscillation decays over time after a
system is disturbed from its static equilibrium position. There are three cases; light
damping, heavy damping, and critical damping.

LIGHT DAMPING   1.0

The oscillation decay in its amplitude follows the exponential curve as shown in Figure 6.6
below. This is also known as an underdamped system.

Figure 6.6: Example of underdamped system

125
Other descriptions of this type of damping are as follows.

Damped natural speed, d  1   2 n [rad/s] (6.44)

2 2
Periodic time, T   [sec]
d 1   2 n (6.45)
 a  r  12
Logarithm decrement,   ln  1   (6.46)
 ar  1  2

HEAVY DAMPING   1.0

This is also known as an overdamped system. The disturbed system slowly gets to its static
equilibrium position without oscillation. Figure 6.7 illustrates this behavior.

Figure 6.7: Example of overdamped system

CRITICAL DAMPING   1.0

This is also known as the peak damping. The system not only shows no oscillation but it
also moves quickly towards its static equilibrium position in the shortest time. Figure 6.8
illustrates this behavior.

126
 Figure 6.8: Example of peak damping

6.7 EQUIVALENT DAMPING COEFFICIENT C’

Basically Figure 6.9 shows one representation by the equivalent method.

Figure 6.9: Representation of damping system by equivalent method

In this case, the new coefficient is given as

2
a (6.47)
C '  C 
b

127
EXAMPLE 6.4

The vibration of a pendulum weighing 8 kg is controlled by spring and damper (dashpot) as

shown in Figure 6.10. The spring constant is 5 kN/m and the piston of dashpot weighs 0.5
kg. The body ADE weighs 2.5 kg with radius of gyration 50 mm about D. When the mass is
displaced from equilibrium and released, the amplitude of vibration decreases to ½ after 3
complete cycles. Find:
(a) Damping ratio, 
(b) Damping coefficient, C at dashpot
(c) Damping value needed to obtain peak characteristic, CC
(d) Damped natural speed, d

Figure 6.10: Pendulum controlled spring-damper system for Example 6.4

SOLUTION:

(a)
After 3 complete cycles, the amplitude of vibration decreases to ½.

From the diagram above: r = 4; a1/ar = a1/a4 = 2. So:

128
 a  r  12 
ln  1  
 a4  1 2

ln 2 
4  12 
1 2
   0.0368

(b)
By using the NML Method:

0.035 Because  is small, so :

0.065 y a  0.1cos   0.1; where cos   1
x
D θ b  0.065 cos   0.065; where cos   1
b x  0.065
a y  0.1
l=0.065 Cy y  0.1
θ Kx

Mgsinθ

+
Mgcosθ
Mg

M D   Kxb   Mg sin  l   Cy a 


 50000.065 0.065  8  9.81 0.065  C 0.1 0.1
 26.23  0.01C

Moment of inertia of body ADE about D; I ADE  mk 2  2.50.052   0.00625 kgm 2

Moment of inertia of mass M about D; I M  80.065  0.0338 kgm 2
2

Moment of inertia of mass mp about D; I mp  0.50.1  0.005 kgm 2

2

Total moment of inertia about D; I D  I ADE  I M  I mp

 0.00625  0.0338  0.005  0.045 kgm 2
According to NML:   M D  I D
 26.23  0.01C  0.045

129
 0.045  0.01C  26.23  0
 0.01C    26.23 
        0 .
 0.045   0.045 
  0.222C   582.89  0
We know that:   2 n   n2   0 , so:
n2  582.89  n  24.14rad/s and 2 n  0.222C
2 n  0.222C
2 n 20.036824.14
C    8 Ns/m
0.222 0.222

(c)
C

CC
C 8
 CC    217.39 Ns/m
 0.0368
(d)
d  n 1   2  24.14 1  0.0368 2  24.12 rad/s

Alternatively, we can use the Equivalent Method to solve this.

(a)
After 3 complete cycles, the amplitude of oscillation decreases to ½.

From the figure above: r = 4; a1/ar = a1/a4 = 2. So:

a  r  12 
ln  1  
 a4  1 2

ln 2 
4  12 
1 2
   0.0368

(b)

130
By using the Equivalent Method, take A as a reference axle.

Equivalent damping ratio at reference axle, C '  C

Total equivalent damping ratio at reference axle, CT  C '  C
Moment of inertia of body ADE about D; I ADE  mk 2  2.50.052   0.00625 kgm 2
I ADE 0.00625
Equivalent mass of body ABC at reference axle, m' ADE    0.625 kg
AD 2
0.12
2 2
 DE   0.065 
Equivalent mass of mass M at reference axle, m' M  m M    8   3.38 kg
 AD   0.1 
Equivalent mass of mass mp at reference axle, m' p  m p  0.5 kg
Total equivalent mass at reference axle, mT  m' ADE m' M m' p
 0.625  3.38  0.5  4.505 kg
Equivalent spring stiffness at reference axle,
2 2
 DB   0.065 
K' K   5000   2112.5N/m
 AD   0.1 
Equivalent spring stiffness of pendulum at reference axle,

K" 
Mgl

8  9.810.065  510.12 N/m
AD 2
0.12
Total equivalent spring at reference axle, K T  K'K"  2112.5  510.12  2622.62 N/m
KT 2622.62
 n    24.13 rad/s
mT 4.505
We know that: 2 n  CT mT , where CT = C’ = C
 C  2 n m T
 2  0.0368  24.134.505  8 Ns/m
(c)
C

CC
C 8
 CC    217.39 Ns/m
 0.0368
(d)
d  n 1   2  24.14 1  0.0368 2  24.12 rad/s

131
6.8 REFERENCES
1. Khurmi, R. S. and Gupta, J. K. Theory of Machines. Eurasia Publishing, 2008.

2. Roslan Abd. Rahman, Che Abas Che Ismail, and Mohd. Yunus Abdullah.
Mekanik Mesin: Teori, Contoh Penyelesaian dan Masalah, 3rd ed. Penerbit
UTM, 2001.

6.9 PROBLEMS (TUTORIALS)

1. The diagram below shows beam AOB with a mass of 5 kg and a radius of gyration
of 100 mm about pivot O. The beam carries a 1.25 kg ball at B. The springs have
the same rate of 5 kN/m. Neglecting the pendulum effect, find the natural
frequency of the system. Use the Newton’s Motion Law (NML) method.

2. A cantilever shaft 60 mm diameter and 320 mm long has a disc of mass 106 kg at
its free end. The Young's modulus for the shaft material is 214 GN/m2. Determine
the frequency of longitudinal and transverse vibrations of the shaft.

3. A vibrating system consists of a mass of 222 kg, a spring of stiffness 81 N/mm and
a damper with damping coefficient of 755 Ns/m. Determine the frequency of
vibration of the system.

4. The following data are given for a vibratory system with viscous damping: Mass =
3 kg; spring constant = 4 N/mm and the amplitude decreases to 0.25 of the initial
value after five consecutive cycles. Determine the damping coefficient of the
damper in the system.

132
5. A 78 kg machine is mounted on springs and is fitted with a dashpot to damp out
vibrations. There are three springs each of stiffness 12 N/mm and it is found that
the amplitude of vibration diminishes from 39 mm to 6.5 mm in two complete
oscillations. Assuming that the damping force varies as the velocity, find: (a) the
resistance of the dashpot at unit velocity; (b) the ratio of the frequency of the
damped vibration to the frequency of the undamped vibration; and (c) the periodic
time of the damped vibration.

133
 CHAPTER 7: LINKAGE KINEMATICS

7.0 CHAPTER OUTCOME

 Draw the kinematic diagrams.

 Analyze the mobility of mechanisms using the Kutzbach equation and an intuition
method.
 Understand the placement of actuators.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

This course is a study of the design and analysis of linkages, cams, belts, screws, and gears
among others. These are basic machine components that are crucial to provide motion.
Kinematics is the study of how a mechanism moves where the emphasis is the geometry of
motion of the setup.

Most common mechanisms involve rigid bodies as components of the system. Flexible
components like belts, chains, and spring may also be included. We will go through most of
these in the chapters in this book. However, as a motivation, mechanisms have been in use
since the dawn of human civilization. Many ancient people realized that machines can help
them tremendously in their daily lives such as in farmland irrigation, and powering grounding
machines. Figure 7.1 shows some of these ancient machines.

The source of power for the ancient machines were mostly from wind, water, animals like
cattle and horses as well as human. After the Industrial Revolution, many machines utilized
steam as the source of power, although wind and water from rivers were still widely used.
Figure 7.2 shows one of the earliest modern machines called the Watt Engine.

134
 Figure 7.1: Ancient mechanisms

Figure 7.2: The start of the modern machines

Then the increase in manufacturing and transportation industries saw the explosion of various
types of mechanisms that help machines accomplish their functions. Figure 7.3 shows some

135
of these modern machines that we see every day. In this context, rigid body mechanism is
considered as the linkages and other elements in the mechanisms experience negligible
deflection. However, in certain applications, compliant mechanisms are used where they are
usually single piece from flexible materials and have limited displacement. Among
applications that have tried compliant mechanisms include the robot grippers, vein expander
in medical use, and aircraft wing. Figure 7.4 shows some of these applications using
compliant mechanisms. A textbook by Lowell and article by Shuib et al. explain this in more
detailed manner.

Figure 7.3: Examples of the mechanisms of modern machines

136
 Flexural
Flexible pivot

Figure 7.4: Examples of compliant mechanisms

7.2 JOINTS

Joints or sendi in Bahasa Melayu refer to the connections between one link to another. There
are many types such as the pin or revolute (R), prismatic (P), and spherical (S) to name a few.
Figure 7.5 shows a basic 4-bar mechanism where the joints are R-type. This type of joint
allows only one path of motion about the joint which is circular. It does not matter if it goes
clockwise or counter clockwise.

137
 Figure 7.5: A mechanism with four R-joints

The next common type is the P-joint that are shown in Figure 7.6.

A slider can be on a
curved path too.

Figure 7.6: Examples of P-joints

In the next analysis to identify a mechanism’s degrees of freedom (DOF), the type of joints
can be further categorized. The R-joints and P-joints are said to be 1-DOF joints and thus
they are lower order pairs. The label is either 𝐽1 or 𝐽𝑝 . There is only one line of action or
motion for this type. Many other types of joints allow the links to move in more than one
ways at the same time. For example, they can slide and rotate. Hence they are called higher
order pairs and are labelled as 𝐽2 or 𝐽ℎ . This include pin in a slot, gears, and cams as in Figure
7.7.

138
 Figure 7.7: Higher order pairs

Some scholars consider the mating point in gears to have 𝐽1 condition. However, others
consider it as 𝐽2 since there are two motions there; one linear and another rotational. With this
opinion, using the Gruebler’s Equation will yield the expected outcome.

7.3 GRUEBLER’S EQUATION

This equation is also known as the Kutzbach Modification of Gruebler’s Equation (KMoGE).
It is basically a mathematical formula that describes the mobility of a mechanism in terms of
degrees of freedom. The inputs are only the number of links and the number of joints. Care
should be taken when joints are shared with more than two links.

𝑀 = 3(𝐿 − 1) − 2𝐽1 − 𝐽2 (7.1)

where

𝐿 = number links,

𝐽1 = number lower pair joints,

𝐽2 = number higher pair joints.

It is important to also understand what this means. The mobility tells us in how many ways
the mechanism can move. This then relates to how many motors or other actuators are needed
to control those movements.

139
7.4 KINEMATIC MODELS/DIAGRAMS

To implement KMoGE, we have to turn the real machines in kinematic model or kinematic
diagrams. Here, we simplify the system by removing superfluous items and focus on what
affecting the motion. Figure 7.8 shows an example. In the kinematic diagram, we can number
or label the links and ground. Number 1 is usually for the ground or frame that we consider
immovable or static. This can be absolute or relative. The drawing is just a sketch; it does
not have to be in true scale.

(a)

(b)

Figure 7.8: (a) An original car wiper model, and (b) its kinematic diagram

Here, we got 4 elements including ground or 𝐿1 = 4 and A, B, C, D are all locations for R
joints, meaning 𝐽1 = 4. There is no 𝐽2 . Hence, we can calculate its mobility by

𝑀 = 3(4 − 1) − 2(4) − 0 = 9 − 8 = 1 DOF

140
Another example is in Figure 7.9 below.

Figure 7.9: A dump truck mechanism

As expected, a four-bar mechanism is a 1-DOF or single degree of freedom system.

Another 1-DOF system is a slider-crank mechanism like in Figure 7.10. Try use KMoGE to
see this.

Coupler
Crank
Sliding link
or input
link

Ground or Frame

Figure 7.10: An offset slider-crank mechanism

Turning real model into a kinematic diagram helps in the analysis of the system. The next
phase could be creating the vector diagram. This is elaborated later. There some important
notes to be aware of when more than a pair of links shares the same revolute joint (pin).
Figure 7.11 shows this situation. Here 𝐽1 = 2, one between 2 and 3, and another between 2
and 4.

141
 (a) (b)

Figure 7.11: Two diagrams where 2 pairs share the same pin joint

There are some big differences between a mechanism and a structure. Refer to Figs. 7.12 and
7.13.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.12: (a) A 2-DOF mechanism, (b) a static structure, and (c) A 1-DOF mechanism

Figure 7.13: Some exception in KMoGE. F is for freedom and is widely used as another form
of Gruebler’s Equation [7.2].

The KMoGE does not account for link sizes and shapes. It can give misleading results in the
case of unique geometric configurations. Hence, logic or intuition must be used determining

142
the mobility value. One method is called the ‘Seize-and-Fix,’ where one joint is constrained
or seize in translation (x, y, and/or z) and in rotation about that joint. It is like the link is
welded at that joint. Then trace what other joints are fixed, meaning no translation at those
joints. Some links might still rotate about these fixed joints though. If this happens, continue
the seize-and-fix process until all joints cannot move. The number seizes is the DOF or
mobility of the mechanism. It tells how many motors or inputs are needed to fully control the
machine. Figure 7.14 shows this concept. Usually for planar mechanisms that are four-bar,
slider-crank, or six-bar, the mobility is 1-DOF. Figure 7.15 shows some variations in
kinematic diagram drawings and this is needed first before counting the elements and joints
or seize-and-fix can be operated.

Figure 7.14: Seize-and-fix done on a four-bar mechanism

143
 (a) Y (b)

3
B
2
C
4
X A
D
1
(c)

Figure 7.15: (a) A workpiece clamp and two styles of kinematic diagrams in (b) and (c)

7.5 GRASHOF’S CRITERION

We can predict the motion characteristic of the four-bar mechanism based on link lengths
according to the Grashof’s criterion. If a mechanism is Grashof, it means at least of the link
can rotate continuously. Conversely, if it is non-Grashof, then the links in the mechanism can
only rock back and forth or oscillate.

The Grashof’s criterion is

𝑆+𝐿 ≤𝑃+𝑄 (7.2)

where

S = length of shortest link

L = length of longest link

P = length of one remaining link

Q = length of other remaining link

144
Again, the linkage obeying equation (7.2) is Grashof and at least one link will be capable of
making a full revolution with respect to the ground plane. Table 7.1 lists the possible types
that can be achieved given the link lengths and which link is the ground. All mechanism
categories are Grashof except the last one when 𝑆 + 𝐿 > 𝑃 + 𝑄that means no link will rotate
360°.

Table 7.1: The effects of ground link and the Grashof Criterion

Figure 7.16 shows the implementation of this on real four-bar mechanisms. Knowing which
category can help choose the right input. This may form electric motors for continuous
revolutions or hydraulic cylinders for rocking motions. Linear and rotational springs can also
be integrated as actuators for the mechanisms. However, non-rigid members (badan tak
tegar) are not included in the mobility calculation to get the degrees of freedom.

145
 (b) Crank rocker

(a) Double crank

(c) Double rocker

(d) Change point (e) Triple rocker

Figure 7.16: Categories for four-bar mechanisms

7.6 FOUR-BAR POSITION BY ANALYTICAL METHOD

This analysis aims at knowing the location of any particular point on the mechanism as the
input variable changes. Input variable may be the angle of the crank link to the ground for a
four-bar mechanism. In this case, only one input is needed. For a five-bar system, the
mobility is 2-DOF and hence there are two input needed to set a location of any point. Figure
7.17 show a four-bar system and the various angles that relate to determining position.

Figure 7.17: Four-bar in Circuit 1

146
The related equations in Circuit 1 to get a position are

(7.3)
𝐵𝐷 = √𝐿1 2 + 𝐿2 2 − 2𝐿1 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2

𝐿3 2 + 𝐿4 2 − 𝐵𝐷2 (7.4)
𝛾 = cos −1 [ ]
2𝐿3 𝐿4

−𝐿2 sin 𝜃2 + 𝐿4 sin 𝛾 (7.5)

𝜃3 = 2 tan−1 [ ]
𝐿1 + 𝐿3 − 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2 − 𝐿4 cos 𝛾

𝐿2 sin 𝜃2 − 𝐿3 sin 𝛾 (7.6)

𝜃4 = 2 tan−1 [ ]
𝐿4 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2 − 𝐿3 cos 𝛾

Usually for linkage mechanisms, there would be many circuits. To get from one circuit to
another, one joint would have to be disconnected and then reassembled in the other circuit.
Alternatively, big input force may also push the system into another circuit. However, this is
undesirable since the change is unplanned and it may break the links with the large force.

For four-bar mechanisms, we have Circuit 2 as in Figure 7.18. The corresponding equations
for position are listed thereafter. The values of 𝐵𝐷 and 𝛾 are still calculated using equations
(7.3) and (7.4) respectively. It must be noted, the real position is by knowing the angle 𝜃𝑖 and
the link length 𝐿𝑖 .

Figure 7.18: Four-bar in Circuit 2

−𝐿2 sin 𝜃2 − 𝐿4 sin 𝛾 (7.7)

𝜃3 = 2 tan−1 [ ]
𝐿1 + 𝐿3 − 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2 − 𝐿4 cos 𝛾

147
 𝐿2 sin 𝜃2 + 𝐿3 sin 𝛾 (7.8)
𝜃4 = 2 tan−1 [ ]
𝐿4 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2 − 𝐿3 cos 𝛾

Hence, according to Figure 7.19, the location fundamentally is

𝐿𝑖

𝑥𝑜 𝜃𝑖

𝑦𝑜 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 )

Origin (0,0)

Figure 7.20: General position of point of interest shown by the star

𝑥𝑝 𝑥𝑜 cos 𝜃𝑖 (7.9)
{𝑦 } = {𝑦 } + 𝐿𝑖 { }
𝑝 𝑜 sin 𝜃𝑖

Therefore, the position of point P is located at 𝑃(𝑥𝑝 , 𝑥𝑝 ).

Sometimes, there is a floating point attached to one of the moving links. The analysis of this
can be done analytically by using a lot of Sine Law and Cosine Law. Figure 7.21 shows the
triangle and the laws that help determine these unchanged/fixed angles.

148
 Figure 7.21: Important tool for floating point position analysis

7.7 SLIDER-CRANK POSITION BY ANALYTICAL METHOD

The system shown in Figure 7.22 is a general slider-crank mechanism. It basically has 4 rigid
elements and 4 lower order joints giving it a mobility of 1-DOF as well.

Figure 7.22: General offset slider-crank

The associated equations for positions are listed below. From the kinematic diagram, we
should see that a fixed variable is 𝐿1 = 𝐿3 sin 𝜃3 − 𝐿2 sin 𝜃2 .

𝐿1 + 𝐿2 sin 𝜃2 (7.10)
𝜃3 = sin−1 [ ]
𝐿3

𝐿4 = 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2 + 𝐿3 cos 𝜃3 (7.11)

𝛾 = 180° − (𝜃2 + 𝜃3 ) (7.12)

It is important to look at where an angle is measured from and in which direction. In many
cases, 𝐿1 = 0, leading to the revolute joint of the crank to be in-line with the path of slide.
This is called in-line slider-crank. The general case is called offset slider-crank.

149
7.8 GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR POSITION ANALYSIS

It is crucial that the right drawing equipment is used. If manual work is preferred, 30o-60o and
45o triangles and straightedges as well as protractors must be utilized. Conversely, the use of
CAD like AutoCAD 2015 might speed up the process and produce more accurate answers.

Figures 7.23 through 7.25 show the process. The steps are rather self-explanatory. Points B’
and C’ are the new positions after link l2 is rotated to its new position.

Figure 7.23: Get new position B’. Angle 𝜃2 is usually the input

Figure 7.24: From B’ sketch arc l3 and from D, arc l4

150
 Figure 7.25: Complete the new mechanism as C’ is located at the intersection

Sometimes, there is a floating point attached to one of the moving links. The analysis of this
can also be done graphically. Figures 7.26 and 7.27 show the steps in getting the location of
the floating point on the coupler link.

Figure 7.26: Sketch two arcs from B’ and C’ using BX and CX as radii

151
 Figure 7.27: Complete this drawing to get X’

Review note on vectors

Before going further, let us revisit some of the basics of vectors. This approach is a little
different than our approach in Chapter 2 in Dynamic Balancing. This is to follow the
convention established by some kinematicians.

Tip 𝑟𝑥
Tail 𝑅⃑ = {𝑟 }
𝑦
sin 𝜃
𝑅⃑ 𝑜𝑟 𝑹 = |𝑅⃑ | { }
cos 𝜃
𝑟𝑦
This is true if we take 0° at
positive x-axis and the angle is
𝜃
positive in counter clockwise
direction (CCW).
𝑟𝑥
A negative angle indicates that
the rotation is clockwise (CW).

Like in graphical method, we do the moment polygon first. However, we do not have to be
precise here. Make a sketch just so we know the vector loop involved.

7. 9 FOUR-BAR EXAMPLE

This will include yet another method using vectors.

A suspension system in Figure 7.28 is shown relative to an X-Y (fixed) frame. In the
analysis, ignore the spring in the system. Please show all steps of the general process for
modeling mechanisms with vectors to justify your answers to the following questions. The

152
answers to the below questions should be boxed or otherwise highlighted in your submission.
Generate the final figure.

1. Using the scale provided by the dimensions on the figure, measure to determine the
lengths and angles associated with the triangular body (BCD) of the output link.
2. For the following four input angles, = 195o (measured about A), determine the possible
angles for either the coupler link BD or the output link ED. Select the one that
corresponds to the figure/reality.
3. Determine the remaining angles of the mechanism for each .
4. Calculate the locations of C when equals each of the values in problem 2.
5. Make an accurate (scaled) kinematic sketch/diagram of the mechanism in the = 195o
configuration.

𝜃2
B
A

28” Y

E
D

Figure 7.28: Four-bar example

153
 𝜃2 𝑅⃑2
B
𝑟2 A

𝑟5 𝑅⃑1
𝑟3 𝑟1 𝑅⃑3
𝜃1 = 90° 𝑅⃑5
𝜃4
𝛼 𝜃3 𝑟4
D 𝑅⃑4
E
𝑅⃑6
𝑅⃑𝑐
𝑟6
(a) Kinematic diagram (b) Main vector diagram
C
𝑟5 2 − 𝑟3 2 − 𝑟6 2
𝑅⃑2 α = cos−1 [ ]
A −2𝑟3 𝑟6
B

282 − 162 − 142

= cos−1 [ ]
𝑅⃑𝐻 𝑅⃑1 −2(16)(14)

(c) Vector 𝜃𝐻
supplementary
= 137.82 °
diagram E

Figure 7.29: Kinematic and main vector diagram

#1: The angle α can be measured with a protractor or it can be obtained from dimensioning
in CAD. The other 2 angles can also be measured or calculated.

154
Fixed variables: α = 137.82°, 𝜃1 = 90°, 𝑟1, 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , 𝑟4 , 𝑟5 , 𝑟6

Varying variables: 𝜃2 = [165°, 175° , & 195°], 𝜃3 , 𝜃4 , 𝑅⃑5 , 𝜃6 , 𝑅⃑𝑐

Loops:

(I) 𝑅⃑4 + 𝑅⃑3 = 𝑅⃑1 + 𝑅⃑2 (𝜃3 , 𝜃4 ) - unknown

(II) 𝜃6 = 𝜃3 + α
(III) 𝑅⃑5 = −𝑅⃑3 + 𝑅⃑6
(IV) 𝑅⃑𝑐 = 𝑅⃑4 + 𝑅⃑6

Known:

0 0
𝑅⃑0 = { }, 𝑅⃑1 = { }, 𝜃2 = 195° (This example considers this only), 𝜃1 = 90° 𝑟2 = 8, 𝑟3 =
0 14
16, and 𝑟4 = 10.

155
Equation (I) gives

cos(𝜃4 ) cos(𝜃3 ) 0 cos(195°)

10 { } + 16 { } = { } + 8{ }
sin(𝜃4 ) sin(𝜃3 ) 14 sin(195°)
−7.73
={ }
11.93

We can also refer to the vector loop in Figure 7.29 (c) .

−7.73
𝑅⃑𝐻 = 𝑅⃑1 + 𝑅⃑2 = { }
11.93
Hence,

11.93
𝜃𝐻 = tan−1 ( ) + 180 = 123°
−7.73

𝑟𝐻 = √7.732 + 11.932 = 14.22

The ‘+180’ there is because of ‘–ve’ denominator in order to get a correct angle from the
positive x axis direction.

We can try to solve for one of the two unknowns. Refer to diagram below.

𝑟𝐻
𝑟3 𝑟1

𝜑 𝜃4 𝜃𝐻
𝜃3
𝑟4

Solve angle by using the Cosine Law.

𝑟3 2 = 𝑟𝐻 2 + 𝑟4 2 − 2𝑟4 𝑟𝐻 cos 𝜑
−1
𝑟𝐻 2 + 𝑟4 2 − 𝑟3 2
𝜑 = cos ( )
2𝑟4 𝑟𝐻
14.222 + 102 − 162
= cos−1 ( )
2(10)(14.22)

156
 = 80.65°

Hence,

𝜃4 = 𝜃𝐻 + 𝜑 = 123° + 80.65°

𝜃4 = 203.65°

Now back to the main vector loop equation.

c(203.65) c𝜃 −7.73
10 { } + 16 { 3 } = { }
s(203.65) s𝜃3 11.93
c𝜃 0.0894
{ 3} = { }
s𝜃3 0.9963

Therefore,

0.9963
𝜃3 = tan−1 ( )
0.0894

𝜃3 = 84.87°

Next, we know

𝜃6 = 84.87° + 137.82° = 222.69°

From the last vector equation, the position of interest can be found to be

c(203.65) c(222.69)
𝑅⃑𝑐 = 10 { } + 14 { }
s(203.65) s(222.69)

−19.45
𝑅⃑𝑐 = { }
−13.50

157
Sketch of the kinematic diagram at θ2 = 195° is shown in Figure 7.30.

Sketch of kinematic diagram at theta2 = 195 degrees

20

15

10

5
Y

-5

-10

-15
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
X

Figure 7.30: Kinematic diagram

Alternatively, we can use the equations introduced earlier. Care should be taken to get the
right variable values. From the look of the basic four-bar, it is of Circuit 1.

𝐵𝐸 = √𝐿1 2 + 𝐿2 2 − 2𝐿1 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2

= √142 + 82 − 2(14)(8) cos(75°)
= 14.2135

𝐿3 2 + 𝐿4 2 − 𝐵𝐸 2
𝛾 = cos−1 [ ]
2𝐿3 𝐿4

162 + 102 − 14.21352

= cos−1 [ ]
2(16)(10)
= 61.2377°

−𝐿2 sin 𝜃2 + 𝐿4 sin 𝛾

𝜃3 = 2 tan−1 [ ]
𝐿1 + 𝐿3 − 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2 − 𝐿4 cos 𝛾

158
 −8 sin(75) + 10 sin 61.2377
= 2 tan−1 [ ]
14 + 16 − 8 cos 75 − 10 cos 61.2377
= 6.14°

𝐿2 sin 𝜃2 − 𝐿3 sin 𝛾
𝜃4 = 2 tan−1 [ ]
𝐿4 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2 − 𝐿3 cos 𝛾

8 sin(75) − 16 sin(61.2377)
= 2 tan−1 [ ]
10 − 14 + 8 cos 75 − 16 cos(61.2377)
= 66.38°

Figure 7.30 shows this information, while Figure 7.31 shows the angles in an easier form for
calculations.

Sketch of kinematic diagram at theta2 = 195 degrees

20

𝐿2 = 8
15

𝜃3 = 6.14° 𝜃2 = 75
10

5 𝐿3 = 16
𝐿1 = 14
Y

0 𝛾 = 61.24°
𝜃4 = 66.38°
-5
𝛼 = 137.82° 𝐿4 = 10
-10

-15
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
X
Figure 7.31: Other representation of the kinematic diagram

159
 𝑥𝐶
𝜃𝐸 = 270 − 66.38
𝜃𝐷 = ∅ + 𝛾 + 𝛼 = 203.62°
= 23.62 + 61.24 + 137.82
= 222.68° E
𝐿4 = 10
D 𝑦𝐶
∅ = 203.62 − 180
𝐷𝐶 = 14 = 23.62°
C

Figure 7.32: Locating C

𝑥𝐶 = 10 cos 203.62 + 14 cos 222.68 = −19.45 units

This concurs with the
𝑦𝐶 = 10 sin 203.62 + 14 sin 222.68 = −13.50 units answer from previous
method.

7.10 SLIDER-CRANK EXAMPLE

An example of a slider-crank system is shown in Figure 7.33. This also uses the vector
method, graphical method, and analytical method.

y
(2.0, 1.0)

x
O

2.0”

P
Figure 7.33: Example of slide-crank system

160
Find: Position of P when the crank is at 75o.

Kinematic and vector diagrams:

B We choose this
𝑟2 direction since the
𝜃1 = 0° 1” offset in this way
A 𝑟1
(2.0, 1.0) and we know the
line of sliding is
𝜃4 = −90° vertical.
𝑟5 𝑟3
y 𝑟4
Notice that this
variable is varying
i.e. not a constant.
x
O
C

B
𝑅⃑2
𝜃3
𝜃2 𝜃1 = 90°
A

2
y 𝑅⃑0 = { } 𝑟
1 𝑅⃑1 = { 1 }
0

x
O
𝑅⃑3
𝑅⃑4
C
0
𝑅⃑5 = { }
𝑅⃑𝑐 −2
P

161
Fixed/Given variables: 𝜃2 = 75°, 𝜃1 = 0° , 𝜃4 = −90°, 𝑅⃑0 , 𝑟1, 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , 𝜃4 , 𝑅⃑5

Varying variables: 𝜃3 , 𝑟4 , 𝑅⃑𝑐

Loops:

(I) 𝑅⃑2 + 𝑅⃑3 = 𝑅⃑1 + 𝑅⃑4 (𝜃3 , 𝑟4 ) - unknown

(II) 𝑅⃑𝑐 = 𝑅⃑0 + 𝑅⃑2 + 𝑅⃑3 + 𝑅⃑5

Equation (I) gives

cos(𝜃2 ) cos(𝜃3 ) 𝑟 cos(−90°)

𝑟2 { } + 𝑟3 { } = { 1 } + 𝑟4 { }
sin(𝜃2 ) sin(𝜃3 ) 0 sin(−90°)
c75° c𝜃 1
0.5 { } + 1.75 { 3 } = { }
s75° s𝜃 3 −𝑟 4

c𝜃 0.4975
{ 3 } = {−𝑟4 − 0.4830}
s𝜃3
1.75
From this, we can get
For 𝑠𝜃3 , possible
𝜃3 = cos −1 (0.4975) = 60.16° 𝑜𝑟 − 60.16°
values are 𝜃3 or
(180° − 𝜃3 ),
whichever makes
Based on the problem, sense.

𝜃3 = −60.16°

and

−𝑟4 − 0.4830
= 𝑠(−60.16°)
1.75

𝑟4 = 1.035 𝑖𝑛

Next, equation (II) gives

𝑅⃑𝑐 = 𝑅⃑0 + 𝑅⃑2 + 𝑅⃑3 + 𝑅⃑5

2 c75° c(−60.16°) 0
𝑅⃑𝑐 = { } + 0.5 { } + 1.75 { }+{ }
1 s75° s(−60.16°) −2

3 3
𝑅⃑𝑐 = { }~{ }
−2.035 −2
162
Alternatively, equation (II) can be

𝑅⃑𝑐 = 𝑅⃑0 + 𝑅⃑1 + 𝑅⃑4 + 𝑅⃑5

2 1 0 0
𝑅⃑𝑐 = { } + { } + { }+{ }
1 0 −1.035 −2

3 3
𝑅⃑𝑐 = { }~{ }
−2.035 −2

The sketch of this mechanism at this instance is shown in Figure 7.34

P (3,-2)

Figure 7.34: Sketch diagram of the mechanism

The analytical method is as follows. It is a little different from the previous slider-crank note
because the path of slide is vertical. Think about how you can derive these equations. From
the kinematic diagram, we should see that a fixed variable is 𝐿1 = 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2 + 𝐿3 cos 𝜃3 .

𝐿1 − 𝐿2 cos 𝜃2 (7.13)
𝜃3 = cos−1 [ ]
𝐿3

1 − 0.5 cos 75
= cos −1 [ ]
1.75
= 60.17°

𝐿4 = 𝐿3 sin 𝜃3 −𝐿2 sin 𝜃2 (7.14)

= 1.75 sin 60.17 − 0.5 sin 75
= 1.035 in

𝛾 = 180° − (75 + 60.17)

= 44.83°

163
Refer to diagram below

𝜃2 = 75°

𝜃3 = 60.17°

𝑦𝑃 C

𝑥𝑃 = 2 + 1 = 3 in This concurs with the answer from

previous method.
𝑦𝑃 = 1 − 1.035 − 2 = −2.035 in

7.11 BRIEF EXAMPLE ON MECHANISM SYNTHESIS

The box is transferred from one conveyor belt to the next using a four-bar mechanism. The
steps are shown in figures 7.35 below.

Step 1 – The Problem

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 Figure 7.35: Example of mechanism analysis for box transfer using conveyor system

Step 2 – Create a coupler that acts as a gripper or a holder as shown in Figure 7.36. Suction
cups and magnets may be integrated with the coupler.

Figure 7.36: Creating a coupler which acts a gripper or holder

Step 3 – Decide moving pivot 1 in all three positions as shown in Figure 7.37. Connect with
lines and get perpendicular bisectors. The intersection is fixed pivot 1.

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 Figure 7.37: The moving pivot p1 is above the floor – usually, this is good.

Step 4 – decide moving pivot 2 in all three positions. Connect with lines and get
perpendicular bisectors. The intersection is fixed pivot 2. The intersection is way below the
floor as shown in Figure 7.38– usually, a bad selection!

Figure 7.38: Intersection point below the floor indicating poor selection

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Repeat step 4.

Figure 7.39: Intersection point higher than the floor indicating good selection

Step 5 – Create the four-bar mechanism

In CAD, we can test this to see if it goes through all three positions correctly (Figure 7.40 to
Figure 7.42).

Figure 7.40: Testing of position 1

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Figure 7.41: Testing of position 2

Figure 7.42: Testing of position 3

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Step 6 –Create bodies for the mechanism as shown in Figure 7.43.

Figure 7.43: Creating bodies for mechanism

Step 7 – Decide how to actuate the motion; hydraulics, pneumatic, cylinders, electric motors,
hand crank, etc. as shown in Figure 7.44.

Figure 7.44: The final mechanism design

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7.12 REFERENCES

1. Howell, L. L., Compliant Mechanisms, New York, Wiley, 2001.

2. Myszka, D. H., Machines & Mechanisms: Applied Kinematic Analysis, 4th ed.
Pearson, New Jersey, 2012.

3. Norton, R., Design of Machinery, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2012

4. Shuib, S., Ridzwan, M. I. Z., & Kadarman, A. H., (2007). Methodology of Compliant
Mechanisms and Its Current Development in Applications: A Review. American
Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp.160-167.

7.13 PROBLEMS (TUTORIALS)

7.1 Figure P7.1 below shows an offset slider-crank mechanism. What is the location of
the tip of the piston if the crank is rotated 35o clockwise?

Figure P7.1: Example of offset slider-crank mechanism

7.2 Graphically find the amount of rotation of the support link as shown in Figure P7.2
when the linear actuator is retracted to a length of 400 mm.

Figure P7.2: Example of a support link system

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7.3 Use Grashof Criterion to analyse the mechanism in problem (7.2). Repeat the position
analysis using the vector approach. Compare this with using the regular analytical
method.

7.4 Synthesize a machine using the four-bar linkage mechanism that will carry the large
water bottle from position 1 at some height above the ground, through a middle
position 2, and lastly to position 3, inverting the bottle downward on the water
dispenser as illustrated in Figure P7.3.

(a) Use the graphical method to sketch your mechanism. Show as much steps as
possible. Use this page or other empty pages to show your design.
(b) Suggest how you can actuate the four-bar mechanism that you design. Some use
motor, hydraulics, and the like. Decide where you want to apply this and why.

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